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Helble JD, Walsh MJ, McCarthy JE, Smith NP, Tirard AJ, Arnold BY, Villani AC, Hu LT. Single-cell RNA sequencing of murine ankle joints over time reveals distinct transcriptional changes following Borrelia burgdorferi infection. iScience 2023; 26:108217. [PMID: 37953958 PMCID: PMC10632114 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.108217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 09/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Lyme disease is caused by the bacterial pathogen Borrelia burgdorferi, which can be readily modeled in laboratory mice. In order to understand the cellular and transcriptional changes that occur during B. burgdorferi infection, we conducted single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) of ankle joints of infected C57BL/6 mice over time. We found that macrophages/monocytes, T cells, synoviocytes and fibroblasts all showed significant differences in gene expression of both inflammatory and non-inflammatory genes that peaked early and returned to baseline before the typical resolution of arthritis. Predictions of cellular interactions showed that macrophages appear to communicate extensively between different clusters of macrophages as well as with fibroblasts and synoviocytes. Our data give unique insights into the interactions between B. burgdorferi and the murine immune system over time and allow for a better understanding of mechanisms by which the dysregulation of the immune response may lead to prolonged symptoms in some patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer D. Helble
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111, USA
| | - Michael J. Walsh
- Division of Gastroenterology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Julie E. McCarthy
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111, USA
| | - Neal P. Smith
- Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Alice J. Tirard
- Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Benjamin Y. Arnold
- Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | | | - Linden T. Hu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111, USA
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Farris LC, Torres-Odio S, Adams LG, West AP, Hyde JA. Borrelia burgdorferi Engages Mammalian Type I IFN Responses via the cGAS-STING Pathway. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2023; 210:1761-1770. [PMID: 37067290 PMCID: PMC10192154 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2200354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 04/18/2023]
Abstract
Borrelia burgdorferi, the etiologic agent of Lyme disease, is a spirochete that modulates numerous host pathways to cause a chronic, multisystem inflammatory disease in humans. B. burgdorferi infection can lead to Lyme carditis, neurologic complications, and arthritis because of the ability of specific borrelial strains to disseminate, invade, and drive inflammation. B. burgdorferi elicits type I IFN (IFN-I) responses in mammalian cells and tissues that are associated with the development of severe arthritis or other Lyme-related complications. However, the innate immune sensors and signaling pathways controlling IFN-I induction remain unclear. In this study, we examined whether intracellular nucleic acid sensing is required for the induction of IFN-I to B. burgdorferi. Using fluorescence microscopy, we show that B. burgdorferi associates with mouse and human cells in culture, and we document that internalized spirochetes colocalize with the pattern recognition receptor cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS). Moreover, we report that IFN-I responses in mouse macrophages and murine embryonic fibroblasts are significantly attenuated in the absence of cGAS or its adaptor stimulator of IFN genes (STING), which function to sense and respond to intracellular DNA. Longitudinal in vivo tracking of bioluminescent B. burgdorferi revealed similar dissemination kinetics and borrelial load in C57BL/6J wild-type, cGAS-deficient, or STING-deficient mice. However, infection-associated tibiotarsal joint pathology and inflammation were modestly reduced in cGAS-deficient compared with wild-type mice. Collectively, these results indicate that the cGAS-STING pathway is a critical mediator of mammalian IFN-I signaling and innate immune responses to B. burgdorferi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren C. Farris
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, School of Medicine, Texas A&M University, Bryan, TX, USA
| | - Sylvia Torres-Odio
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, School of Medicine, Texas A&M University, Bryan, TX, USA
| | - L. Garry Adams
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - A. Phillip West
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, School of Medicine, Texas A&M University, Bryan, TX, USA
| | - Jenny A. Hyde
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, School of Medicine, Texas A&M University, Bryan, TX, USA
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3
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Gaber AM, Mandric I, Nitirahardjo C, Piontkivska H, Hillhouse AE, Threadgill DW, Zelikovsky A, Rogovskyy AS. Comparative transcriptome analysis of Peromyscus leucopus and C3H mice infected with the Lyme disease pathogen. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1115350. [PMID: 37113133 PMCID: PMC10126474 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1115350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Lyme disease (LD), the most prevalent tick-borne disease of humans in the Northern Hemisphere, is caused by the spirochetal bacterium of Borreliella burgdorferi (Bb) sensu lato complex. In nature, Bb spirochetes are continuously transmitted between Ixodes ticks and mammalian or avian reservoir hosts. Peromyscus leucopus mice are considered the primary mammalian reservoir of Bb in the United States. Earlier studies demonstrated that experimentally infected P. leucopus mice do not develop disease. In contrast, C3H mice, a widely used laboratory strain of Mus musculus in the LD field, develop severe Lyme arthritis. To date, the exact tolerance mechanism of P. leucopus mice to Bb-induced infection remains unknown. To address this knowledge gap, the present study has compared spleen transcriptomes of P. leucopus and C3H/HeJ mice infected with Bb strain 297 with those of their respective uninfected controls. Overall, the data showed that the spleen transcriptome of Bb-infected P. leucopus mice was much more quiescent compared to that of the infected C3H mice. To date, the current investigation is one of the few that have examined the transcriptome response of natural reservoir hosts to Borreliella infection. Although the experimental design of this study significantly differed from those of two previous investigations, the collective results of the current and published studies have consistently demonstrated very limited transcriptomic responses of different reservoir hosts to the persistent infection of LD pathogens. Importance The bacterium Borreliella burgdorferi (Bb) causes Lyme disease, which is one of the emerging and highly debilitating human diseases in countries of the Northern Hemisphere. In nature, Bb spirochetes are maintained between hard ticks of Ixodes spp. and mammals or birds. In the United States, the white-footed mouse, Peromyscus leucopus, is one of the main Bb reservoirs. In contrast to humans and laboratory mice (e.g., C3H mice), white-footed mice rarely develop clinical signs (disease) despite being (persistently) infected with Bb. How the white-footed mouse tolerates Bb infection is the question that the present study has attempted to address. Comparisons of genetic responses between Bb-infected and uninfected mice demonstrated that, during a long-term Bb infection, C3H mice reacted much stronger, whereas P. leucopus mice were relatively unresponsive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alhussien M. Gaber
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Igor Mandric
- Department of Computer Science, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Caroline Nitirahardjo
- Department of Biological Sciences, and School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH, United States
| | - Helen Piontkivska
- Department of Biological Sciences, and School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH, United States
- Brain Health Research Institute, Kent State University, Kent, OH, United States
| | - Andrew E. Hillhouse
- Texas A&M Institute for Genomics Sciences and Society, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - David W. Threadgill
- Texas A&M Institute for Genomics Sciences and Society, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Alex Zelikovsky
- Department of Computer Science, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Artem S. Rogovskyy
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
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Lyme arthritis: linking infection, inflammation and autoimmunity. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2021; 17:449-461. [PMID: 34226730 PMCID: PMC9488587 DOI: 10.1038/s41584-021-00648-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Infectious agents can trigger autoimmune responses in a number of chronic inflammatory diseases. Lyme arthritis, which is caused by the tick-transmitted spirochaete Borrelia burgdorferi, is effectively treated in most patients with antibiotic therapy; however, in a subset of patients, arthritis can persist and worsen after the spirochaete has been killed (known as post-infectious Lyme arthritis). This Review details the current understanding of the pathogenetic events in Lyme arthritis, from initial infection in the skin, through infection of the joints, to post-infectious chronic inflammatory arthritis. The central feature of post-infectious Lyme arthritis is an excessive, dysregulated pro-inflammatory immune response during the infection phase that persists into the post-infectious period. This response is characterized by high amounts of IFNγ and inadequate amounts of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. The consequences of this dysregulated pro-inflammatory response in the synovium include impaired tissue repair, vascular damage, autoimmune and cytotoxic processes, and fibroblast proliferation and fibrosis. These synovial characteristics are similar to those in other chronic inflammatory arthritides, including rheumatoid arthritis. Thus, post-infectious Lyme arthritis provides a model for other chronic autoimmune or autoinflammatory arthritides in which complex immune responses can be triggered and shaped by an infectious agent in concert with host genetic factors.
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Donta ST, States LJ, Adams WA, Bankhead T, Baumgarth N, Embers ME, Lochhead RB, Stevenson B. Report of the Pathogenesis and Pathophysiology of Lyme Disease Subcommittee of the HHS Tick Borne Disease Working Group. Front Med (Lausanne) 2021; 8:643235. [PMID: 34164410 PMCID: PMC8215209 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2021.643235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
An understanding of the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of Lyme disease is key to the ultimate care of patients with Lyme disease. To better understand the various mechanisms underlying the infection caused by Borrelia burgdorferi, the Pathogenesis and Pathophysiology of Lyme Disease Subcommittee was formed to review what is currently known about the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of Lyme disease, from its inception, but also especially about its ability to persist in the host. To that end, the authors of this report were assembled to update our knowledge about the infectious process, identify the gaps that exist in our understanding of the process, and provide recommendations as to how to best approach solutions that could lead to a better means to manage patients with persistent Lyme disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam T Donta
- Falmouth Hospital, Falmouth, MA, United States
| | - Leith J States
- Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Wendy A Adams
- Bay Area Lyme Foundation, Portola Valley, CA, United States
| | - Troy Bankhead
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Pullman, WA, United States
| | - Nicole Baumgarth
- Center for Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Monica E Embers
- Division of Immunology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University School of Medicine, Covington, LA, United States
| | - Robert B Lochhead
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States
| | - Brian Stevenson
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY, United States
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Benjamin SJ, Hawley KL, Vera-Licona P, La Vake CJ, Cervantes JL, Ruan Y, Radolf JD, Salazar JC. Macrophage mediated recognition and clearance of Borrelia burgdorferi elicits MyD88-dependent and -independent phagosomal signals that contribute to phagocytosis and inflammation. BMC Immunol 2021; 22:32. [PMID: 34000990 PMCID: PMC8127205 DOI: 10.1186/s12865-021-00418-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Macrophages play prominent roles in bacteria recognition and clearance, including Borrelia burgdorferi (Bb), the Lyme disease spirochete. To elucidate mechanisms by which MyD88/TLR signaling enhances clearance of Bb by macrophages, we studied wildtype (WT) and MyD88-/- Bb-stimulated bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs). RESULTS MyD88-/- BMDMs exhibit impaired uptake of spirochetes but comparable maturation of phagosomes following internalization of spirochetes. RNA-sequencing of infected WT and MyD88-/- BMDMs identified a large cohort of differentially expressed MyD88-dependent genes associated with re-organization of actin and cytoskeleton during phagocytosis along with several MyD88-independent chemokines involved in inflammatory cell recruitment. We computationally generated networks which identified several MyD88-dependent intermediate proteins (Rhoq and Cyfip1) that are known to mediate inflammation and phagocytosis respectively. CONCLUSION Our findings show that MyD88 signaling enhances, but is not required, for bacterial uptake or phagosomal maturation and provide mechanistic insights into how MyD88-mediated phagosomal signaling enhances Bb uptake and clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J Benjamin
- Department of Pediatrics, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA
- Department of Immunology, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA
| | - Kelly L Hawley
- Department of Pediatrics, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Connecticut Children's, Hartford, CT, 06106, USA
| | - Paola Vera-Licona
- Department of Pediatrics, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA
- Center for Quantitative Medicine, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA
- Department of Cell Biology, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA
- Institute of Systems Genomics, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA
| | - Carson J La Vake
- Department of Pediatrics, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA
| | - Jorge L Cervantes
- Department of Pediatrics, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Connecticut Children's, Hartford, CT, 06106, USA
- Present Address: Paul L. Foster School of Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, El Paso, TX, 79905, USA
| | - Yijun Ruan
- The Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine, Farmington, CT, 06032, USA
| | - Justin D Radolf
- Department of Pediatrics, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA
- Department of Immunology, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA
- Department of Medicine, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biophysics, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA
| | - Juan C Salazar
- Department of Pediatrics, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA.
- Department of Immunology, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA.
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Connecticut Children's, Hartford, CT, 06106, USA.
- Department of Medicine, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA.
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Connecticut Children's, 282 Washington Street, Hartford, CT, 06106, USA.
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Casselli T, Divan A, Vomhof-DeKrey EE, Tourand Y, Pecoraro HL, Brissette CA. A murine model of Lyme disease demonstrates that Borrelia burgdorferi colonizes the dura mater and induces inflammation in the central nervous system. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009256. [PMID: 33524035 PMCID: PMC7877756 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Revised: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Lyme disease, which is caused by infection with Borrelia burgdorferi and related species, can lead to inflammatory pathologies affecting the joints, heart, and nervous systems including the central nervous system (CNS). Inbred laboratory mice have been used to define the kinetics of B. burgdorferi infection and host immune responses in joints and heart, however similar studies are lacking in the CNS of these animals. A tractable animal model for investigating host-Borrelia interactions in the CNS is key to understanding the mechanisms of CNS pathogenesis. Therefore, we characterized the kinetics of B. burgdorferi colonization and associated immune responses in the CNS of mice during early and subacute infection. Using fluorescence-immunohistochemistry, intravital microscopy, bacterial culture, and quantitative PCR, we found B. burgdorferi routinely colonized the dura mater of C3H mice, with peak spirochete burden at day 7 post-infection. Dura mater colonization was observed for several Lyme disease agents including B. burgdorferi, B. garinii, and B. mayonii. RNA-sequencing and quantitative RT-PCR showed that B. burgdorferi infection was associated with increased expression of inflammatory cytokines and a robust interferon (IFN) response in the dura mater. Histopathologic changes including leukocytic infiltrates and vascular changes were also observed in the meninges of infected animals. In contrast to the meninges, we did not detect B. burgdorferi, infiltrating leukocytes, or large-scale changes in cytokine profiles in the cerebral cortex or hippocampus during infection; however, both brain regions demonstrated similar changes in expression of IFN-stimulated genes as observed in peripheral tissues and meninges. Taken together, B. burgdorferi is capable of colonizing the meninges in laboratory mice, and induces localized inflammation similar to peripheral tissues. A sterile IFN response in the absence of B. burgdorferi or inflammatory cytokines is unique to the brain parenchyma, and provides insight into the potential mechanisms of CNS pathology associated with this important pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy Casselli
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of North Dakota, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Grand Forks, North Dakota, United States of America
- * E-mail: (TC); (CAB)
| | - Ali Divan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of North Dakota, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Grand Forks, North Dakota, United States of America
| | - Emilie E. Vomhof-DeKrey
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of North Dakota, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Grand Forks, North Dakota, United States of America
- Department of Surgery, University of North Dakota, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Grand Forks, North Dakota, United States of America
| | - Yvonne Tourand
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of North Dakota, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Grand Forks, North Dakota, United States of America
| | - Heidi L. Pecoraro
- Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota, United States of America
| | - Catherine A. Brissette
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of North Dakota, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Grand Forks, North Dakota, United States of America
- * E-mail: (TC); (CAB)
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Bernard Q, Hu LT. Innate Immune Memory to Repeated Borrelia burgdorferi Exposure Correlates with Murine In Vivo Inflammatory Phenotypes. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2020; 205:3383-3389. [PMID: 33168577 PMCID: PMC7725865 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2000686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease, is transmitted by the bite of an infected tick. Once inoculated into the host dermis, it disseminates to various organs including distant skin sites, the heart, the joint and the nervous system. Most humans will develop an early skin manifestation called erythema migrans at the tick bite site. This can be followed by symptoms such as carditis, neuritis, meningitis, or arthritis if not treated. A specific mouse strain, C3H/HeN develops arthritis with B. burgdorferi infection whereas another strain, C57BL/6, develops minimal to no arthritis. Neither strain of mice show any skin signs of rash or inflammation. Factors that determine the presence of skin inflammation and the joint arthritis susceptibility in the host are only partially characterized. We show in this study that murine fibroblast-like synoviocytes display trained immunity, a program in some cells that results in increased inflammatory responses if the cell has previously come in contact with a stimulus, and that trained immunity in fibroblast-like synoviocytes tested ex vivo correlates with Lyme arthritis susceptibility. Conversely, skin fibroblasts do not exhibit trained immunity, which correlates with the absence of skin symptoms in these mice. Moreover, we demonstrate that the trained phenotype in FLS is affected by the cell environment, which depends on the host genetic background. Future studies expanding this initial report of the role of trained immunity on symptoms of B. burgdorferi infection may provide insight into the pathogenesis of disease in murine models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quentin Bernard
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111
| | - Linden T Hu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111
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9
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Chaconas G, Moriarty TJ, Skare J, Hyde JA. Live Imaging. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2020; 42:385-408. [PMID: 33310914 PMCID: PMC7946808 DOI: 10.21775/cimb.042.385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Being able to vizualize a pathogen at a site of interaction with a host is an aesthetically appealing idea and the resulting images can be both informative as well as enjoyable to view. Moreover, the approaches used to derive these images can be powerful in terms of offering data unobtainable by other methods. In this article, we review three primary modalities for live imaging Borrelia spirochetes: whole animal imaging, intravital microscopy and live cell imaging. Each method has strengths and weaknesses, which we review, as well as specific purposes for which they are optimally utilized. Live imaging borriliae is a relatively recent development and there was a need of a review to cover the area. Here, in addition to the methods themselves, we also review areas of spirochete biology that have been significantly impacted by live imaging and present a collection of images associated with the forward motion in the field driven by imaging studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Chaconas
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Tara J. Moriarty
- Faculties of Dentistry and Medicine (Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology), University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5G 1G6, Canada
| | - Jon Skare
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Texas A & M University Health Science Center, Bryan, Texas, 77807, USA
| | - Jenny A. Hyde
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Texas A & M University Health Science Center, Bryan, Texas, 77807, USA
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10
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Sharma B, McCarthy JE, Freliech CA, Clark MM, Hu LT. Genetic Background Amplifies the Effect of Immunodeficiency in Antibiotic Efficacy Against Borrelia burgdorferi. J Infect Dis 2020; 224:345-350. [PMID: 33216133 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiaa719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Unrecognized immunodeficiency has been proposed as a possible cause of failure of antibiotics to resolve symptoms of Lyme disease. Here, we examined the efficacy of doxycycline in different immunodeficient mice to identify defects that impair antibiotic treatment outcomes. We found that doxycycline had significantly lower efficacy in the absence of adaptive immunity, specifically B cells. This effect was most pronounced in immunodeficient C3H mice compared with C57BL/6 mice, suggesting a role for genetic background beyond immunodeficiency. Addition of a single dose of ceftriaxone to doxycycline treatment effectively cleared infection in C3H mice with severe combined immunodeficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bijaya Sharma
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Julie E McCarthy
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Cecily A Freliech
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Morgen M Clark
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Linden T Hu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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11
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Lin YP, Yu Y, Marcinkiewicz AL, Lederman P, Hart TM, Zhang F, Linhardt RJ. Non-anticoagulant Heparin as a Pre-exposure Prophylaxis Prevents Lyme Disease Infection. ACS Infect Dis 2020; 6:503-514. [PMID: 31961652 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.9b00425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Lyme disease (LD) is caused by the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (Bbsl). After transmission to humans by ticks, Bbsl spreads to multiple organs, leading to arthritis, carditis, and neuroborreliosis. No effective prophylaxis against human LD prior to tick exposure is currently available. Thus, a pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) against LD is needed. The establishment of LD bacteria at diverse sites is dictated partly by the binding of Bbsl to proteoglycans (PGs) and glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) in tissues. The drug heparin is structurally similar to these GAGs and inhibits Bbsl attachment to PGs, GAGs, cells, and tissues, suggesting its potential to prevent LD. However, the anticoagulant activity of heparin often results in hemorrhage, hampering the development of this compound as LD PrEP. We have previously synthesized a non-anticoagulant version of heparin (NACH), which was verified for safety in mice and humans. Here, we showed that NACH blocks Bbsl attachment to PGs, GAGs, and mammalian cells. We also found that treating mice with NACH prior to the exposure of ticks carrying Bbsl followed by continuous administration of this compound prevents tissue colonization by Bbsl. Furthermore, NACH-treated mice develop greater levels of IgG and IgM against Bbsl at early stages of infection, suggesting that the upregulation of antibody immune responses may be one of the mechanisms for NACH-mediated LD prevention. This is one of the first studies examining the ability of a heparin-based compound to prevent LD prior to tick exposure. The information presented might also be extended to prevent other infectious diseases agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Pin Lin
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, 120 New Scotland Avenue, Albany, New York 12208, United States
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Albany, 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, New York 12222, United States
| | - Yanlei Yu
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180, United States
| | - Ashley L. Marcinkiewicz
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, 120 New Scotland Avenue, Albany, New York 12208, United States
| | - Patricia Lederman
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, 120 New Scotland Avenue, Albany, New York 12208, United States
| | - Thomas M. Hart
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, 120 New Scotland Avenue, Albany, New York 12208, United States
- Department of Biological Science, State University of New York at Albany, 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, New York 12222, United States
| | - Fuming Zhang
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180, United States
| | - Robert J. Linhardt
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180, United States
- Departments of Biology and Biomedical Engineering, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180, United States
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12
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Brouwer MAE, van de Schoor FR, Vrijmoeth HD, Netea MG, Joosten LAB. A joint effort: The interplay between the innate and the adaptive immune system in Lyme arthritis. Immunol Rev 2020; 294:63-79. [PMID: 31930745 PMCID: PMC7065069 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2019] [Accepted: 11/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Articular joints are a major target of Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme arthritis. Despite antibiotic treatment, recurrent or persistent Lyme arthritis is observed in a significant number of patients. The host immune response plays a crucial role in this chronic arthritic joint complication of Borrelia infections. During the early stages of B. burgdorferi infection, a major hinder in generating a proper host immune response is the lack of induction of a strong adaptive immune response. This may lead to a delayed hyperinflammatory reaction later in the disease. Several mechanisms have been suggested that might be pivotal for the development of Lyme arthritis and will be highlighted in this review, from molecular mimicry of matrix metallopeptidases and glycosaminoglycans, to autoimmune responses to live bacteria, or remnants of Borrelia spirochetes in joints. Murine studies have suggested that the inflammatory responses are initiated by innate immune cells, but this does not exclude the involvement of the adaptive immune system in this dysregulated immune profile. Genetic predisposition, via human leukocyte antigen-DR isotype and microRNA expression, has been associated with the development of antibiotic-refractory Lyme arthritis. Yet the ultimate cause for (antibiotic-refractory) Lyme arthritis remains unknown. Complex processes of different immune cells and signaling cascades are involved in the development of Lyme arthritis. When these various mechanisms are fully been unraveled, new treatment strategies can be developed to target (antibiotic-refractory) Lyme arthritis more effectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle A. E. Brouwer
- Department of Internal MedicineRadboud Center for Infectious Diseases (RCI)Radboud Institute of Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS)Radboud Institute of Health Sciences (RIHS)Radboud University Medical CenterNijmegenThe Netherlands
| | - Freek R. van de Schoor
- Department of Internal MedicineRadboud Center for Infectious Diseases (RCI)Radboud Institute of Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS)Radboud Institute of Health Sciences (RIHS)Radboud University Medical CenterNijmegenThe Netherlands
| | - Hedwig D. Vrijmoeth
- Department of Internal MedicineRadboud Center for Infectious Diseases (RCI)Radboud Institute of Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS)Radboud Institute of Health Sciences (RIHS)Radboud University Medical CenterNijmegenThe Netherlands
| | - Mihai G. Netea
- Department of Internal MedicineRadboud Center for Infectious Diseases (RCI)Radboud Institute of Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS)Radboud Institute of Health Sciences (RIHS)Radboud University Medical CenterNijmegenThe Netherlands
- Department for Genomics & ImmunoregulationLife and Medical Sciences Institute (LIMES)University of BonnBonnGermany
| | - Leo A. B. Joosten
- Department of Internal MedicineRadboud Center for Infectious Diseases (RCI)Radboud Institute of Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS)Radboud Institute of Health Sciences (RIHS)Radboud University Medical CenterNijmegenThe Netherlands
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13
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Schizandrin A Protects Human Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cell Line ARPE-19 against HG-Induced Cell Injury by Regulation of miR-145. MOLECULAR THERAPY. NUCLEIC ACIDS 2019; 19:42-49. [PMID: 31794890 PMCID: PMC6909158 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtn.2019.10.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2019] [Revised: 10/23/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a serious complication of diabetes, which is the main cause of blindness among adults. Traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) have been proven to delay the development of DR. Nonetheless, the effect of Schizandrin A (SchA) on DR remains uninvestigated. The present study aimed to probe the protective effect of SchA on high-glucose (HG)-induced injury in ARPE-19 cells. We observed that SchA accelerated cell proliferation, prohibited apoptosis, and restrained pro-inflammatory cytokines (monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 [MCP-1], interleukin-6 [IL-6], and tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF-α]) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) level in HG-stimulated cells. Additionally, miR-145 expression was upregulated in HG and SchA co-treated cells, and miR-145 inhibition reversed the protective effect of SchA on HG-managed ARPE-19 cells. Interestingly, downregulated myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) was found in HG and SchA co-treated cells, and upregulation of MyD88 was observed in miR-145 inhibitor-transfected cells. Additionally, SchA hindered nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38MAPK) signaling pathways in HG-treated ARPE-19 cells. The findings validated that SchA could protect ARPE-19 cells from HG-induced cell injury by regulation of miR-145.
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14
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Moniuszko-Malinowska A, Penza P, Czupryna P, Zajkowska O, Pancewicz S, Król M, Świerzbińska R, Dunaj J, Zajkowska J. Assessment of TLR-2 concentration in tick-borne encephalitis and neuroborreliosis. Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation 2019; 79:502-506. [PMID: 31495224 DOI: 10.1080/00365513.2019.1661510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The aim of the study was to check whether measurement of TLR-2 in serum or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) can help differentiate between neuroborreliosis (NB) and tick-borne encephalitis (TBE). Eighty patients with meningitis and meningoencephalitis were divided into two groups: Group I - patients with NB (n = 40) and Group II - patients with TBE (n = 40). Diagnosis was based on the clinical picture, CSF examination and presence of specific antibodies in serum and CSF. The control group (CG) consisted of healthy blood donors (n = 25) and patients in whom inflammatory process in central nervous system was excluded (n = 25). Concentration of TLR-2 was measured using a commercial kit [TLR-2 Elisa Kit (EIAab, China)]. The serum and CSF TLR-2 concentration of NB patients was significantly higher than in CG. The serum and CSF TLR-2 concentration in TBE patients was significantly higher than in the CG. Receiver operating characteristic analysis of the serum TLR-2 concentration showed significant differences between the group of patients with NB and a group of patients with TBE. TLR-2 is involved in the development of inflammatory process in the CNS caused by both tick-borne pathogens: viral and bacterial as TLR-2 concentration in both CSF and serum differentiates these groups from healthy patients. Although TLR-2 cannot be used as a sole and reliable biomarker differentiating NB from TBE, results of our study are a step forward toward discovering such biomarker in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Moniuszko-Malinowska
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Neuroinfections, Medical University in Białystok , Białystok , Poland
| | | | - Piotr Czupryna
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Neuroinfections, Medical University in Białystok , Białystok , Poland
| | - Olga Zajkowska
- Department of Applied Mathematics, Faculty of Applied Informatics and Mathematics, Warsaw University of Life Sciences , Warsaw , Poland
| | - Sławomir Pancewicz
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Neuroinfections, Medical University in Białystok , Białystok , Poland
| | - Monika Król
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Neuroinfections, Medical University in Białystok , Białystok , Poland
| | - Renata Świerzbińska
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Neuroinfections, Medical University in Białystok , Białystok , Poland
| | - Justyna Dunaj
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Neuroinfections, Medical University in Białystok , Białystok , Poland
| | - Joanna Zajkowska
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Neuroinfections, Medical University in Białystok , Białystok , Poland
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15
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Zhao H, Dai X, Han X, Liu A, Bao F, Bai R, Ji Z, Jian M, Ding Z, Abi ME, Chen T, Luo L, Ma M, Tao L. Borrelia burgdorferi basic membrane protein A initiates proinflammatory chemokine storm in THP 1-derived macrophages via the receptors TLR1 and TLR2. Biomed Pharmacother 2019; 115:108874. [PMID: 31003080 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2019.108874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Revised: 03/28/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Lyme disease, reffered to as Lyme borreliosis, is a tick-borne zoonotic disease caused by Borrelia burgdorferi spirochetes. Lyme arthritis, the most common, serious and harmful manifestation during the late stages of Lyme disease, is closely associated with the Borrelia burgdorferi basic membrane protein A (BmpA). Chemokines are also reported to have an important role in Lyme arthritis. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) recognize and bind to pathogen-associated molecules which are structurally conserved among microbes, to activate transcriptional events, including cytokine production, inflammation, and tissue damage. We speculated that BmpA could induce a storm of proinflammatory chemokines via TLRs and downstream moleculars, and that TLR1, TLR2, TLR5, TLR6 and the adaptor protein, MyD88, may be involved in this process. We explored this hypothesis using the human monocytic leukemia cell line, THP-1, and recombinant BmpA (rBmpA). Cell surface TLR1 and TLR2 were neutralized using specific antibodies before stimulation with rBmpA and analysis of chemokine secretion using a chemokine chip. Further, the expressions level of the four TLRs and MyD88 were analyzed following stimulation with rBmpA. Stimulation with rBmpA resulted in elevated levels of seven cytokines. Further, TLR1 and TLR2 antibody treated cells exhibited an overall reduction in rBmpA-induced chemokine expression. TLR1, TLR2, and MyD88 expression levels (both mRNA and protein) increased after stimulation with rBmpA. Our data confirm that TLR1, TLR2, and MyD88 are involved in BmpA-induced proinflammatory chemokines, which may be closely involved in Lyme arthritis pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Zhao
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Xiting Dai
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Xinlin Han
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Aihua Liu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China; Yunnan Province Key Laboratory for Tropical Infectious Diseases in Universities, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China; The Institute for Tropical Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China; Yunnan Demonstration Base of International Science and Technology Cooperation for Tropical Diseases, Kunming 650500, China.
| | - Fukai Bao
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China; Yunnan Province Key Laboratory for Tropical Infectious Diseases in Universities, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China; The Institute for Tropical Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China; Yunnan Demonstration Base of International Science and Technology Cooperation for Tropical Diseases, Kunming 650500, China.
| | - Ruolan Bai
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Zhenhua Ji
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Miaomiao Jian
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Zhe Ding
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Manzama-Esso Abi
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Taigui Chen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Lisha Luo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Mingbiao Ma
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Lvyan Tao
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China
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16
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Hilliard KA, Brown CR. Treatment of Borrelia burgdorferi-Infected Mice with Apoptotic Cells Attenuates Lyme Arthritis via PPAR-γ. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 202:1798-1806. [PMID: 30700583 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1801179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2018] [Accepted: 01/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Infection of mice with Borrelia burgdorferi causes an inflammatory arthritis that peaks 3-4 wk postinfection and then spontaneously resolves. Although the recruitment of neutrophils is known to drive the development of arthritis, mechanisms of disease resolution remain unclear. Efficient clearance of apoptotic cells (AC) is likely an important component of arthritis resolution. In this article, we show the number of AC increases in the joints of B. burgdorferi-infected mice around day 21 postinfection and peaks around day 28. Injection of AC directly into the ankles of B. burgdorferi-infected mice limited ankle swelling but had no effect on spirochete clearance or arthritis severity scores. In vitro, addition of AC to bone marrow macrophage cultures decreased B. burgdorferi-induced TNF-α and KC and increased IL-10. In addition, phagocytosis of B. burgdorferi and neutrophil migration to LTB4 were inhibited by AC. Exogenous AC caused an increase in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ) expression both in vitro and in vivo during B. burgdorferi infection. The PPAR-γ agonist rosiglitazone elicited similar changes in macrophage cytokine production and neutrophil migration as exogenous AC. Addition of the PPAR-γ antagonist GW 9662 abrogated the effects of AC in vitro. Injection of rosiglitazone directly into the tibiotarsal joints of B. burgdorferi-infected mice decreased ankle swelling and immune cell recruitment, similar to the injection of AC. These results suggest that clearance of AC plays a role in the resolution of inflammation during experimental Lyme arthritis through the activation of PPAR-γ. PPAR-γ agonists, such as rosiglitazone, may therefore be effective treatments for inducing arthritis resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kinsey A Hilliard
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211
| | - Charles R Brown
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211
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17
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MyD88 Signaling in T Cells Is Critical for Effector CD4 T Cell Differentiation following a Transitional T Follicular Helper Cell Stage. Infect Immun 2018; 86:IAI.00791-17. [PMID: 29507085 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00791-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 02/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Activation of CD4 T cells by dendritic cells leads to their differentiation into various effector lineages. The nature of the effector lineage is determined by the innate cues provided by dendritic cells to newly primed T cells. Although the cytokines necessary for several effector lineages have been identified, the innate cues that drive T follicular helper (Tfh) lineage cell development remain unclear. Here we found that following priming, CD4 T cells undergoing clonal expansion acquire a transient Tfh-like phenotype before differentiating into other effector lineages. In addition, we found that T cell-intrinsic myeloid differentiation antigen 88 (MyD88) signaling, which occurs downstream of interleukin-1 (IL-1) and IL-18 receptors, is critical for the primed CD4 T cells to transition out of the temporary Tfh lineage. Mice with T cell-specific deletion of MyD88 have a higher proportion of Tfh cells and germinal center (GC) B cells. These exaggerated Tfh cell and GC B cell responses, however, do not lead to protective immunity against infections. We demonstrate that T cell-intrinsic MyD88 is critical for effector lineage differentiation as well as production of the cytokines that are necessary for class switching. Overall, our study establishes that following priming and clonal expansion, CD4 T cells undergo a transitional Tfh-like phase and that further differentiation into effector lineages is dictated by T cell-intrinsic MyD88-dependent cues.
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18
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Paquette JK, Ma Y, Fisher C, Li J, Lee SB, Zachary JF, Kim YS, Teuscher C, Weis JJ. Genetic Control of Lyme Arthritis by Borrelia burgdorferi Arthritis-Associated Locus 1 Is Dependent on Localized Differential Production of IFN-β and Requires Upregulation of Myostatin. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2017; 199:3525-3534. [PMID: 28986440 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1701011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2017] [Accepted: 09/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Previously, using a forward genetic approach, we identified differential expression of type I IFN as a positional candidate for an expression quantitative trait locus underlying Borrelia burgdorferi arthritis-associated locus 1 (Bbaa1). In this study, we show that mAb blockade revealed a unique role for IFN-β in Lyme arthritis development in B6.C3-Bbaa1 mice. Genetic control of IFN-β expression was also identified in bone marrow-derived macrophages stimulated with B. burgdorferi, and it was responsible for feed-forward amplification of IFN-stimulated genes. Reciprocal radiation chimeras between B6.C3-Bbaa1 and C57BL/6 mice revealed that arthritis is initiated by radiation-sensitive cells, but orchestrated by radiation-resistant components of joint tissue. Advanced congenic lines were developed to reduce the physical size of the Bbaa1 interval, and confirmed the contribution of type I IFN genes to Lyme arthritis. RNA sequencing of resident CD45- joint cells from advanced interval-specific recombinant congenic lines identified myostatin as uniquely upregulated in association with Bbaa1 arthritis development, and myostatin expression was linked to IFN-β production. Inhibition of myostatin in vivo suppressed Lyme arthritis in the reduced interval Bbaa1 congenic mice, formally implicating myostatin as a novel downstream mediator of the joint-specific inflammatory response to B. burgdorferi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jackie K Paquette
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112
| | - Ying Ma
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112
| | - Colleen Fisher
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112
| | - Jinze Li
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112
| | - Sang Beum Lee
- Department of Human Nutrition, Food, and Animal Sciences, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822
| | - James F Zachary
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61820; and
| | - Yong Soo Kim
- Department of Human Nutrition, Food, and Animal Sciences, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822
| | - Cory Teuscher
- Department of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405
| | - Janis J Weis
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112;
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19
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Cervantes J. Doctor says you are cured, but you still feel the pain. Borrelia DNA persistence in Lyme disease. Microbes Infect 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2017.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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20
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Li Z, Lu X, Hu Z, Luo Z, Jiang W, Wu H, Gao Y, Yan J, Zhang Q, Song A, Huang X, Mou D, Su B, Zhang T. Syphilis Infection Differentially Regulates the Phenotype and Function of γδ T Cells in HIV-1-Infected Patients Depends on the HIV-1 Disease Stage. Front Immunol 2017; 8:991. [PMID: 28871259 PMCID: PMC5566620 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2017] [Accepted: 08/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
A rapidly escalating outbreak of syphilis infection has been affected men who have sex with men, particularly those with HIV-1 infection. γδ T cells are unconventional immune cells with two main subsets, Vδ1 T cells and Vδ2 T cells, which possess a combination of innate and adaptive immune features allowing them against HIV-1. However, whether syphilis infection affects the phenotype and function of γδ T cells in HIV-1-infected patients remains unclear, especially in acute HIV-1 infection (AHI). In this study, we enrolled 57 HIV-1-infected patients (24 with HIV-1 infection only and 33 coinfected with syphilis) from an acute HIV-1-infected cohort in Beijing (PRIMO). A comprehensive analysis of γδ T-cell phenotype and function was performed by flow cytometry. We found syphilis coinfection could reverse the imbalance of Vδ1/Vδ2 ratio in AHI. Syphilis infection results in decreased γδ T-cell activation in AHI, but increased γδ T-cell activation in chronic HIV-1 infection (CHI). Moreover, patients with CHI had larger numbers of IL-17-producing γδ T cells than those with AHI, regardless of syphilis status. Thus, syphilis affected the γδ T-cell immune response differently in patients depending on the stages of HIV-1 disease. In addition, the percentage of IL-17-producing γδ T cells was positively correlated with the percentage of neutrophils. These results suggest that the γδ T-cell/IL-17/neutrophil axis is involved in HIV-1 pathogenesis and disease progression. Taken together, our observations provide new insight into the roles of γδ T cells in immunopathogenesis of syphilis and HIV-1 coinfection, particularly during AHI, and our findings may be helpful for the prevention of syphilis and other sexually transmitted infections and highlight the great significance on the remedy of patients coinfected with HIV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory for HIV/AIDS Research, Center for Infectious Diseases, Beijing You'an Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaofan Lu
- Beijing Key Laboratory for HIV/AIDS Research, Center for Infectious Diseases, Beijing You'an Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Zhiliang Hu
- Department of Infectious Diseases, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhenwu Luo
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States
| | - Wei Jiang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States
| | - Hao Wu
- Beijing Key Laboratory for HIV/AIDS Research, Center for Infectious Diseases, Beijing You'an Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yanqing Gao
- Department of Dermatology, Center for Infectious Diseases, Beijing You'an Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Junling Yan
- Department of Dermatology, Center for Infectious Diseases, Beijing You'an Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Qiuyue Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory for HIV/AIDS Research, Center for Infectious Diseases, Beijing You'an Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Aixin Song
- Beijing Key Laboratory for HIV/AIDS Research, Center for Infectious Diseases, Beijing You'an Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaojie Huang
- Beijing Key Laboratory for HIV/AIDS Research, Center for Infectious Diseases, Beijing You'an Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Danlei Mou
- Beijing Key Laboratory for HIV/AIDS Research, Center for Infectious Diseases, Beijing You'an Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Bin Su
- Beijing Key Laboratory for HIV/AIDS Research, Center for Infectious Diseases, Beijing You'an Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Tong Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory for HIV/AIDS Research, Center for Infectious Diseases, Beijing You'an Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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21
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Christodoulides A, Boyadjian A, Kelesidis T. Spirochetal Lipoproteins and Immune Evasion. Front Immunol 2017; 8:364. [PMID: 28424696 PMCID: PMC5372817 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2016] [Accepted: 03/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Spirochetes are a major threat to public health. However, the exact pathogenesis of spirochetal diseases remains unclear. Spirochetes express lipoproteins that often determine the cross talk between the host and spirochetes. Lipoproteins are pro-inflammatory, modulatory of immune responses, and enable the spirochetes to evade the immune system. In this article, we review the modulatory effects of spirochetal lipoproteins related to immune evasion. Understanding lipoprotein-induced immunomodulation will aid in elucidating innate pathogenesis processes and subsequent adaptive mechanisms potentially relevant to spirochetal disease vaccine development and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexei Christodoulides
- David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Ani Boyadjian
- David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Theodoros Kelesidis
- David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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22
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Temporal Role for MyD88 in a Model of Brucella-Induced Arthritis and Musculoskeletal Inflammation. Infect Immun 2017; 85:IAI.00961-16. [PMID: 28069819 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00961-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2016] [Accepted: 01/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Brucella spp. are facultative intracellular Gram-negative bacteria that cause the zoonotic disease brucellosis, one of the most common global zoonoses. Osteomyelitis, arthritis, and musculoskeletal inflammation are common focal complications of brucellosis in humans; however, wild-type (WT) mice infected systemically with conventional doses of Brucella do not develop these complications. Here we report C57BL/6 WT mice infected via the footpad with 103 to 106 CFU of Brucella spp. display neutrophil and monocyte infiltration of the joint space and surrounding musculoskeletal tissue. Joint inflammation is detectable as early as 1 day postinfection and peaks 1 to 2 weeks later, after which WT mice are able to slowly resolve inflammation. B and T cells were dispensable for the onset of swelling but required for resolution of joint inflammation and infection. At early time points, MyD88-/- mice display decreased joint inflammation, swelling, and proinflammatory cytokine levels relative to WT mice. Subsequently, swelling of MyD88-/- joints surpassed WT joint swelling, and resolution of joint inflammation was prolonged. Joint bacterial loads in MyD88-/- mice were significantly greater than those in WT mice by day 3 postinfection and at all time points thereafter. In addition, MyD88-/- joint inflammatory cytokine levels on day 3 and beyond were similar to WT levels. Collectively these data demonstrate MyD88 signaling mediates early inflammatory responses in the joint but also contributes to subsequent clearance of Brucella and resolution of inflammation. This work also establishes a mouse model for studying Brucella-induced arthritis, musculoskeletal complications, and systemic responses, which will lead to a better understanding of focal complications of brucellosis.
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23
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Hyde JA. Borrelia burgdorferi Keeps Moving and Carries on: A Review of Borrelial Dissemination and Invasion. Front Immunol 2017; 8:114. [PMID: 28270812 PMCID: PMC5318424 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2016] [Accepted: 01/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Borrelia burgdorferi is the etiological agent of Lyme disease, a multisystemic, multistage, inflammatory infection resulting in patients experiencing cardiac, neurological, and arthritic complications when not treated with antibiotics shortly after exposure. The spirochetal bacterium transmits through the Ixodes vector colonizing the dermis of a mammalian host prior to hematogenous dissemination and invasion of distal tissues all the while combating the immune response as it traverses through its pathogenic lifecycle. The innate immune response controls the borrelial burden in the dermis, but is unable to clear the infection and thereby prevent progression of disease. Dissemination in the mammalian host requires temporal regulation of virulence determinants to allow for vascular interactions, invasion, and colonization of distal tissues. Virulence determinants and/or adhesins are highly heterogenetic among environmental B. burgdorferi strains with particular genotypes being associated with the ability to disseminate to specific tissues and the severity of disease, but fail to generate cross-protective immunity between borrelial strains. The unique motility of B. burgdorferi rendered by the endoflagella serves a vital function for dissemination and protection from immune recognition. Progress has been made toward understanding the chemotactic regulation coordinating the activity of the two polar localized flagellar motors and their role in borrelial virulence, but this regulation is not yet fully understood. Distinct states of motility allow for dynamic interactions between several B. burgdorferi adhesins and host targets that play roles in transendothelial migration. Transmigration across endothelial and blood-brain barriers allows for the invasion of tissues and elicits localized immune responses. The invasive nature of B. burgdorferi is lacking in proactive mechanisms to modulate disease, such as secretion systems and toxins, but recent work has shown degradation of host extracellular matrices by B. burgdorferi contributes to the invasive capabilities of the pathogen. Additionally, B. burgdorferi may use invasion of eukaryotic cells for immune evasion and protection against environmental stresses. This review provides an overview of B. burgdorferi mechanisms for dissemination and invasion in the mammalian host, which are essential for pathogenesis and the development of persistent infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny A Hyde
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center , Bryan, TX , USA
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Stone BL, Brissette CA. Host Immune Evasion by Lyme and Relapsing Fever Borreliae: Findings to Lead Future Studies for Borrelia miyamotoi. Front Immunol 2017; 8:12. [PMID: 28154563 PMCID: PMC5243832 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2016] [Accepted: 01/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The emerging pathogen, Borrelia miyamotoi, is a relapsing fever spirochete vectored by the same species of Ixodes ticks that carry the causative agents of Lyme disease in the US, Europe, and Asia. Symptoms caused by infection with B. miyamotoi are similar to a relapsing fever infection. However, B. miyamotoi has adapted to different vectors and reservoirs, which could result in unique physiology, including immune evasion mechanisms. Lyme Borrelia utilize a combination of Ixodes-produced inhibitors and native proteins [i.e., factor H-binding proteins (FHBPs)/complement regulator-acquiring surface proteins, p43, BBK32, BGA66, BGA71, CD59-like protein] to inhibit complement, while some relapsing fever spirochetes use C4b-binding protein and likely Ornithodoros-produced inhibitors. To evade the humoral response, Borrelia utilize antigenic variation of either outer surface proteins (Osps) and the Vmp-like sequences (Vls) system (Lyme borreliae) or variable membrane proteins (Vmps, relapsing fever borreliae). B. miyamotoi possesses putative FHBPs and antigenic variation of Vmps has been demonstrated. This review summarizes and compares the common mechanisms utilized by Lyme and relapsing fever spirochetes, as well as the current state of understanding immune evasion by B. miyamotoi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandee L Stone
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of North Dakota , Grand Forks, ND , USA
| | - Catherine A Brissette
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of North Dakota , Grand Forks, ND , USA
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Abstract
Lyme borreliosis is a tick-borne disease that predominantly occurs in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere and is primarily caused by the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi in North America and Borrelia afzelii or Borrelia garinii in Europe and Asia. Infection usually begins with an expanding skin lesion, known as erythema migrans (referred to as stage 1), which, if untreated, can be followed by early disseminated infection, particularly neurological abnormalities (stage 2), and by late infection, especially arthritis in North America or acrodermatitis chronica atrophicans in Europe (stage 3). However, the disease can present with any of these manifestations. During infection, the bacteria migrate through the host tissues, adhere to certain cells and can evade immune clearance. Yet, these organisms are eventually killed by both innate and adaptive immune responses and most inflammatory manifestations of the infection resolve. Except for patients with erythema migrans, Lyme borreliosis is diagnosed based on a characteristic clinical constellation of signs and symptoms with serological confirmation of infection. All manifestations of the infection can usually be treated with appropriate antibiotic regimens, but the disease can be followed by post-infectious sequelae in some patients. Prevention of Lyme borreliosis primarily involves the avoidance of tick bites by personal protective measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allen C Steere
- Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Immunology, Massachusetts General Hospital, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Franc Strle
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University Medical Center Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Gary P Wormser
- Division of Infectious Diseases, New York Medical College, Valhalla, New York, USA
| | - Linden T Hu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - John A Branda
- Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Joppe W R Hovius
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Xin Li
- Division of Geographic Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Paul S Mead
- Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
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Gene bb0318 Is Critical for the Oxidative Stress Response and Infectivity of Borrelia burgdorferi. Infect Immun 2016; 84:3141-3151. [PMID: 27550932 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00430-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2016] [Accepted: 08/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A greater understanding of the molecular mechanisms that Borrelia burgdorferi uses to survive during mammalian infection is critical for the development of novel diagnostic and therapeutic tools to improve the clinical management of Lyme disease. By use of an in vivo expression technology (IVET)-based approach to identify B. burgdorferi genes expressed in vivo, we discovered the bb0318 gene, which is thought to encode the ATPase component of a putative riboflavin ABC transport system. Riboflavin is a critical metabolite enabling all organisms to maintain redox homeostasis. B. burgdorferi appears to lack the metabolic capacity for de novo synthesis of riboflavin and so likely relies on scavenging riboflavin from the host environment. In this study, we sought to investigate the role of bb0318 in B. burgdorferi pathogenesis. No in vitro growth defect was observed for the Δbb0318 clone. However, the mutant spirochetes displayed reduced levels of survival when exposed to exogenous hydrogen peroxide or murine macrophages. Spirochetes lacking bb0318 were found to have a 100-fold-higher 50% infectious dose than spirochetes containing bb0318 In addition, at a high inoculum dose, bb0318 was found to be important for effective spirochete dissemination to deep tissues for as long as 3 weeks postinoculation and to be critical for B. burgdorferi infection of mouse hearts. Together, these data implicate bb0318 in the oxidative stress response of B. burgdorferi and indicate the contribution of bb0318 to B. burgdorferi mammalian infectivity.
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Rahman S, Shering M, Ogden NH, Lindsay R, Badawi A. Toll-like receptor cascade and gene polymorphism in host-pathogen interaction in Lyme disease. J Inflamm Res 2016; 9:91-102. [PMID: 27330321 PMCID: PMC4898433 DOI: 10.2147/jir.s104790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Lyme disease (LD) risk occurs in North America and Europe where the tick vectors of the causal agent Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato are found. It is associated with local and systemic manifestations, and has persistent posttreatment health complications in some individuals. The innate immune system likely plays a critical role in both host defense against B. burgdorferi and disease severity. Recognition of B. burgdorferi, activation of the innate immune system, production of proinflammatory cytokines, and modulation of the host adaptive responses are all initiated by Toll-like receptors (TLRs). A number of Borrelia outer-surface proteins (eg, OspA and OspB) are recognized by TLRs. Specifically, TLR1 and TLR2 were identified as the receptors most relevant to LD. Several functional single-nucleotide polymorphisms have been identified in TLR genes, and are associated with varying cytokines types and synthesis levels, altered pathogen recognition, and disruption of the downstream signaling cascade. These single-nucleotide polymorphism-related functional alterations are postulated to be linked to disease development and posttreatment persistent illness. Elucidating the role of TLRs in LD may facilitate a better understanding of disease pathogenesis and can provide an insight into novel therapeutic targets during active disease or postinfection and posttreatment stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shusmita Rahman
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Maria Shering
- Faculty of Arts and Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Nicholas H Ogden
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada
| | - Robbin Lindsay
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Alaa Badawi
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada
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Toll-like receptors and chronic inflammation in rheumatic diseases: new developments. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2016; 12:344-57. [PMID: 27170508 DOI: 10.1038/nrrheum.2016.61] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
In the past few years, new developments have been reported on the role of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) in chronic inflammation in rheumatic diseases. The inhibitory function of TLR10 has been demonstrated. Receptors that enhance the function of TLRs, and several TLR inhibitors, have been identified. In addition, the role of the microbiome and TLRs in the onset of rheumatic diseases has been reported. We review novel insights on the role of TLRs in several inflammatory joint diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, gout and Lyme arthritis, with a focus on the signalling mechanisms mediated by the Toll-IL-1 receptor (TIR) domain, the exogenous and endogenous ligands of TLRs, and the current and future therapeutic strategies to target TLR signalling in rheumatic diseases.
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Bernard Q, Gallo RL, Jaulhac B, Nakatsuji T, Luft B, Yang X, Boulanger N. Ixodes tick saliva suppresses the keratinocyte cytokine response to TLR2/TLR3 ligands during early exposure to Lyme borreliosis. Exp Dermatol 2015; 25:26-31. [PMID: 26307945 DOI: 10.1111/exd.12853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Ixodes hard tick induces skin injury by its sophisticated biting process. Its saliva plays a key role to enable an efficient blood meal that lasts for several days. We hypothesized that this feeding process may also be exploited by pathogens to facilitate their transmission, especially in the context of arthropod-borne diseases. To test this, we used Lyme borreliosis as a model. This bacterial infection is caused by Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato transmitted by Ixodes. We co-incubated Borrelia with human keratinocytes in the presence of poly (I: C), a dsRNA TLR3 agonist generated by skin injury. This induced a strong cytokine response from human primary keratinocytes that was much greater than that induced by Borrelia alone. OspC, a TLR2/1 agonist and a major surface lipoprotein of Borrelia also amplified the process. Interestingly, tick saliva inhibited cytokine responses by keratinocytes to these TLR agonists. We propose that Borrelia uses the immunoprivileged site produced by tick saliva to facilitate its transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quentin Bernard
- EA7290 Virulence bactérienne précoce: groupe borréliose de Lyme, Fédération de médecine Translationnelle et Faculté de Pharmacie de Strasbourg, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Richard L Gallo
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Benoît Jaulhac
- EA7290 Virulence bactérienne précoce: groupe borréliose de Lyme, Fédération de médecine Translationnelle et Faculté de Pharmacie de Strasbourg, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France.,Centre National de Reference Borrelia, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Strasbourg, France
| | - Teruaki Nakatsuji
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Benjamin Luft
- Department of Medicine, State University of New York, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Xiahoua Yang
- Department of Medicine, State University of New York, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Nathalie Boulanger
- EA7290 Virulence bactérienne précoce: groupe borréliose de Lyme, Fédération de médecine Translationnelle et Faculté de Pharmacie de Strasbourg, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France.,Centre National de Reference Borrelia, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Strasbourg, France
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Outer surface protein OspC is an antiphagocytic factor that protects Borrelia burgdorferi from phagocytosis by macrophages. Infect Immun 2015; 83:4848-60. [PMID: 26438793 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01215-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2015] [Accepted: 09/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Outer surface protein C (OspC) is one of the major lipoproteins expressed on the surface of Borrelia burgdorferi during tick feeding and the early phase of mammalian infection. OspC is required for B. burgdorferi to establish infection in both immunocompetent and SCID mice and has been proposed to facilitate evasion of innate immune defenses. However, the exact biological function of OspC remains elusive. In this study, we showed that the ospC-deficient spirochete could not establish infection in NOD-scid IL2rγ(null) mice that lack B cells, T cells, NK cells, and lytic complement. The ospC mutant also could not establish infection in anti-Ly6G-treated SCID and C3H/HeN mice (depletion of neutrophils). However, depletion of mononuclear phagocytes at the skin site of inoculation in SCID and C3H/HeN mice allowed the ospC mutant to establish infection in vivo. In phagocyte-depleted mice, the ospC mutant was able to colonize the joints and triggered neutrophilia during dissemination. Furthermore, we found that phagocytosis of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-expressing ospC mutant spirochetes by murine peritoneal macrophages and human THP-1 macrophage-like cells, but not in PMN-HL60, was significantly higher than parental wild-type B. burgdorferi strains, suggesting that OspC has an antiphagocytic property. In addition, overproduction of OspC in spirochetes also decreased the uptake of spirochetes by murine peritoneal macrophages. Together, our findings provide evidence that mononuclear phagocytes play a key role in clearance of the ospC mutant and that OspC promotes spirochetes' evasion of macrophages during early Lyme borreliosis.
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Petnicki-Ocwieja T, Kern A, Killpack TL, Bunnell SC, Hu LT. Adaptor Protein-3-Mediated Trafficking of TLR2 Ligands Controls Specificity of Inflammatory Responses but Not Adaptor Complex Assembly. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 195:4331-40. [PMID: 26423153 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1501268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2015] [Accepted: 08/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Innate immune engagement results in the activation of host defenses that produce microbe-specific inflammatory responses. A long-standing interest in the field of innate immunity is to understand how varied host responses are generated through the signaling of just a limited number of receptors. Recently, intracellular trafficking and compartmental partitioning have been identified as mechanisms that provide signaling specificity for receptors by regulating signaling platform assembly. We show that cytokine activation as a result of TLR2 stimulation occurs at different intracellular locations and is mediated by the phagosomal trafficking molecule adaptor protein-3 (AP-3). AP-3 is required for trafficking TLR2 purified ligands or the Lyme disease causing bacterium, Borrelia burgdorferi, to LAMP-1 lysosomal compartments. The presence of AP-3 is necessary for the activation of cytokines such as IL-6 but not TNF-α or type I IFNs, suggesting induction of these cytokines occurs from a different compartment. Lack of AP-3 does not interfere with the recruitment of TLR signaling adaptors TRAM and MyD88 to the phagosome, indicating that the TLR-MyD88 signaling complex is assembled at a prelysosomal stage and that IL-6 activation depends on proper localization of signaling molecules downstream of MyD88. Finally, infection of AP-3-deficient mice with B. burgdorferi resulted in altered joint inflammation during murine Lyme arthritis. Our studies further elucidate the effects of phagosomal trafficking on tailoring immune responses in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Petnicki-Ocwieja
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111; and
| | - Aurelie Kern
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111; and
| | - Tess L Killpack
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111; and
| | - Stephen C Bunnell
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Pathobiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111
| | - Linden T Hu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111; and
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Antagonistic Interplay between MicroRNA-155 and IL-10 during Lyme Carditis and Arthritis. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0135142. [PMID: 26252010 PMCID: PMC4529177 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0135142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2015] [Accepted: 07/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
MicroRNA-155 has been shown to play a role in immune activation and inflammation, and is suppressed by IL-10, an important anti-inflammatory cytokine. The established involvement of IL-10 in the murine model of Borrelia burgdorferi-induced Lyme arthritis and carditis allowed us to assess the interplay between IL-10 and miR-155 in vivo. As reported previously, Mir155 was highly upregulated in joints from infected severely arthritic B6 Il10-/- mice, but not in mildly arthritic B6 mice. In infected hearts, Mir155 was upregulated in both strains, suggesting a role of miR-155 in Lyme carditis. Using B. burgdorferi-infected B6, Mir155-/-, Il10-/-, and Mir155-/- Il10-/- double-knockout (DKO) mice, we found that anti-inflammatory IL-10 and pro-inflammatory miR-155 have opposite and somewhat compensatory effects on myeloid cell activity, cytokine production, and antibody response. Both IL-10 and miR-155 were required for suppression of Lyme carditis. Infected Mir155-/- mice developed moderate/severe carditis, had higher B. burgdorferi numbers, and had reduced Th1 cytokine expression in hearts. In contrast, while Il10-/- and DKO mice also developed severe carditis, hearts had reduced bacterial numbers and elevated Th1 and innate cytokine expression. Surprisingly, miR-155 had little effect on Lyme arthritis. These results show that antagonistic interplay between IL-10 and miR-155 is required to balance host defense and immune activation in vivo, and this balance is particularly important for suppression of Lyme carditis. These results also highlight tissue-specific differences in Lyme arthritis and carditis pathogenesis, and reveal the importance of IL-10-mediated regulation of miR-155 in maintaining healthy immunity.
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Lieskovská J, Páleníková J, Langhansová H, Campos Chagas A, Calvo E, Kotsyfakis M, Kopecký J. Tick sialostatins L and L2 differentially influence dendritic cell responses to Borrelia spirochetes. Parasit Vectors 2015; 8:275. [PMID: 25975355 PMCID: PMC4436792 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-0887-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2014] [Accepted: 05/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Transmission of pathogens by ticks is greatly supported by tick saliva released during feeding. Dendritic cells (DC) act as immunological sentinels and interconnect the innate and adaptive immune system. They control polarization of the immune response towards Th1 or Th2 phenotype. We investigated whether salivary cystatins from the hard tick Ixodes scapularis, sialostatin L (Sialo L) and sialostatin L2 (Sialo L2), influence mouse dendritic cells exposed to Borrelia burgdorferi and relevant Toll-like receptor ligands. Methods DCs derived from bone-marrow by GM-CSF or Flt-3 ligand, were activated with Borrelia spirochetes or TLR ligands in the presence of 3 μM Sialo L and 3 μM Sialo L2. Produced chemokines and IFN-β were measured by ELISA test. The activation of signalling pathways was tested by western blotting using specific antibodies. The maturation of DC was determined by measuring the surface expression of CD86 by flow cytometry. Results We determined the effect of cystatins on the production of chemokines in Borrelia-infected bone-marrow derived DC. The production of MIP-1α was severely suppressed by both cystatins, while IP-10 was selectively inhibited only by Sialo L2. As TLR-2 is a major receptor activated by Borrelia spirochetes, we tested whether cystatins influence signalling pathways activated by TLR-2 ligand, lipoteichoic acid (LTA). Sialo L2 and weakly Sialo L attenuated the extracellular matrix-regulated kinase (Erk1/2) pathway. The activation of phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) was decreased only by Sialo L2. In response to Borrelia burgdorferi, the activation of Erk1/2 was impaired by Sialo L2. Production of IFN-β was analysed in plasmacytoid DC exposed to Borrelia, TLR-7, and TLR-9 ligands. Sialo L, in contrast to Sialo L2, decreased the production of IFN-β in pDC and also impaired the maturation of these cells. Conclusions This study shows that DC responses to Borrelia spirochetes are affected by tick cystatins. Sialo L influences the maturation of DC thus having impact on adaptive immune response. Sialo L2 affects the production of chemokines potentially engaged in the development of inflammatory response. The impact of cystatins on Borrelia growth in vivo is discussed. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-015-0887-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaroslava Lieskovská
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 1760, CZ-37005, České Budějovice, Czech Republic. .,Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.
| | - Jana Páleníková
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 1760, CZ-37005, České Budějovice, Czech Republic. .,Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.
| | - Helena Langhansová
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 1760, CZ-37005, České Budějovice, Czech Republic. .,Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.
| | - Andrezza Campos Chagas
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 12735 Twinbrook Parkway, Rockville, MD, 20852, USA.
| | - Eric Calvo
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 12735 Twinbrook Parkway, Rockville, MD, 20852, USA.
| | - Michalis Kotsyfakis
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.
| | - Jan Kopecký
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 1760, CZ-37005, České Budějovice, Czech Republic. .,Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.
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Macrophage Polarization during Murine Lyme Borreliosis. Infect Immun 2015; 83:2627-35. [PMID: 25870230 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00369-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2015] [Accepted: 04/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection of C3H mice with Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease, reliably produces an infectious arthritis and carditis that peak around 3 weeks postinfection and then spontaneously resolve. Macrophage polarization has been suggested to drive inflammation, the clearance of bacteria, and tissue repair and resolution in a variety of infectious disease models. During Lyme disease it is clear that macrophages are capable of clearing Borrelia spirochetes and exhausted neutrophils; however, the role of macrophage phenotype in disease development or resolution has not been studied. Using classical (NOS2) and alternative (CD206) macrophage subset-specific markers, we determined the phenotype of F4/80(+) macrophages within the joints and heart throughout the infection time course. Within the joint, CD206(+) macrophages dominated throughout the course of infection, and NOS2(+) macrophage numbers became elevated only during the peak of inflammation. We also found dual NOS2(+) CD206(+) macrophages which increased during resolution. In contrast to findings for the ankle joints, numbers of NOS2(+) and CD206(+) macrophages in the heart were similar at the peak of inflammation. 5-Lipoxygenase-deficient (5-LOX(-/-)) mice, which display a failure of Lyme arthritis resolution, recruited fewer F4/80(+) cells to the infected joints and heart, but macrophage subset populations were unchanged. These results highlight differences in the inflammatory infiltrates during Lyme arthritis and carditis and demonstrate the coexistence of multiple macrophage subsets within a single inflammatory site.
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Kelesidis T. The Cross-Talk between Spirochetal Lipoproteins and Immunity. Front Immunol 2014; 5:310. [PMID: 25071771 PMCID: PMC4075078 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2014] [Accepted: 06/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Spirochetal diseases such as syphilis, Lyme disease, and leptospirosis are major threats to public health. However, the immunopathogenesis of these diseases has not been fully elucidated. Spirochetes interact with the host through various structural components such as lipopolysaccharides (LPS), surface lipoproteins, and glycolipids. Although spirochetal antigens such as LPS and glycolipids may contribute to the inflammatory response during spirochetal infections, spirochetes such as Treponema pallidum and Borrelia burgdorferi lack LPS. Lipoproteins are most abundant proteins that are expressed in all spirochetes and often determine how spirochetes interact with their environment. Lipoproteins are pro-inflammatory, may regulate responses from both innate and adaptive immunity and enable the spirochetes to adhere to the host or the tick midgut or to evade the immune system. However, most of the spirochetal lipoproteins have unknown function. Herein, the immunomodulatory effects of spirochetal lipoproteins are reviewed and are grouped into two main categories: effects related to immune evasion and effects related to immune activation. Understanding lipoprotein-induced immunomodulation will aid in elucidating innate immunopathogenesis processes and subsequent adaptive mechanisms potentially relevant to spirochetal disease vaccine development and to inflammatory events associated with spirochetal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodoros Kelesidis
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles , Los Angeles, CA , USA
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Lochhead RB, Ma Y, Zachary JF, Baltimore D, Zhao JL, Weis JH, O'Connell RM, Weis JJ. MicroRNA-146a provides feedback regulation of lyme arthritis but not carditis during infection with Borrelia burgdorferi. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1004212. [PMID: 24967703 PMCID: PMC4072785 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2013] [Accepted: 05/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
MicroRNAs have been shown to be important regulators of inflammatory and immune responses and are implicated in several immune disorders including systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis, but their role in Lyme borreliosis remains unknown. We performed a microarray screen for expression of miRNAs in joint tissue from three mouse strains infected with Borrelia burgdorferi. This screen identified upregulation of miR-146a, a key negative regulator of NF-κB signaling, in all three strains, suggesting it plays an important role in the in vivo response to B. burgdorferi. Infection of B6 miR-146a-/- mice with B. burgdorferi revealed a critical nonredundant role of miR-146a in modulating Lyme arthritis without compromising host immune response or heart inflammation. The impact of miR-146a was specifically localized to the joint, and did not impact lesion development or inflammation in the heart. Furthermore, B6 miR-146a-/- mice had elevated levels of NF-κB-regulated products in joint tissue and serum late in infection. Flow cytometry analysis of various lineages isolated from infected joint tissue of mice showed that myeloid cell infiltration was significantly greater in B6 miR-146a-/- mice, compared to B6, during B. burgdorferi infection. Using bone marrow-derived macrophages, we found that TRAF6, a known target of miR-146a involved in NF-κB activation, was dysregulated in resting and B. burgdorferi-stimulated B6 miR-146a-/- macrophages, and corresponded to elevated IL-1β, IL-6 and CXCL1 production. This dysregulated protein production was also observed in macrophages treated with IL-10 prior to B. burgdorferi stimulation. Peritoneal macrophages from B6 miR-146a-/- mice also showed enhanced phagocytosis of B. burgdorferi. Together, these data show that miR-146a-mediated regulation of TRAF6 and NF-κB, and downstream targets such as IL-1β, IL-6 and CXCL1, are critical for modulation of Lyme arthritis during chronic infection with B. burgdorferi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert B. Lochhead
- Division of Microbiology and Immunology, Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Ying Ma
- Division of Microbiology and Immunology, Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - James F. Zachary
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - David Baltimore
- Department of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, United States of America
| | - Jimmy L. Zhao
- Department of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, United States of America
| | - John H. Weis
- Division of Microbiology and Immunology, Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Ryan M. O'Connell
- Division of Microbiology and Immunology, Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Janis J. Weis
- Division of Microbiology and Immunology, Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Oosting M, Buffen K, van der Meer JWM, Netea MG, Joosten LAB. Innate immunity networks during infection with Borrelia burgdorferi. Crit Rev Microbiol 2014; 42:233-44. [PMID: 24963691 DOI: 10.3109/1040841x.2014.929563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The recognition of Borrelia species represents a complex process in which multiple components of the immune system are involved. In this review, we summarize the interplay between the host innate system and Borrelia spp., from the recognition by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) to the induction of a complex network of proinflammatory mediators. Several PRR families are crucial for recognition of Borrelia spp., including Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and Nucleotide Oligomerization Domain (NOD)-like receptors (NLRs). TLR-2 is crucial for the recognition of outer surface protein (Osp)A from Borrelia spp. and together with TLR8 mediates phagocytosis of the microorganism and production of type I interferons. Intracellular receptors such as TLR7, TLR8 and TLR9 on the one hand and the NLR receptor NOD2 on the other hand, represent the second major recognition system of Borrelia. PRR-dependent signals induce the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1 and T-helper-derived cytokines, which are thought to mediate the inflammation during Lyme disease. Understanding the regulation of host defense mechanisms against Borrelia has the potential to lead to the discovery of novel immunotherapeutic targets to improve the therapy against Lyme disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marije Oosting
- a Department of Internal Medicine , and.,b Nijmegen Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity (N4i), Radboud University Medical Centre , Nijmegen , The Netherlands
| | - Kathrin Buffen
- a Department of Internal Medicine , and.,b Nijmegen Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity (N4i), Radboud University Medical Centre , Nijmegen , The Netherlands
| | - Jos W M van der Meer
- a Department of Internal Medicine , and.,b Nijmegen Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity (N4i), Radboud University Medical Centre , Nijmegen , The Netherlands
| | - Mihai G Netea
- a Department of Internal Medicine , and.,b Nijmegen Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity (N4i), Radboud University Medical Centre , Nijmegen , The Netherlands
| | - Leo A B Joosten
- a Department of Internal Medicine , and.,b Nijmegen Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity (N4i), Radboud University Medical Centre , Nijmegen , The Netherlands
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Belperron AA, Liu N, Booth CJ, Bockenstedt LK. Dual role for Fcγ receptors in host defense and disease in Borrelia burgdorferi-infected mice. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2014; 4:75. [PMID: 24967215 PMCID: PMC4052197 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2014.00075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2014] [Accepted: 05/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Arthritis in mice infected with the Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi, results from the influx of innate immune cells responding to the pathogen in the joint and is influenced in part by mouse genetics. Production of inflammatory cytokines by innate immune cells in vitro is largely mediated by Toll-like receptor (TLR) interaction with Borrelia lipoproteins, yet surprisingly mice deficient in TLR2 or the TLR signaling molecule MyD88 still develop arthritis comparable to that seen in wild type mice after B. burgdorferi infection. These findings suggest that other, MyD88-independent inflammatory pathways can contribute to arthritis expression. Clearance of B. burgdorferi is dependent on the production of specific antibody and phagocytosis of the organism. As Fc receptors (FcγR) are important for IgG-mediated clearance of immune complexes and opsonized particles by phagocytes, we examined the role that FcγR play in host defense and disease in B. burgdorferi-infected mice. B. burgdorferi-infected mice deficient in the Fc receptor common gamma chain (FcεRγ−/− mice) harbored ~10 fold more spirochetes than similarly infected wild type mice, and this was associated with a transient increase in arthritis severity. While the elevated pathogen burdens seen in B. burgdorferi-infected MyD88−/− mice were not affected by concomitant deficiency in FcγR, arthritis was reduced in FcεRγ−/−MyD88−/− mice in comparison to wild type or single knockout mice. Gene expression analysis from infected joints demonstrated that absence of both MyD88 and FcγR lowers mRNA levels of proteins involved in inflammation, including Cxcl1 (KC), Xcr1 (Gpr5), IL-1beta, and C reactive protein. Taken together, our results demonstrate a role for FcγR-mediated immunity in limiting pathogen burden and arthritis in mice during the acute phase of B. burgdorferi infection, and further suggest that this pathway contributes to the arthritis that develops in B. burgdorferi-infected MyD88−/− mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexia A Belperron
- Section of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Nengyin Liu
- Section of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Carmen J Booth
- Section of Comparative Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Linda K Bockenstedt
- Section of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine New Haven, CT, USA
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Cervantes JL, Hawley KL, Benjamin SJ, Weinerman B, Luu SM, Salazar JC. Phagosomal TLR signaling upon Borrelia burgdorferi infection. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2014; 4:55. [PMID: 24904837 PMCID: PMC4033037 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2014.00055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2014] [Accepted: 04/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Internalization and degradation of live Bb within phagosomal compartments of monocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs), allows for the release of lipoproteins, nucleic acids and other microbial products, triggering a broad and robust inflammatory response. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are key players in the recognition of spirochetal ligands from whole viable organisms (i.e., vita-PAMPs). Herein we will review the role of endosomal TLRs in the response to the Lyme disease spirochete.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge L Cervantes
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Connecticut Health Center Farmington, CT, USA ; Division of Infectious Diseases, Connecticut Children's Medical Center Hartford, CT, USA
| | - Kelly L Hawley
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Connecticut Health Center Farmington, CT, USA ; Division of Infectious Diseases, Connecticut Children's Medical Center Hartford, CT, USA
| | - Sarah J Benjamin
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Connecticut Health Center Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Bennett Weinerman
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Connecticut Health Center Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Stephanie M Luu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Connecticut Health Center Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Juan C Salazar
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Connecticut Health Center Farmington, CT, USA ; Division of Infectious Diseases, Connecticut Children's Medical Center Hartford, CT, USA ; Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center Farmington, CT, USA
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Chung Y, Zhang N, Wooten RM. Borrelia burgdorferi elicited-IL-10 suppresses the production of inflammatory mediators, phagocytosis, and expression of co-stimulatory receptors by murine macrophages and/or dendritic cells. PLoS One 2013; 8:e84980. [PMID: 24367705 PMCID: PMC3868605 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0084980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2013] [Accepted: 11/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Borrelia burgdorferi (Bb) is a tick-borne spirochete that is the causative agent for Lyme disease. Our previous studies indicate that virulent Bb can potently enhance IL-10 production by macrophages (MØs) and that blocking IL-10 production significantly enhances bacterial clearance. We hypothesize that skin-associated APC types, such as MØs and dendritic cells (DCs) are potent producers of IL-10 in response to Bb, which may act in autocrine fashion to suppress APC responses critical for efficient Bb clearance. Our goal is to delineate which APC immune functions are dysregulated by Bb-elicited IL-10 using a murine model of Lyme disease. Our in vitro studies indicated that both APCs rapidly produce IL-10 upon exposure to Bb, that these levels inversely correlate with the production of many Lyme-relevant proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines, and that APCs derived from IL-10(-/-) mice produced greater amounts of these proinflammatory mediators than wild-type APCs. Phagocytosis assays determined that Bb-elicited IL-10 levels can diminish Bb uptake and trafficking by MØs, suppresses ROS production, but does not affect NO production; Bb-elicited IL-10 had little effect on phagocytosis, ROS, and NO production by DCs. In general, Bb exposure caused little-to-no upregulation of several critical surface co-stimulatory markers by MØs and DCs, however eliminating Bb-elicited IL-10 allowed a significant upregulation in many of these co-stimulatory receptors. These data indicate that IL-10 elicited from Bb-stimulated MØs and DCs results in decreased production of proinflammatory mediators and co-stimulatory molecules, and suppress phagocytosis-associated events that are important for mediating both innate and adaptive immune responses by APCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yutein Chung
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Toledo College of Medicine, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Nan Zhang
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Toledo College of Medicine, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
| | - R. Mark Wooten
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Toledo College of Medicine, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Hawley KL, Martín-Ruiz I, Iglesias-Pedraz JM, Berwin B, Anguita J. CD14 targets complement receptor 3 to lipid rafts during phagocytosis of Borrelia burgdorferi. Int J Biol Sci 2013; 9:803-10. [PMID: 23983613 PMCID: PMC3753444 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.7136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2013] [Accepted: 08/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Phagocytosis of Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease, is mediated partly by the interaction of the spirochete with Complement Receptor (CR) 3. CR3 requires the GPI-anchored protein, CD14, in order to efficiently internalize CR3-B. burgdorferi complexes. GPI-anchored proteins reside in cholesterol-rich membrane microdomains, and through its interaction with partner proteins, help initiate signaling cascades. Here, we investigated the role of CD14 on the internalization of B. burgdorferi mediated by CR3. We show that CR3 partly colocalizes with CD14 in lipid rafts. The use of the cholesterol-sequestering compound methyl-β-cyclodextran completely prevents the internalization of the spirochete in CHO cells that co-express CD14 and CR3, while no effect was observed in CD11b-deficient macrophages. These results show that lipid rafts are required for CR3-dependent, but not independent, phagocytosis of B. burgdorferi. Our results also suggest that CD14 interacts with the C-lectin domain of CR3, favoring the formation of multi-complexes that allow their internalization, and the use of β-glucan, a known ligand for the C-lectin domain of CR3, can compensate for the lack of CD14 in CHO cells that express CR3. These results provide evidence to understand the mechanisms that govern the interaction between CR3 and CD14 during the phagocytosis of B. burgdorferi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly L Hawley
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Massachusetts at Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
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42
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Understanding barriers to Borrelia burgdorferi dissemination during infection using massively parallel sequencing. Infect Immun 2013; 81:2347-57. [PMID: 23608706 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00266-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Borrelia burgdorferi is an invasive spirochete that can cause acute and chronic infections in the skin, heart, joints, and central nervous system of infected mammalian hosts. Little is understood about where the bacteria encounter the strongest barriers to infection and how different components of the host immune system influence the population as the infection progresses. To identify population bottlenecks in a murine host, we utilized Tn-seq to monitor the composition of mixed populations of B. burgdorferi during infection. Both wild-type mice and mice lacking the Toll-like receptor adapter molecule MyD88 were infected with a pool of infectious B. burgdorferi transposon mutants with insertions in the same gene. At multiple time points postinfection, bacteria were isolated from the mice and the compositions of the B. burgdorferi populations at the injection site and in distal tissues determined. We identified a population bottleneck at the site of infection that significantly altered the composition of the population. The magnitude of this bottleneck was reduced in MyD88(-/-) mice, indicating a role for innate immunity in limiting early establishment of B. burgdorferi infection. There is not a significant bottleneck during the colonization of distal tissues, suggesting that founder effects are limited and there is not a strict limitation on the number of organisms able to initiate populations at distal sites. These findings further our understanding of the interactions between B. burgdorferi and its murine host in the establishment of infection and dissemination of the organism.
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von Bernuth H, Picard C, Puel A, Casanova JL. Experimental and natural infections in MyD88- and IRAK-4-deficient mice and humans. Eur J Immunol 2013; 42:3126-35. [PMID: 23255009 PMCID: PMC3752658 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201242683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2012] [Revised: 08/11/2012] [Accepted: 10/25/2012] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Most Toll-like-receptors (TLRs) and interleukin-1 receptors (IL-1Rs) signal via myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MyD88) and interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase 4 (IRAK-4). The combined roles of these two receptor families in the course of experimental infections have been assessed in MyD88- and IRAK-4-deficient mice for almost fifteen years. These animals have been shown to be susceptible to 46 pathogens: 27 bacteria, eight viruses, seven parasites, and four fungi. Humans with inborn MyD88 or IRAK-4 deficiency were first identified in 2003. They suffer from naturally occurring life-threatening infections caused by a small number of bacterial species, although the incidence and severity of these infections decrease with age. Mouse TLR- and IL-1R-dependent immunity mediated by MyD88 and IRAK-4 seems to be vital to combat a wide array of experimentally administered pathogens at most ages. By contrast, human TLR- and IL-1R-dependent immunity mediated by MyD88 and IRAK-4 seems to be effective in the natural setting against only a few bacteria and is most important in infancy and early childhood. The roles of TLRs and IL-1Rs in protective immunity deduced from studies in mutant mice subjected to experimental infections should therefore be reconsidered in the light of findings for natural infections in humans carrying mutations as discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Horst von Bernuth
- Pediatric Pneumology and Immunology, Charité Hospital - Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany.
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Yang X, Qin J, Promnares K, Kariu T, Anderson JF, Pal U. Novel microbial virulence factor triggers murine lyme arthritis. J Infect Dis 2013; 207:907-18. [PMID: 23303811 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jis930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Borrelia burgdorferi bba57 is a conserved gene encoding a potential lipoprotein of unknown function. Here we show that bba57 is up-regulated in vivo and is required for early murine infection and potential spirochete transmission process. Although BBA57 is dispensable for late murine infection, the mutants were unable to induce disease. We show that BBA57, an outer membrane and surface-exposed antigen, is a major trigger of murine Lyme arthritis; even in cases of larger challenge inocula, which allow their persistence in joints at a level similar to wild-type spirochetes, bba57 mutants are unable to induce joint inflammation. We further showed that BBA57 deficiency reduces the expression of selected "neutrophil-recruiting" chemokines and associated receptors, causing significant impairment of neutrophil chemotaxis. New approaches to combat Lyme disease may include strategies to interfere with BBA57, a novel virulence factor and a trigger of murine Lyme arthritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiuli Yang
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maryland, College Park and Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, College Park, MD, USA
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TRIF mediates Toll-like receptor 2-dependent inflammatory responses to Borrelia burgdorferi. Infect Immun 2012; 81:402-10. [PMID: 23166161 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00890-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
TRIF is an adaptor molecule important in transducing signals from intracellularly signaling Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) and TLR4. Recently, TLR2 was found to signal from intracellular compartments. Using a synthetic ligand for TLR2/1 heterodimers, as well as Borrelia burgdorferi, which is a strong activator of TLR2/1, we found that TLR2 signaling can utilize TRIF. Unlike TRIF signaling by other TLRs, TLR2-mediated TRIF signaling is dependent on the presence of another adaptor molecule, MyD88. However, unlike MyD88 deficiency, TRIF deficiency does not result in diminished control of infection with B. burgdorferi in a murine model of disease. This appears to be due to the effects of MyD88 on phagocytosis via scavenger receptors, such as MARCO, which are not affected by the loss of TRIF. In mice, TRIF deficiency did have an effect on the production of inflammatory cytokines, suggesting that regulation of inflammatory cytokines and control of bacterial growth may be uncoupled, in part through transduction of TLR2 signaling through TRIF.
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Oosting M, Buffen K, Malireddi SRK, Sturm P, Verschueren I, Koenders MI, van de Veerdonk FL, van der Meer JWM, Netea MG, Kanneganti TD, Joosten LAB. Murine Borrelia arthritis is highly dependent on ASC and caspase-1, but independent of NLRP3. Arthritis Res Ther 2012; 14:R247. [PMID: 23148704 PMCID: PMC3674595 DOI: 10.1186/ar4090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2012] [Accepted: 11/08/2012] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction The protein platform called the NOD-like-receptor -family member (NLRP)-3 inflammasome needs to be activated to process intracellular caspase-1. Active caspase-1 is able to cleave pro-Interleukin (IL)-1β, resulting in bioactive IL-1β. IL-1β is a potent proinflammatory cytokine, and thought to play a key role in the pathogenesis of Lyme arthritis, a common manifestation of Borrelia burgdorferi infection. The precise pathways through which B. burgdorferi recognition leads to inflammasome activation and processing of IL-1β in Lyme arthritis has not been elucidated. In the present study, we investigated the contribution of several pattern recognition receptors and inflammasome components in a novel murine model of Lyme arthritis. Methods Lyme arthritis was elicited by live B. burgdorferi, injected intra-articularly in knee joints of mice. To identify the relevant pathway components, the model was applied to wild-type, NLRP3-/-, ASC-/-, caspase-1-/-, NOD1-/-, NOD2-/-, and RICK-/- mice. As a control, TLR2-/-, Myd88-/- and IL-1R-/- mice were used. Peritoneal macrophages and bone marrow-derived macrophages were used for in vitro cytokine production and inflammasome activation studies. Joint inflammation was analyzed in synovial specimens and whole knee joints. Mann-Whitney U tests were used to detect statistical differences. Results We demonstrate that ASC/caspase-1-driven IL-1β is crucial for induction of B. burgdorferi-induced murine Lyme arthritis. In addition, we show that B. burgdorferi-induced murine Lyme arthritis is less dependent on NOD1/NOD2/RICK pathways while the TLR2-MyD88 pathway is crucial. Conclusions Murine Lyme arthritis is strongly dependent on IL-1 production, and B. burgdorferi induces inflammasome-mediated caspase-1 activation. Next to that, murine Lyme arthritis is ASC- and caspase-1-dependent, but NLRP3, NOD1, NOD2, and RICK independent. Also, caspase-1 activation by B. burgdorferi is dependent on TLR2 and MyD88. Based on present results indicating that IL-1 is one of the major mediators in Lyme arthritis, there is a rationale to propose that neutralizing IL-1 activity may also have beneficial effects in chronic Lyme arthritis.
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Gautam A, Dixit S, Embers M, Gautam R, Philipp MT, Singh SR, Morici L, Dennis VA. Different patterns of expression and of IL-10 modulation of inflammatory mediators from macrophages of Lyme disease-resistant and -susceptible mice. PLoS One 2012; 7:e43860. [PMID: 23024745 PMCID: PMC3443101 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0043860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2011] [Accepted: 07/26/2012] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
C57BL/6J (C57) mice develop mild arthritis (Lyme disease-resistant) whereas C3H/HeN (C3H) mice develop severe arthritis (Lyme disease-susceptible) after infection with the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi. We hypothesized that susceptibility and resistance to Lyme disease, as modeled in mice, is associated with early induction and regulation of inflammatory mediators by innate immune cells after their exposure to live B. burgdorferi spirochetes. Here, we employed multiplex ELISA and qRT-PCR to investigate quantitative differences in the levels of cytokines and chemokines produced by bone marrow-derived macrophages from C57 and C3H mice after these cells were exposed ex vivo to live spirochetes or spirochetal lipoprotein. Upon stimulation, the production of both cytokines and chemokines was up-regulated in macrophages from both mouse strains. Interestingly, however, our results uncovered two distinct patterns of spirochete- and lipoprotein-inducible inflammatory mediators displayed by mouse macrophages, such that the magnitude of the chemokine up-regulation was larger in C57 cells than it was in C3H cells, for most chemokines. Conversely, cytokine up-regulation was more intense in C3H cells. Gene transcript analyses showed that the displayed patterns of inflammatory mediators were associated with a TLR2/TLR1 transcript imbalance: C3H macrophages expressed higher TLR2 transcript levels as compared to those expressed by C57 macrophages. Exogenous IL-10 dampened production of inflammatory mediators, especially those elicited by lipoprotein stimulation. Neutralization of endogenously produced IL-10 increased production of inflammatory mediators, notably by macrophages of C57 mice, which also displayed more IL-10 than C3H macrophages. The distinct patterns of pro-inflammatory mediator production, along with TLR2/TLR1 expression, and regulation in macrophages from Lyme disease-resistant and -susceptible mice suggests itself as a blueprint to further investigate differential pathogenesis of Lyme disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aarti Gautam
- Division of Bacteriology and Parasitology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, Covington, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Saurabh Dixit
- Division of Bacteriology and Parasitology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, Covington, Louisiana, United States of America
- Center for Nanobiotechnology Research, Alabama State University, Montgomery, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Monica Embers
- Division of Bacteriology and Parasitology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, Covington, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Rajeev Gautam
- Division of Microbiology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, Covington, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Mario T. Philipp
- Division of Bacteriology and Parasitology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, Covington, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Shree R. Singh
- Center for Nanobiotechnology Research, Alabama State University, Montgomery, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Lisa Morici
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Vida A. Dennis
- Division of Bacteriology and Parasitology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, Covington, Louisiana, United States of America
- Center for Nanobiotechnology Research, Alabama State University, Montgomery, Alabama, United States of America
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Lochhead RB, Sonderegger FL, Ma Y, Brewster JE, Cornwall D, Maylor-Hagen H, Miller JC, Zachary JF, Weis JH, Weis JJ. Endothelial cells and fibroblasts amplify the arthritogenic type I IFN response in murine Lyme disease and are major sources of chemokines in Borrelia burgdorferi-infected joint tissue. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 189:2488-501. [PMID: 22851707 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1201095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Localized elevation in type I IFN has been uniquely linked to the severe Lyme arthritis that develops in C3H mice infected with the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi. In this study, the dynamic interactions that result in generation of these responses were further examined in C3H mice carrying the type I IFN receptor gene ablation, which effectively blocks all autocrine/paracrine signaling crucial to induction of downstream effectors. Reciprocal radiation chimeras between C3H and IFNAR1⁻/⁻ mice implicated both radiation-sensitive and radiation-resistant cells of the joint tissue in the proarthritic induction of type I IFN. Ex vivo analysis of cells from the naive joint revealed CD45⁺ cells residing in the tissue to be uniquely capable of initiating the type I IFN response to B. burgdorferi. Type I IFN responses were analyzed in real time by lineage sorting of cells from infected joint tissue. This demonstrated that myeloid cells, endothelial cells, and fibroblasts were responsible for propagating the robust IFN response, which peaked at day 7 postinfection and rapidly resolved. Endothelial cells and fibroblasts were the dominant sources of IFN signature transcripts in the joint tissue. Fibroblasts were also the major early source of chemokines associated with polymorphonuclear leukocyte and monocyte/macrophage infiltration, thus providing a focal point for arthritis development. These findings suggest joint-localized interactions among related and unrelated stromal, endothelial, and myeloid cell lineages that may be broadly applicable to understanding the pathogeneses of diseases associated with type I IFN signature, including systemic lupus erythematosus and some rheumatoid arthritides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert B Lochhead
- Division of Microbiology and Immunology, Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
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Bockenstedt LK, Gonzalez DG, Haberman AM, Belperron AA. Spirochete antigens persist near cartilage after murine Lyme borreliosis therapy. J Clin Invest 2012; 122:2652-60. [PMID: 22728937 DOI: 10.1172/jci58813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2011] [Accepted: 04/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
An enigmatic feature of Lyme disease is the slow resolution of musculoskeletal symptoms that can continue after treatment, with some patients developing an inflammatory arthritis that becomes refractory to antibiotic therapy. Using intravital microscopy and the mouse model of Lyme borreliosis, we observed that Borrelia burgdorferi antigens, but not infectious spirochetes, can remain adjacent to cartilage for extended periods after antibiotic treatment. B. burgdorferi was not recovered by culture or xenodiagnosis with ticks after antibiotic treatment of WT mice and all but one of the immunodeficient mice with heightened pathogen burden due to impaired TLR responsiveness. Amorphous GFP+ deposits were visualized by intravital microscopy in the entheses of antibiotic-treated mice infected with GFP-expressing spirochetes and on the ear cartilage surface in sites where immunofluorescence staining detected spirochete antigens. Naive mice were not infected by tissue transplants from antibiotic-treated mice even though transplants contained spirochete DNA. Tissue homogenates from antibiotic-treated mice induced IgG reactive with B. burgdorferi antigens after immunization of naive mice and stimulated TNF-α production from macrophages in vitro. This is the first direct demonstration that inflammatory B. burgdorferi components can persist near cartilaginous tissue after treatment for Lyme disease. We propose that these deposits could contribute to the development of antibiotic-refractory Lyme arthritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda K Bockenstedt
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
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Hawley K, Navasa N, Olson CM, Bates TC, Garg R, Hedrick MN, Conze D, Rincón M, Anguita J. Macrophage p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase activity regulates invariant natural killer T-cell responses during Borrelia burgdorferi infection. J Infect Dis 2012; 206:283-91. [PMID: 22551807 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jis332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The interaction of macrophages with infectious agents leads to the activation of several signaling cascades, including mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases, such as p38. We now demonstrate that p38 MAP kinase-mediated responses are critical components to the immune response to Borrelia burgdorferi. The pharmacological and genetic inhibition of p38 MAP kinase activity during infection with the spirochete results in increased carditis. In transgenic mice that express a dominant negative form of p38 MAP kinase specifically in macrophages, production of the invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cell-attracting chemokine MCP-1 and of the antigen-presenting molecule CD1d are significantly reduced. The expression of the transgene therefore results in the deficient infiltration of iNKT cells, their decreased activation, and a diminished production of interferon γ (IFN-γ), leading to increased bacterial burdens and inflammation. These results show that p38 MAP kinase provides critical checkpoints for the protective immune response to the spirochete during infection of the heart.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly Hawley
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Massachusetts-Amherst, MA 01003, USA
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