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Zhong YX, Liao JC, Liu X, Tian H, Deng LR, Long L. Low intensity focused ultrasound: a new prospect for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Ann Med 2023; 55:2251145. [PMID: 37634059 PMCID: PMC10461511 DOI: 10.1080/07853890.2023.2251145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Revised: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: As a chronic and progressive neurodegenerative disease, Parkinson's disease (PD) still lacks effective and safe targeted drug therapy. Low-intensity focused ultrasound (LIFU), a new method to stimulate the brain and open the blood-brain barrier (BBB), has been widely concerned by PD researchers due to its non-invasive characteristics.Methods: PubMed was searched for the past 10 years using the terms 'focused ultrasound', 'transcranial ultrasound', 'pulse ultrasound', and 'Parkinson's disease'. Relevant citations were selected from the authors' references. After excluding articles describing high-intensity focused ultrasound or non-Parkinson's disease applications, we found more than 100 full-text analyses for pooled analysis.Results: Current preclinical studies have shown that LIFU could improve PD motor symptoms by regulating microglia activation, increasing neurotrophic factors, reducing oxidative stress, and promoting nerve repair and regeneration, while LIFU combined with microbubbles (MBs) can promote drugs to cross the BBB, which may become a new direction of PD treatment. Therefore, finding an efficient drug carrier system is the top priority of applying LIFU with MBs to deliver drugs.Conclusions: This article aims to review neuro-modulatory effect of LIFU and the possible biophysical mechanism in the treatment of PD, summarize the latest progress in delivering vehicles with MBs, and discuss its advantages and limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun-Xiao Zhong
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jin-Chi Liao
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xv Liu
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hao Tian
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Li-Ren Deng
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ling Long
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
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Muzio L, Ghirelli A, Agosta F, Martino G. Novel therapeutic approaches for motor neuron disease. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2023; 196:523-537. [PMID: 37620088 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-323-98817-9.00027-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease that leads to the neurodegeneration and death of upper and lower motor neurons (MNs). Although MNs are the main cells involved in the process of neurodegeneration, a growing body of evidence points toward other cell types as concurrent to disease initiation and propagation. Given the current absence of effective therapies, the quest for other therapeutic targets remains open and still challenges the scientific community. Both neuronal and extra-neuronal mechanisms of cellular stress and damage have been studied and have posed the basis for the development of novel therapies that have been investigated on both animal models and humans. In this chapter, a thorough review of the main mechanisms of cellular damage and the respective therapeutic attempts targeting them is reported. The main areas covered include neuroinflammation, protein aggregation, RNA metabolism, and oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Muzio
- San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Division of Neuroscience, InsPE, Milan, Italy
| | - Alma Ghirelli
- San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Division of Neuroscience, InsPE, Milan, Italy; Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy
| | - Federica Agosta
- San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Division of Neuroscience, InsPE, Milan, Italy; Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy
| | - Gianvito Martino
- San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Division of Neuroscience, InsPE, Milan, Italy; Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy
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3
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Madeshiya AK, Pillai A. Innate lymphoid cells in depression: Current status and perspectives. Biomark Neuropsychiatry 2022; 7. [PMID: 37123464 PMCID: PMC10136288 DOI: 10.1016/j.bionps.2022.100055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent discovery of innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) has provided new insights into our understanding of the pathogenesis of many disease conditions with immune dysregulation. Type 1 innate lymphoid cells (ILC1s) induce type I immunity and are characterized by the expression of signature cytokine IFN-γ and the master transcription factor T-bet; ILC2s stimulate type II immune responses and are defined by the expression of signature cytokines IL-5 and IL-13, and transcription factors ROR-α and GATA3; ILC3s requires the transcription factor RORγt and produce IL-22 and IL-17. ILCs are largely tissue-resident and are enriched at barrier surfaces of the mammalian body. Increasing evidence shows that inflammation is involved in the pathogenesis of depression. Although few studies have directly investigated the role of ILCs in depression, several studies have examined the levels of cytokines produced by ILCs in depressed subjects. This review summarizes the potential roles of ILCs in depression. A better understanding of the biology of ILCs may lead to the development of new therapeutic strategies for the management of depression.
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Jeong JY, Wi R, Chung YC, Jin BK. Interleukin-13 Propagates Prothrombin Kringle-2-Induced Neurotoxicity in Hippocampi In Vivo via Oxidative Stress. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22073486. [PMID: 33801783 PMCID: PMC8036367 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22073486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study investigated expression of endogenous interleukin-13 (IL-13) and its possible function in the hippocampus of prothrombin kringle-2 (pKr-2)-lesioned rats. Here we report that intrahippocampal injection of pKr-2 revealed a significant loss of NeuN-immunopositive (NeuN+) and Nissl+ cells in the hippocampus at 7 days after pKr-2. In parallel, pKr-2 increased IL-13 levels, which reached a peak at 3 days post pKr-2 and sustained up to 7 days post pKr-2. IL-13 immunoreactivity was seen exclusively in activated microglia/macrophages and neutrophils, but not in neurons or astrocytes. In experiments designed to explore the involvement of IL-13 in neurodegeneration, IL-13 neutralizing antibody (IL-13Nab) significantly increased survival of NeuN+ and Nissl+ cells. Accompanying neuroprotection, immunohistochemical analysis indicated that IL-13Nab inhibited pKr-2-induced expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and myeloperoxidase within activated microglia/macrophages and neutrophils, possibly resulting in attenuation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and oxidative damage of DNA and protein. The current findings suggest that the endogenous IL-13 expressed in pKr-2 activated microglia/macrophages and neutrophils might be harmful to hippocampal neurons via oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae Yeong Jeong
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Korea;
| | - Rayul Wi
- Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Korea;
| | - Young Cheul Chung
- Department of Predictive Toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon 34114, Korea
- Correspondence: (Y.C.C.); (B.K.J.)
| | - Byung Kwan Jin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Korea;
- Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Korea;
- Correspondence: (Y.C.C.); (B.K.J.)
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5
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An Early Microglial Response Is Needed To Efficiently Control Herpes Simplex Virus Encephalitis. J Virol 2020; 94:JVI.01428-20. [PMID: 32938766 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01428-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of a signaling pathway through macrophage colony-stimulating factor (MCSF) and its receptor, macrophage colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R), during experimental herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) encephalitis (HSE) was studied by two different approaches. First, we evaluated the effect of stimulation of the MCSF/CSF1R axis before infection. Exogenous MCSF (40 μg/kg of body weight intraperitoneally [i.p.]) was administered once daily to BALB/c mice on days 4 and 2 before intranasal infection with 2,500 PFU of HSV-1. MCSF treatment significantly increased mouse survival compared to saline (50% versus 10%; P = 0.0169). On day 6 postinfection (p.i.), brain viral titers were significantly decreased, whereas beta interferon (IFN-β) was significantly increased in mice treated with MCSF compared to mice treated with saline. The number of CD68+ (a phagocytosis marker) microglial cells was significantly increased in MCSF-treated mice compared to the saline-treated group. Secondly, we conditionally depleted CSF1R on microglial cells of CSF1R-loxP-CX3CR1-cre/ERT2 mice (in a C57BL/6 background) through induction with tamoxifen. The mice were then infected intranasally with 600,000 PFU of HSV-1. The survival rate of mice depleted of CSF1R (knockout [KO] mice) was significantly lower than that of wild-type (WT) mice (0% versus 67%). Brain viral titers and cytokine/chemokine levels were significantly higher in KO than in WT animals on day 6 p.i. Furthermore, increased infiltration of monocytes into the brains of WT mice was seen on day 6 p.i., but not in KO mice. Our results suggest that microglial cells are essential to control HSE at early stages of the disease and that the MCSF/CSF1R axis could be a therapeutic target to regulate their response to infection.IMPORTANCE Microglia appear to be one of the principal regulators of neuroinflammation in the central nervous system (CNS). An increasing number of studies have demonstrated that the activation of microglia could result in either beneficial or detrimental effects in different CNS disorders. Hence, the role of microglia during herpes simplex virus encephalitis (HSE) has not been fully characterized. Using experimental mouse models, we showed that an early activation of the MCSF/CSF1R axis improved the outcome of the disease, possibly by inducing a proliferation of microglia. In contrast, depletion of microglia before HSV-1 infection worsened the prognosis of HSE. Thus, an early microglial response followed by sustained infiltration of monocytes and T cells into the brain seem to be key components for a better clinical outcome. These data suggest that microglia could be a potential target for immunomodulatory strategies combined with antiviral therapy to better control the outcome of this devastating disease.
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Chen G, Gao C, Yan Y, Wang T, Luo C, Zhang M, Chen X, Tao L. Inhibiting ER Stress Weakens Neuronal Pyroptosis in a Mouse Acute Hemorrhagic Stroke Model. Mol Neurobiol 2020; 57:5324-5335. [PMID: 32880859 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-020-02097-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a form of stroke, characterized by high morbidity and mortality and currently lacks specific therapy. ICH leads to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, which can induce neurological impairment through crosstalk with programmed cell death (PCD). Pyroptosis, a newly discovered form of PCD, has received attention because of its close relationship with some certain diseases, such as traumatic brain injury and ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke. However, the relationship between ER stress and pyroptosis in ICH remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the role of ER stress in evoking neuronal pyroptosis and related mechanisms in a mouse ICH model. We used tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA) to inhibit ER stress and observed that TUDCA reduces neuronal pyroptosis and has a neuroprotective role. We explored the potential mechanisms underlying the regulation of neuronal pyroptosis by ER stress through testing the expression of interleukin-13 (IL-13). We found that ER stress inhibition alleviates neuronal pyroptosis through decreasing the expression of IL-13 after ICH. In summary, this study revealed that IL-13 is involved in ER stress-induced neuronal pyroptosis after ICH, pointing to IL-13 as a novel therapeutic target for ICH treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guang Chen
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical School of Soochow University, 178 East Ganjiang Road, Suzhou, 215213, China
| | - Cheng Gao
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical School of Soochow University, 178 East Ganjiang Road, Suzhou, 215213, China
| | - Ya'nan Yan
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical School of Soochow University, 178 East Ganjiang Road, Suzhou, 215213, China
| | - Tao Wang
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical School of Soochow University, 178 East Ganjiang Road, Suzhou, 215213, China
| | - Chengliang Luo
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical School of Soochow University, 178 East Ganjiang Road, Suzhou, 215213, China
| | - Mingyang Zhang
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical School of Soochow University, 178 East Ganjiang Road, Suzhou, 215213, China
| | - Xiping Chen
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical School of Soochow University, 178 East Ganjiang Road, Suzhou, 215213, China.
| | - Luyang Tao
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical School of Soochow University, 178 East Ganjiang Road, Suzhou, 215213, China.
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7
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Zelco A, Rocha-Ferreira E, Nazmi A, Ardalan M, Chumak T, Nilsson G, Hagberg H, Mallard C, Wang X. Type 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells Accumulate in the Brain After Hypoxia-Ischemia but Do Not Contribute to the Development of Preterm Brain Injury. Front Cell Neurosci 2020; 14:249. [PMID: 32848629 PMCID: PMC7426829 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.00249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The immune system of human and mouse neonates is relatively immature. However, innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), commonly divided into the subsets ILC1, ILC2, and ILC3, are already present in the placenta and other fetal compartments and exhibit higher activity than what is seen in adulthood. Recent reports have suggested the potential role of ILCs, especially ILC2s, in spontaneous preterm labor, which is associated with brain damage and subsequent long-term neurodevelopmental deficits. Therefore, we hypothesized that ILCs, and especially ILC2s, play a role in preterm brain injury. Methods C57Bl/6J mice at postnatal day 6 were subjected to hypoxia-ischemia (HI) insult induced by left carotid artery ligation and subsequent exposure to 10% oxygen in nitrogen. The presence of ILCs and ILC2s in the brain was examined at different time points after HI. The contribution of ILC2s to HI-induced preterm brain damage was explored using a conditionally targeted ILC2-deficient mouse strain (Rorα fl/fl IL7r Cre ), and gray and white-matter injury were evaluated at 7 days post-HI. The inflammatory response in the injured brain was assessed using immunoassays and immunochemistry staining. Results Significant increases in ILCs and ILC2s were observed at 24 h, 3 days, and 7 days post-HI in the injured brain hemisphere compared with the uninjured hemisphere in wild-type mice. ILC2s in the brain were predominantly located in the meninges of the injured ipsilateral hemispheres after HI but not in the brain parenchyma. Overall, we did not observe changes in cytokine/chemokine levels in the brains of Rorα fl/fl IL7r Cre mice compared with wild type animals apart from IL-13. Gray and white-matter tissue loss in the brain was not affected after HI in Rorα fl/fl IL7r Cre mice. Correspondingly, we did not find any differences in reactive microglia and astrocyte numbers in the brain in Rorα fl/fl IL7r Cre mice compared with wild-type mice following HI insult. Conclusion After HI, ILCs and ILC2s accumulate in the injured brain hemisphere. However, ILC2s do not contribute to the development of brain damage in this mouse model of preterm brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aura Zelco
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Eridan Rocha-Ferreira
- Centre of Perinatal Medicine & Health, Institute of Clinical Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Arshed Nazmi
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Maryam Ardalan
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Tetyana Chumak
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Gisela Nilsson
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Henrik Hagberg
- Centre of Perinatal Medicine & Health, Institute of Clinical Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Carina Mallard
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Xiaoyang Wang
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Henan Key Laboratory of Child Brain Injury, Institute of Neuroscience and Third Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
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8
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Two single nucleotide polymorphisms in IL13 and IL13RA1 from individuals with idiopathic Parkinson's disease increase cellular susceptibility to oxidative stress. Brain Behav Immun 2020; 88:920-924. [PMID: 32276028 PMCID: PMC9012133 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Revised: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 04/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The human genes for interleukin 13 (IL-13) and its receptor alpha 1 (IL-13Rα1) are in chromosomal regions associated with Parkinson's disease (PD). The interaction of IL-13 with its receptor increases the susceptibility of mouse dopaminergic neurons to oxidative stress. We identified two rare single SNPs in IL13 and IL13RA1 and measured their cytotoxic effects. rs148077750 is a missense leucine to proline substitution in IL13. It was found in individuals with early onset PD and no other known monogenic forms of the disease and is significantly linked with PD (Fisher's exact test: p-value = 0.01, odds ratio = 14.2). rs145868092 is a leucine to phenylalanine substitution in IL13RA1 affecting a residue critical for IL-13 binding. Both mutations increased the cytotoxic activity of IL-13 on human SH-SY5Y neurons exposed to sublethal doses of hydrogen peroxide, t-butyl hydroperoxide or RLS3, an inducer of ferroptosis. Our data show that both rs148077750 and rs145868092 conferred a gain-of-function that may increase the risk of developing PD.
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Quarta A, Berneman Z, Ponsaerts P. Neuroprotective modulation of microglia effector functions following priming with interleukin 4 and 13: current limitations in understanding their mode-of-action. Brain Behav Immun 2020; 88:856-866. [PMID: 32224056 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Revised: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years the long-standing theory of microglia's properties for dual polarization towards a pro- or anti-inflammatory phenotype has been deeply challenged. Furthermore, the elucidation of microglia ontogenesis exposed intrinsic differences between microglia and peripheral myeloid cells, thereby further underscoring the need to re-evaluate microglia-specific activation behavior, especially within an inflamed central nervous system (CNS) environment. This review critically summarizes recent literature on the in vitro and in vivo response of murine microglia to the immune-modulatory cytokines interleukin 4 (IL4) and interleukin 13 (IL13), i.e. those driving the so-called anti-inflammatory phenotype. Here we highlight several pivotal factors that may influence experimental outcome and/or interpretation of in vitro and in vivo studies evaluating microglia's phenotypical and functional properties upon IL4/IL13 treatment. Finally, the current therapeutic relevance of IL4/IL13-induced microglia activation in both acute and chronic CNS disorders is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Quarta
- Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (Vaxinfectio), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Zwi Berneman
- Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (Vaxinfectio), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Peter Ponsaerts
- Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (Vaxinfectio), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.
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Lee TK, Park Y, Kim B, Lee JC, Shin MC, Ohk TG, Park CW, Cho JH, Park JH, Lee CH, Won MH, Ahn JH. Long-Term Alternating Fasting Increases Interleukin-13 in the Gerbil Hippocampus, But Does Not Protect BBB and Pyramidal Neurons From Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury. Neurochem Res 2020; 45:2352-2363. [PMID: 32671629 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-020-03094-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2020] [Revised: 07/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
It is questionable whether intermittent fasting (IF) protects against brain ischemic injury. This study examined whether IF increased anti-inflammatory cytokines and protected neurons from ischemia-reperfusion injury in the gerbil hippocampus. Gerbils were subjected to 1-day alternating fasting as IF for 1, 2, or 3 months and assigned to sham or 5 min of transient ischemia. We examined the changes in anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4 and IL-13), neurons and IgG by immunohistochemistry or immunofluorescence staining in the cornu ammonis 1 (CA1) region of the hippocampus before and after ischemia. IF increased IL-13 immunoreactivity in the CA1 region before ischemia, but did not affect IL-4 immunoreactivity. After ischemia, IL-13 and 4 immunoreactivities in the CA1 region were significantly lower in IF gerbils than in non-IF gerbils. In the IF gerbils, the CA1 pyramidal neurons were not protected from ischemic injury; in these gerbils, strong IgG immunoreactivity was seen in the CA1 parenchyma, indicating leakage of the BBB. In brief, IF increased IL-13 in the CA1 region, but these neurons were not protected from transient ischemic injury evidenced by IgG immunoreactivity in the CA1 parenchyma. This study indicates that IF increased some anti-inflammatory cytokines but did not afford neuroprotection against ischemic insults via BBB disruption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae-Kyeong Lee
- Department of Biomedical Science and Research Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hallym University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, 24252, Republic of Korea
| | - Yoonsoo Park
- Department of Emergency Medicine, and Institute of Medical Sciences, Kangwon National University Hospital, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Bora Kim
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Chul Lee
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Myoung Cheol Shin
- Department of Emergency Medicine, and Institute of Medical Sciences, Kangwon National University Hospital, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Taek Geun Ohk
- Department of Emergency Medicine, and Institute of Medical Sciences, Kangwon National University Hospital, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Chan Woo Park
- Department of Emergency Medicine, and Institute of Medical Sciences, Kangwon National University Hospital, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Jun Hwi Cho
- Department of Emergency Medicine, and Institute of Medical Sciences, Kangwon National University Hospital, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Joon Ha Park
- Department of Anatomy, College of Oriental Medicine, Dongguk University-Gyeongju, Gyeongju, Gyeongbuk, 38066, Republic of Korea
| | - Choong Hyun Lee
- Department of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Dankook University, Cheonan, Chungnam, 31116, Republic of Korea
| | - Moo-Ho Won
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, 24341, Republic of Korea.
| | - Ji Hyeon Ahn
- Department of Biomedical Science and Research Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hallym University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, 24252, Republic of Korea.
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, 24341, Republic of Korea.
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Miao W, Zhao Y, Huang Y, Chen D, Luo C, Su W, Gao Y. IL-13 Ameliorates Neuroinflammation and Promotes Functional Recovery after Traumatic Brain Injury. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 204:1486-1498. [PMID: 32034062 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1900909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Accepted: 01/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Microglia play essential roles in neuroinflammatory responses after traumatic brain injury (TBI). Our previous studies showed that phenotypes of microglia, as well as infiltrating macrophages, altered at different stages after CNS injury, which was correlated to functional outcomes. IL-13 is an anti-inflammatory cytokine that has been reported to protect against demyelination and spinal cord injury through immunomodulation. The effects of IL-13 in microglia/macrophage-mediated immune responses after TBI remain unknown. In this study, we showed that intranasal administration of IL-13 in male C57BL/6J mice accelerated functional recovery in the controlled cortical impact model of TBI. IL-13 treatment increased the time to fall off in the Rotarod test, reduced the number of foot faults in the foot fault test, and improved the score in the wire hang test up to 28 d after TBI. Consistent with functional improvement, IL-13 reduced neuronal tissue loss and preserved white matter integrity 6 d after TBI. Furthermore, IL-13 ameliorated the elevation of proinflammatory factors and reduced the number of proinflammatory microglia/macrophages 6 d after TBI. Additionally, IL-13 enhanced microglia/macrophage phagocytosis of damaged neurons in the peri-lesion areas. In vitro studies confirmed that IL-13 treatment inhibited the production of proinflammatory cytokines in rat primary microglia in response to LPS or dead neuron stimulation and increased the ability of microglia to engulf fluorophore-labeled latex beads or dead neurons. Collectively, we demonstrated that IL-13 treatment improved neurologic outcomes after TBI through adjusting microglia/macrophage phenotypes and inhibiting inflammatory responses. IL-13 may represent a potential immunotherapy to promote long-term recovery from TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanying Miao
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.,Ministry of Education Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.,Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; and
| | - Yongfang Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.,Ministry of Education Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.,Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; and
| | - Yichen Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.,Ministry of Education Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.,Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; and
| | - Di Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.,Ministry of Education Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.,Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; and
| | - Chen Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.,Ministry of Education Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.,Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; and
| | - Wei Su
- Department of Neurosurgery, School of Clinical Medicine, Beijing Tsinghua Changgung Hospital, Tsinghua University, Beijing 102218, China
| | - Yanqin Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; .,Ministry of Education Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.,Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; and
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Rojas A, Banik A, Chen D, Flood K, Ganesh T, Dingledine R. Novel Microglia Cell Line Expressing the Human EP2 Receptor. ACS Chem Neurosci 2019; 10:4280-4292. [PMID: 31469538 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.9b00311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently, EP2 signaling pathways were shown to regulate the classical activation and death of microglia in rat primary microglial culture. The study of microglial cells has been challenging because they are time-consuming to isolate in culture, they are demanding in their growth requirements, and they have a limited lifespan. To circumvent these difficulties, we created a murine BV2 microglial cell line stably expressing human EP2 receptors (BV2-hEP2) and further explored EP2 modulation of microglial functions. The BV2-hEP2 cells displayed cAMP elevation when exposed to the selective EP2 receptor agonists (ONO-AE1-259-1 and CP544326), and this response was competitively inhibited by TG4-155, a selective EP2 antagonist (Schild KB = 2.6 nM). By contrast, untransfected BV2 cells were unresponsive to selective EP2 agonists. Similar to the case of rat primary microglia, BV2-hEP2 microglia treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (100 ng/mL) displayed rapid and robust induction of the inflammatory mediators COX-2, IL-1β, TNFα, and IL-6. EP2 activation depressed TNFα induction but exacerbated that of the other inflammatory mediators. Like primary microglia, classically activated BV2 microglia phagocytose fluorescent-labeled latex microspheres. The presence of EP2, but not its activation by agonists, in BV2-hEP2 microglia reduced phagocytosis and proliferation by 65% and 32%, respectively, compared to BV2 microglia. Thus, BV2-hEP2 is the first microglial cell line that retains the EP2 modulation of immune regulation and phagocytic ability of native microglia. Suppression of phagocytosis by the EP2 protein appears unrelated to classical EP2 signaling pathways, which has implications for therapeutic development of EP2 antagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asheebo Rojas
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Avijit Banik
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Di Chen
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Kevin Flood
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Thota Ganesh
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Raymond Dingledine
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
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Thürmann L, Herberth G, Rolle-Kampczyk U, Röder S, Borte M, von Bergen M, Lehmann I, Trump S. Elevated Gestational IL-13 During Fetal Development Is Associated With Hyperactivity and Inattention in Eight-Year-Old Children. Front Immunol 2019; 10:1658. [PMID: 31428082 PMCID: PMC6690004 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 07/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Maternal immune activation (MIA) during fetal development leads to behavioral and psychological disorders in the offspring. Concomitantly, insufficient supply of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) is suspected to contribute to early neuronal maldevelopment due to the immune modulatory capabilities of PUFAs. However, human data are missing considering both of these aspects and their impact on children's behavioral outcomes. In line, this study aimed to elucidate the influence of gestational cytokines and PUFA-containing lipids during late pregnancy on behavioral sequelae in childhood, particularly focusing on an immune activation shaped by a history of maternal atopic diseases instead of a pathogen-mediated immune response. Based on the prospective mother-child cohort LINA we assessed the unstimulated blood cytokine profiles and concentrations of PUFA-containing lipids of 293 mothers at the 34th week of pregnancy. Maternal history of atopic diseases was obtained from questionnaires and behavior in eight-year-old children was assessed by the standardized Strength and Difficulties Questionnaires (SDQ) generating scores for hyperactivity/inattention, emotional symptoms, conduct problems, and peer relationship problems. Elevated IL-13 increased the risk for the child to show behavioral difficulties, in particular, hyperactive/inattentive behavior [adj. OR (95% CI): 2.47 (1.51-4.02), n = 255 vs. 38] at the age of eight years. Although the presence of maternal atopic dermatitis (AD) was associated with increased gestational IL-13 concentrations [adj. MR (95% CI): 1.17 (1.04-1.32)], no effect on children's behavioral difficulties was observed. However, a decrease in the PUFA containing lipid species PC aa C38:6 was not only associated with an increased gestational IL-13 concentration but also mediated the indirect effect of low PC aa C38:6 concentrations on children's abnormal behavior independent of maternal AD. We additionally assessed whether maternal IL-13 and PC aa C38:6 concentrations translate their effect by altering children's cord blood PC aa C38:6 and IL-13. While also the children's cord blood IL-13 was related to children's behavior, no effect of children's PC aa C38:6 was observed. This is the first study demonstrating that elevated gestational IL-13 increases the risk for children to develop behavioral difficulties. Analyses suggest that a reduced supply of gestational PC aa C38:6 contributes to elevated gestational IL-13 leading to behavioral sequelae in the offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loreen Thürmann
- Molecular Epidemiology Unit, Charité – Universitátsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, associated partner of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Berlin, Germany
| | - Gunda Herberth
- Department of Environmental Immunology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Ulrike Rolle-Kampczyk
- Department of Molecular Systems Biology, Helmholtz-Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Stefan Röder
- Department of Environmental Immunology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Michael Borte
- Children's Hospital, Municipal Hospital “St. Georg”, Academic Teaching Hospital of the University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Martin von Bergen
- Department of Molecular Systems Biology, Helmholtz-Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biosciences, Pharmacy and Psychology, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Irina Lehmann
- Molecular Epidemiology Unit, Charité – Universitátsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, associated partner of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Berlin, Germany
| | - Saskia Trump
- Molecular Epidemiology Unit, Charité – Universitátsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, associated partner of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Berlin, Germany
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14
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Mai HN, Nguyen LTT, Shin EJ, Kim DJ, Jeong JH, Chung YH, Lei XG, Sharma N, Jang CG, Nabeshima T, Kim HC. Astrocytic mobilization of glutathione peroxidase-1 contributes to the protective potential against cocaine kindling behaviors in mice via activation of JAK2/STAT3 signaling. Free Radic Biol Med 2019; 131:408-431. [PMID: 30592974 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2018.12.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Revised: 12/13/2018] [Accepted: 12/21/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Compelling evidence indicates that oxidative stress contributes to cocaine neurotoxicity. The present study was performed to elucidate the role of the glutathione peroxidase-1 (GPx-1) in cocaine-induced kindling (convulsive) behaviors in mice. Cocaine-induced convulsive behaviors significantly increased GPx-1, p-IkB, and p-JAK2/STAT3 expression, and oxidative burdens in the hippocampus of mice. There was no significant difference in cocaine-induced p-IkB expression between non-transgenic (non-TG) and GPx-1 overexpressing transgenic (GPx-1 TG) mice, but significant differences were observed in cocaine-induced p-JAK2/STAT3 expression and oxidative stress between non-TG and GPx-1 TG mice. Cocaine-induced glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-labeled astrocytic level was significantly higher in the hippocampus of GPx-1 TG mice. Triple-labeling immunocytochemistry indicated that GPx-1-, p-STAT3-, and GFAP-immunoreactivities were co-localized in the same cells. AG490, a JAK2/STAT3 inhibitor, but not pyrrolidone dithiocarbamate, an NFκB inhibitor, significantly counteracted GPx-1-mediated protective potentials (i.e., anticonvulsant-, antioxidant-, antiapoptotic-effects). Genetic overexpression of GPx-1 significantly attenuated proliferation of Iba-1-labeled microglia induced by cocaine in mice. However, AG490 or astrocytic inhibition (by GFAP antisense oligonucleotide and α-aminoadipate) significantly increased Iba-1-labeled microglial activity and M1 phenotype microglial mRNA levels, reflecting that proinflammatory potentials were mediated by AG490 or astrocytic inhibition. This microglial activation was less pronounced in GPx-1 TG than in non-TG mice. Furthermore, either AG490 or astrocytic inhibition significantly counteracted GPx-1-mediated protective potentials. Therefore, our results suggest that astrocytic modulation between GPx-1 and JAK2/STAT3 might be one of the underlying mechanisms for protecting against convulsive neurotoxicity induced by cocaine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huynh Nhu Mai
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Lan Thuy Ty Nguyen
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Joo Shin
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon 24341, Republic of Korea.
| | - Dae-Joong Kim
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Medical School, Kangwon National University, Chunchon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji Hoon Jeong
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Yoon Hee Chung
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Xin Gen Lei
- Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
| | - Naveen Sharma
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Choon-Gon Jang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Toshitaka Nabeshima
- Advanced Diagnostic System Research Laboratory, Fujita Health University Graduate School of Health Science, Aichi 470-1192, Japan; Aino University, Ibaraki 576-0012, Japan; Japanese Drug Organization of Appropriate and Research, Nagoya 468-0069, Japan
| | - Hyoung-Chun Kim
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon 24341, Republic of Korea.
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15
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Wosiski-Kuhn M, Lyon MS, Caress J, Milligan C. Inflammation, immunity, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: II. immune-modulating therapies. Muscle Nerve 2018; 59:23-33. [PMID: 29979478 DOI: 10.1002/mus.26288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Revised: 06/26/2018] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
With the emerging popularity of immune-modulatory therapies to treat human diseases there is a need to step back from hypotheses aimed at assessing a condition in a single-system context and instead take into account the disease pathology as a whole. In complex diseases, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), the use of these therapies to treat patients has been largely unsuccessful and likely premature given our lack of understanding of how the immune system influences disease progression and initiation. In addition, we still have an incomplete understanding of the role of these responses in our model systems and how this may translate clinically to human patients. In this review we discuss preclinical evidence and clinical trial results for a selection of recently conducted studies in ALS. We provide evidence-based reasoning for the failure of these trials and offer suggestions to improve the design of future investigations. Muscle Nerve 59:23-33, 2019.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlena Wosiski-Kuhn
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Medical Center Boulevard, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, 27157, USA
| | - Miles S Lyon
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Medical Center Boulevard, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, 27157, USA
| | - James Caress
- Department of Neurology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Carol Milligan
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Medical Center Boulevard, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, 27157, USA
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16
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Gu M, Li Y, Tang H, Zhang C, Li W, Zhang Y, Li Y, Zhao Y, Song C. Endogenous Omega (n)-3 Fatty Acids in Fat-1 Mice Attenuated Depression-Like Behavior, Imbalance between Microglial M1 and M2 Phenotypes, and Dysfunction of Neurotrophins Induced by Lipopolysaccharide Administration. Nutrients 2018; 10:nu10101351. [PMID: 30248907 PMCID: PMC6213921 DOI: 10.3390/nu10101351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Revised: 08/27/2018] [Accepted: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have been reported to improve depression. However, PUFA purities, caloric content, and ratios in different diets may affect the results. By using Fat-1 mice which convert n-6 to n-3 PUFAs in the brain, this study further evaluated anti-depressant mechanisms of n-3 PUFAs in a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced model. Adult male Fat-1 and wild-type (WT) mice were fed soybean oil diet for 8 weeks. Depression-like behaviors were measured 24 h after saline or LPS central administration. In WT littermates, LPS reduced sucrose intake, but increased immobility in forced-swimming and tail suspension tests. Microglial M1 phenotype CD11b expression and concentrations of interleukin (IL)-1β, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and IL-17 were elevated, while M2 phenotype-related IL-4, IL-10, and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 were decreased. LPS also reduced the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and tyrosine receptor kinase B (Trk B), while increasing glial fibrillary acidic protein expression and pro-BDNF, p75, NO, and iNOS levels. In Fat-1 mice, LPS-induced behavioral changes were attenuated, which were associated with decreased pro-inflammatory cytokines and reversed changes in p75, NO, iNOS, and BDNF. Gas chromatography assay confirmed increased n-3 PUFA levels and n-3/n-6 ratios in the brains of Fat-1 mice. In conclusion, endogenous n-3 PUFAs may improve LPS-induced depression-like behavior through balancing M1 and M2-phenotypes and normalizing BDNF function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minqing Gu
- Research Institute for Marine Drug and Nutrition, College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China.
| | - Yuyu Li
- Research Institute for Marine Drug and Nutrition, College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China.
| | - Haiting Tang
- Research Institute for Marine Drug and Nutrition, College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China.
| | - Cai Zhang
- Research Institute for Marine Drug and Nutrition, College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China.
- Shenzhen Institute of Guangdong Ocean University, Shenzhen 518120, China.
| | - Wende Li
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Research and Development of Natural Drug, Guangdong Medical College, Zhanjiang 524023, China.
- Guangdong Key laboratory of Laboratory Animal, Guangdong Laboratory Animals Monitoring Institute, Guangzhou 510663, China.
| | - Yongping Zhang
- Research Institute for Marine Drug and Nutrition, College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China.
- Shenzhen Institute of Guangdong Ocean University, Shenzhen 518120, China.
| | - Yajuan Li
- Research Institute for Marine Drug and Nutrition, College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China.
| | - Yuntao Zhao
- Research Institute for Marine Drug and Nutrition, College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China.
- Shenzhen Institute of Guangdong Ocean University, Shenzhen 518120, China.
| | - Cai Song
- Research Institute for Marine Drug and Nutrition, College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China.
- Shenzhen Institute of Guangdong Ocean University, Shenzhen 518120, China.
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada.
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17
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Mao R, Zhang C, Chen J, Zhao G, Zhou R, Wang F, Xu J, Yang T, Su Y, Huang J, Wu Z, Cao L, Wang Y, Hu Y, Yuan C, Yi Z, Hong W, Wang Z, Peng D, Fang Y. Different levels of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in patients with unipolar and bipolar depression. J Affect Disord 2018; 237:65-72. [PMID: 29778935 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2018.04.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2017] [Revised: 04/18/2018] [Accepted: 04/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Immune system dysregulation is critical in the physiopathology of major depressive disorder (MDD) and bipolar disorder (BD). However, it is unclear whether both diseases present the same inflammatory patterns during depressive episodes. We explored the differences in pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines between unipolar and bipolar depression (BDD) and the trajectory of these cytokines after acute-phase treatment. METHODS Sixty-four MDD patients, 61 BDD patients, and 62 healthy controls (HCs) were enrolled. We assessed the clinical features and cytokines plasma levels at baseline and week 12. The pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α) and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4, IL-13) of all subjects were assessed by multiplexed sandwich ELISA-based quantitative arrays. RESULTS Before acute-phase treatment, the initial levels of TNF-α and IL-13 were significantly lower in the BDD patients than in the MDD patients. The results demonstrated that there was no relationship between each cytokine level and clinical features of unipolar and bipolar depressions. After 12 weeks, TNF-α, IL-4, and IL-13 levels became lower in MDD patients than in the other two groups regardless of the patients' response to treatment while the levels of TNF-α and IL-4 increased only in the BDD responders. LIMITATIONS The effects of different drugs on inflammatory cytokines in MDD or BDD could not be explored further due to the relatively small sample size. CONCLUSION Even within the same depressive states, MDD and BDD patients present different inflammatory features, particularly in regard to pro-inflammatory TNF-α and anti-inflammatory IL-13. In addition, the fluctuations of cytokines induced by medication may provide a hint regarding the prediction of treatment response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruizhi Mao
- Division of Mood Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Chen Zhang
- Division of Mood Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China.
| | - Jun Chen
- Division of Mood Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Guoqing Zhao
- Division of Mood Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China; Department of Psychology, Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Jinan, 250021, China
| | - Rubai Zhou
- Division of Mood Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Fan Wang
- Division of Mood Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Jingjing Xu
- Division of Mood Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Tao Yang
- Division of Mood Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Yousong Su
- Division of Mood Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Jia Huang
- Division of Mood Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Zhiguo Wu
- Division of Mood Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Lan Cao
- Division of Mood Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Yong Wang
- Division of Mood Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Yingyan Hu
- Division of Mood Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Chengmei Yuan
- Division of Mood Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Zhenghui Yi
- Division of Mood Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Wu Hong
- Division of Mood Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Zuowei Wang
- Division of Mood Disorders, Hongkou District Mental Health Center of Shanghai, Shanghai, 200083, China
| | - Daihui Peng
- Division of Mood Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Yiru Fang
- Division of Mood Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Psychotic Disorders, China.
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18
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Combination treatment of celecoxib and ciprofloxacin attenuates live S. aureus induced oxidative damage and inflammation in murine microglia via regulation of cytokine balance. J Neuroimmunol 2018; 316:23-39. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2017.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Revised: 11/08/2017] [Accepted: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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19
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Cell-Based Delivery of Interleukin-13 Directs Alternative Activation of Macrophages Resulting in Improved Functional Outcome after Spinal Cord Injury. Stem Cell Reports 2017; 7:1099-1115. [PMID: 27974221 PMCID: PMC5161742 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2016.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2016] [Revised: 11/10/2016] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The therapeutic effects of mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) transplantation following spinal cord injury (SCI) to date have been limited. Therefore, we aimed to enhance the immunomodulatory properties of MSCs via continuous secretion of the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-13 (IL-13). By using MSCs as carriers of IL-13 (MSC/IL-13), we investigated their therapeutic potential, compared with non-engineered MSCs, in a mouse model of SCI. We show that transplanted MSC/IL-13 significantly improve functional recovery following SCI, and also decrease lesion size and demyelinated area by more than 40%. Further histological analyses in CX3CR1EGFP/+ CCR2RFP/+ transgenic mice indicated that MSC/IL-13 significantly decrease the number of resident microglia and increase the number of alternatively activated macrophages. In addition, the number of macrophage-axon contacts in MSC/IL-13-treated mice was decreased by 50%, suggesting a reduction in axonal dieback. Our data provide evidence that transplantation of MSC/IL-13 leads to improved functional and histopathological recovery in a mouse model of SCI.
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20
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Kovacs ZI, Kim S, Jikaria N, Qureshi F, Milo B, Lewis BK, Bresler M, Burks SR, Frank JA. Disrupting the blood-brain barrier by focused ultrasound induces sterile inflammation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:E75-E84. [PMID: 27994152 PMCID: PMC5224365 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1614777114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 276] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
MRI-guided pulsed focused ultrasound (pFUS) combined with systemic infusion of ultrasound contrast agent microbubbles (MB) causes localized blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption that is currently being advocated for increasing drug or gene delivery in neurological diseases. The mechanical acoustic cavitation effects of opening the BBB by low-intensity pFUS+MB, as evidenced by contrast-enhanced MRI, resulted in an immediate damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMP) response including elevations in heat-shock protein 70, IL-1, IL-18, and TNFα indicative of a sterile inflammatory response (SIR) in the parenchyma. Concurrent with DAMP presentation, significant elevations in proinflammatory, antiinflammatory, and trophic factors along with neurotrophic and neurogenesis factors were detected; these elevations lasted 24 h. Transcriptomic analysis of sonicated brain supported the proteomic findings and indicated that the SIR was facilitated through the induction of the NFκB pathway. Histological evaluation demonstrated increased albumin in the parenchyma that cleared by 24 h along with TUNEL+ neurons, activated astrocytes, microglia, and increased cell adhesion molecules in the vasculature. Infusion of fluorescent beads 3 d before pFUS+MB revealed the infiltration of CD68+ macrophages at 6 d postsonication, as is consistent with an innate immune response. pFUS+MB is being considered as part of a noninvasive adjuvant treatment for malignancy or neurodegenerative diseases. These results demonstrate that pFUS+MB induces an SIR compatible with ischemia or mild traumatic brain injury. Further investigation will be required before this approach can be widely implemented in clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zsofia I Kovacs
- Frank Laboratory, Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892;
| | - Saejeong Kim
- Frank Laboratory, Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Neekita Jikaria
- Frank Laboratory, Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Farhan Qureshi
- Frank Laboratory, Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Blerta Milo
- Frank Laboratory, Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Bobbi K Lewis
- Frank Laboratory, Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Michele Bresler
- Frank Laboratory, Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Scott R Burks
- Frank Laboratory, Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Joseph A Frank
- Frank Laboratory, Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892;
- National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
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21
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Neuropathology of mood disorders: do we see the stigmata of inflammation? Transl Psychiatry 2016; 6:e946. [PMID: 27824355 PMCID: PMC5314124 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2016.212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2016] [Revised: 07/08/2016] [Accepted: 08/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
A proportion of cases with mood disorders have elevated inflammatory markers in the blood that conceivably may result from stress, infection and/or autoimmunity. However, it is not yet clear whether depression is a neuroinflammatory disease. Multiple histopathological and molecular abnormalities have been found postmortem but the etiology of these abnormalities is unknown. Here, we take an immunological perspective of this literature. Increases in activated microglia or perivascular macrophages in suicide victims have been reported in the parenchyma. In contrast, astrocytic markers generally are downregulated in mood disorders. Impairment of astrocytic function likely compromises the reuptake of glutamate potentially leading to excitotoxicity. Inflammatory cytokines and microglia/macrophage-derived quinolinic acid (QA) downregulate the excitatory amino acid transporters responsible for this reuptake, while QA has the additional effect of inhibiting astroglial glutamine synthetase, which converts glutamate to glutamine. Given that oligodendroglia are particularly vulnerable to inflammation, it is noteworthy that reductions in numbers or density of oligodendrocyte cells are one of the most prominent findings in depression. Structural and/or functional changes to GABAergic interneurons also are salient in postmortem brain samples, and may conceivably be related to early inflammatory insults. Although the postmortem data are consistent with a neuroimmune etiology in a subgroup of depressed individuals, we do not argue that all depression-associated abnormalities are reflective of a neuroinflammatory process or even that all immunological activity in the brain is deleterious. Rather, we highlight the pervasive role of immune signaling pathways in brain function and provide an alternative perspective on the current postmortem literature.
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Neuroimmunology of the Interleukins 13 and 4. Brain Sci 2016; 6:brainsci6020018. [PMID: 27304970 PMCID: PMC4931495 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci6020018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2016] [Revised: 06/01/2016] [Accepted: 06/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The cytokines interleukin 13 and 4 share a common heterodimeric receptor and are important modulators of peripheral allergic reactions. Produced primarily by T-helper type 2 lymphocytes, they are typically considered as anti-inflammatory cytokines because they can downregulate the synthesis of T-helper type 1 pro-inflammatory cytokines. Their presence and role in the brain is only beginning to be investigated and the data collected so far shows that these molecules can be produced by microglial cells and possibly by neurons. Attention has so far been given to the possible role of these molecules in neurodegeneration. Both neuroprotective or neurotoxic effects have been proposed based on evidence that interleukin 13 and 4 can reduce inflammation by promoting the M2 microglia phenotype and contributing to the death of microglia M1 phenotype, or by potentiating the effects of oxidative stress on neurons during neuro-inflammation. Remarkably, the heterodimeric subunit IL-13Rα1 of their common receptor was recently demonstrated in dopaminergic neurons of the ventral tegmental area and the substantia nigra pars compacta, suggesting the possibility that both cytokines may affect the activity of these neurons regulating reward, mood, and motor coordination. In mice and man, the gene encoding for IL-13Rα1 is expressed on the X chromosome within the PARK12 region of susceptibility to Parkinson’s disease (PD). This, together with finding that IL-13Rα1 contributes to loss of dopaminergic neurons during inflammation, indicates the possibility that these cytokines may contribute to the etiology or the progression of PD.
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Neuroprotection of Ischemic Preconditioning is Mediated by Anti-inflammatory, Not Pro-inflammatory, Cytokines in the Gerbil Hippocampus Induced by a Subsequent Lethal Transient Cerebral Ischemia. Neurochem Res 2015; 40:1984-95. [PMID: 26290267 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-015-1694-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2015] [Revised: 08/04/2015] [Accepted: 08/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Ischemic preconditioning (IPC) induced by sublethal transient cerebral ischemia could reduce neuronal damage/death following a subsequent lethal transient cerebral ischemia. We, in this study, compared expressions of interleukin (IL)-2 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α as pro-inflammatory cytokines, and IL-4 and IL-13 as anti-inflammatory cytokines in the gerbil hippocampal CA1 region between animals with lethal ischemia and ones with IPC followed by lethal ischemia. In the animals with lethal ischemia, pyramidal neurons in the stratum pyramidale (SP) of the hippocampal CA1 region were dead at 5 days post-ischemia; however, IPC protected the CA1 pyramidal neurons from lethal ischemic injury. Expressions of all cytokines were significantly decreased in the SP after lethal ischemia and hardly detected in the SP at 5 days post-ischemia because the CA1 pyramidal neurons were dead. IPC increased expressions of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4 and IL-13) in the stratum pyramidale of the CA1 region following no lethal ischemia (sham-operation), and the increased expressions of IL-4 and IL-13 by IPC were continuously maintained is the SP of the CA1 region after lethal ischemia. However, pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-2 and TNF-α) in the SP of the CA1 region were similar those in the sham-operated animals with IPC, and the IL-4 and IL-13 expressions in the SP were maintained after lethal ischemia. In conclusion, this study shows that anti-inflammatory cytokines significantly increased and longer maintained by IPC and this might be closely associated with neuroprotection after lethal transient cerebral ischemia.
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Fu Y, Yang MS, Jiang J, Ganesh T, Joe E, Dingledine R. EP2 Receptor Signaling Regulates Microglia Death. Mol Pharmacol 2015; 88:161-70. [PMID: 25715797 DOI: 10.1124/mol.115.098202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2015] [Accepted: 02/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The timely resolution of inflammation prevents continued tissue damage after an initial insult. In the brain, the death of activated microglia by apoptosis has been proposed as one mechanism to resolve brain inflammation. How microglial death is regulated after activation is still unclear. We reported that exposure to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and interleukin (IL)-13 together initially activates and then kills rat microglia in culture by a mechanism dependent on cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). We show here that activation of the E prostanoid receptor 2 (EP2, PTGER2) for prostaglandin E2 mediates microglial death induced by LPS/IL-13, and that EP2 activation by agonist alone kills microglia. Both EP2 antagonists and reactive oxygen scavengers block microglial death induced by either LPS/IL-13 or EP2 activation. By contrast, the homeostatic induction of heme oxygenase 1 (Hmox1) by LPS/IL-13 or EP2 activation protects microglia. Both the Hmox1 inducer cobalt protoporphyrin and a compound that releases the Hmox1 product carbon monoxide (CO) attenuated microglial death produced by LPS/IL-13. Whereas CO reduced COX-2 protein expression, EP2 activation increased Hmox1 and COX-2 expression at both the mRNA and protein level. Interestingly, caspase-1 inhibition prevented microglial death induced by either LPS/IL-13 or low (but not high) concentrations of butaprost, suggestive of a predominantly pyroptotic mode of death. Butaprost also caused the expression of activated caspase-3 in microglia, pointing to apoptosis. These results indicate that EP2 activation, which initially promotes microglial activation, later causes delayed death of activated microglia, potentially contributing to the resolution phase of neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujiao Fu
- Department of Pharmacology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia (Y.F., M.-S.Y., J.J., T.G., R.D.); Neurology Department, Xiangya Hospital, Hunan, China (Y.F.); and Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea (M.-S.Y., E.J.)
| | - Myung-Soon Yang
- Department of Pharmacology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia (Y.F., M.-S.Y., J.J., T.G., R.D.); Neurology Department, Xiangya Hospital, Hunan, China (Y.F.); and Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea (M.-S.Y., E.J.)
| | - Jianxiong Jiang
- Department of Pharmacology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia (Y.F., M.-S.Y., J.J., T.G., R.D.); Neurology Department, Xiangya Hospital, Hunan, China (Y.F.); and Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea (M.-S.Y., E.J.)
| | - Thota Ganesh
- Department of Pharmacology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia (Y.F., M.-S.Y., J.J., T.G., R.D.); Neurology Department, Xiangya Hospital, Hunan, China (Y.F.); and Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea (M.-S.Y., E.J.)
| | - Eunhye Joe
- Department of Pharmacology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia (Y.F., M.-S.Y., J.J., T.G., R.D.); Neurology Department, Xiangya Hospital, Hunan, China (Y.F.); and Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea (M.-S.Y., E.J.)
| | - Raymond Dingledine
- Department of Pharmacology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia (Y.F., M.-S.Y., J.J., T.G., R.D.); Neurology Department, Xiangya Hospital, Hunan, China (Y.F.); and Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea (M.-S.Y., E.J.)
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Jiang J, Yang MS, Quan Y, Gueorguieva P, Ganesh T, Dingledine R. Therapeutic window for cyclooxygenase-2 related anti-inflammatory therapy after status epilepticus. Neurobiol Dis 2015; 76:126-136. [PMID: 25600211 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2014.12.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2014] [Revised: 12/12/2014] [Accepted: 01/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
As a prominent inflammatory effector of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) mediates brain inflammation and injury in many chronic central nervous system (CNS) conditions including seizures and epilepsy, largely through its receptor subtype EP2. However, EP2 receptor activation might also be neuroprotective in models of excitotoxicity and ischemia. These seemingly incongruent observations expose the delicacy of immune and inflammatory signaling in the brain; thus the therapeutic window for quelling neuroinflammation might vary with injury type and target molecule. Here, we identify a therapeutic window for EP2 antagonism to reduce delayed mortality and functional morbidity after status epilepticus (SE) in mice. Importantly, treatment must be delayed relative to SE onset to be effective, a finding that could be explained by the time-course of COX-2 induction after SE and compound pharmacokinetics. A large number of inflammatory mediators were upregulated in hippocampus after SE with COX-2 and IL-1β temporally leading many others. Thus, EP2 antagonism represents a novel anti-inflammatory strategy to treat SE with a tightly-regulated therapeutic window.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianxiong Jiang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States; Division of Pharmaceutical sciences, James L. Winkle College of Pharmacy, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267, United States.
| | - Myung-Soon Yang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - Yi Quan
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - Paoula Gueorguieva
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - Thota Ganesh
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - Raymond Dingledine
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
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Park JW, Min KJ, Kim DE, Kwon TK. Withaferin A induces apoptosis through the generation of thiol oxidation in human head and neck cancer cells. Int J Mol Med 2014; 35:247-52. [PMID: 25351115 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2014.1983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2014] [Accepted: 10/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Withaferin A is a steroidal lactone purified from the Indian medicinal plant, Withania somnifera. Withaferin A has been shown to inhibit the proliferation, metastasis, invasion and angiogenesis of cancer cells. In the present study, we investigated whether withaferin A induces apoptosis in the human head and neck cancer cells, AMC-HN4. Withaferin A markedly increased the sub-G1 cell population and the cleavage of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), which are markers of apoptosis. Pan-caspase inhibitor, z-VAD-fmk (z-VAD), markedly inhibited the withaferin A-induced apoptosis. However, the withaferin A-induced increase in the expression of COX-2 was not affected by treatment with z-VAD. Furthermore, withaferin A upregulated cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression. The COX-2 inhibitor, NS-398, reduced the withaferin A-induced production of prostaglandin E2. However, treatment with NS-398 did not affect the sub-G1 population and the cleavage of PARP. In addition, the withaferin A-induced apoptosis was independent of reactive oxygen species production. Thiol donors [N-acetylcysteine (NAC) and dithiothreitol (DTT)] reversed withaferin A-induced apoptosis. Therefore, our data suggest that withaferin A induces apoptosis through the mechanism of thiol oxidation in head and neck carcinoma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jong Won Park
- Department of Otolaryngology, School of Medicine, Keimyung University, Dalseo-Gu, Daegu 704-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyoung-Jin Min
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Keimyung University, Dalseo-Gu, Daegu 704-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Eun Kim
- Department of Otolaryngology, School of Medicine, Keimyung University, Dalseo-Gu, Daegu 704-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Taeg Kyu Kwon
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Keimyung University, Dalseo-Gu, Daegu 704-701, Republic of Korea
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Siddiqui T, Lively S, Ferreira R, Wong R, Schlichter LC. Expression and contributions of TRPM7 and KCa2.3/SK3 channels to the increased migration and invasion of microglia in anti-inflammatory activation states. PLoS One 2014; 9:e106087. [PMID: 25148577 PMCID: PMC4141841 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0106087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2014] [Accepted: 07/31/2014] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia rapidly respond to CNS injury and disease and can assume a spectrum of activation states. While changes in gene expression and production of inflammatory mediators have been extensively described after classical (LPS-induced) and alternative (IL4-induced) microglial activation, less is known about acquired de-activation in response to IL10. It is important to understand how microglial activation states affect their migration and invasion; crucial functions after injury and in the developing CNS. We reported that LPS-treated rat microglia migrate very poorly, while IL4-treated cells migrate and invade much better. Having discovered that the lamellum of migrating microglia contains a large ring of podosomes – microscopic structures that are thought to mediate adhesion, migration and invasion – we hypothesized that IL4 and IL10 would differentially affect podosome expression, gene induction, migration and invasion. Further, based on the enrichment of the KCa2.3/SK3 Ca2+-activated potassium channel in microglial podosomes, we predicted that it regulates migration and invasion. We found both similarities and differences in gene induction by IL4 and IL10 and, while both cytokines increased migration and invasion, only IL10 affected podosome expression. KCa2.3 currents were recorded in microglia under all three activation conditions and KCNN3 (KCa2.3) expression was similar. Surprisingly then, of three KCa2.3 inhibitors (apamin, tamapin, NS8593), only NS8593 abrogated the increased migration and invasion of IL4 and IL10-treated microglia (and invasion of unstimulated microglia). This discrepancy was explained by the observed block of TRPM7 currents in microglia by NS8593, which occurred under all three activation conditions. A similar inhibition of both migration and invasion was seen with a TRPM7 inhibitor (AA-861) that does not block KCa2.3 channels. Thus, we conclude that TRPM7 (not KCa2.3) contributes to the enhanced ability of microglia to migrate and invade when in anti-inflammatory states. This will be an important consideration in developing TRPM7 inhibitors for treating CNS injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamjeed Siddiqui
- Toronto Western Research Institute, Genes and Development Division, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Starlee Lively
- Toronto Western Research Institute, Genes and Development Division, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Roger Ferreira
- Toronto Western Research Institute, Genes and Development Division, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Raymond Wong
- Toronto Western Research Institute, Genes and Development Division, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Lyanne C. Schlichter
- Toronto Western Research Institute, Genes and Development Division, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail:
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Ito T, Yoshida K, Negishi T, Miyajima M, Takamatsu H, Kikutani H, Kumanogoh A, Yukawa K. Plexin-A1 is required for Toll-like receptor-mediated microglial activation in the development of lipopolysaccharide-induced encephalopathy. Int J Mol Med 2014; 33:1122-30. [PMID: 24604454 PMCID: PMC4020473 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2014.1690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2013] [Accepted: 02/28/2014] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent investigations have suggested that semaphorins, which are known repulsive axon guidance molecules, may play a crucial role in maintaining brain homeostasis by regulating microglial activity. Sema3A, secreted in higher amounts from injured neurons, is considered to suppress excessive inflammatory responses by inducing microglial apoptosis through its binding to Plexin-A1 receptors on activated microglia. To clarify the in vivo role of Plexin-A1-mediated signaling in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced injury in mouse brain, we examined the neuroinflammatory changes initiated by LPS administration to the cerebral ventricles of wild-type (WT) and Plexin-A1-deficient (−/−) mice. WT mice administered LPS exhibited a significantly higher expression of COX-2, iNOS, IL-1β and TNF-α in the hippocampus, and a significantly greater ventricular enlargement and intracerebral infiltration of leukocytes, as compared with the saline-treated group. By contrast, Plexin-A1−/− mice administered LPS did not exhibit a significantly increased expression of COX-2, iNOS, IL-1β or TNF-α in the hippocampus as compared with the saline-treated group. Plexin-A1−/− mice administered LPS did not show significant increases in ventricle size or infiltration of leukocytes into the brain, as compared with the saline-treated group. In WT, but not in the Plexin-A1−/− primary microglia treated with LPS, Sema3A induced significantly more nitric oxide production than in the immunoglobulin G control. These results revealed the crucial role of the Sema3A-Plexin-A1 interaction in the Toll-like receptor 4-mediated signaling of the LPS-induced activation of microglia. Thus, results of the present study revealed the essential role of Plexin-A1 in the development of LPS-induced neuroinflammation in mice, suggesting the possible application of microglial control of the semaphorin-plexin signaling system to the treatment of LPS-induced encephalopathy and other psychiatric diseases associated with neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuji Ito
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, Nagoya 468-8503, Japan
| | - Kenji Yoshida
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, Nagoya 468-8503, Japan
| | - Takayuki Negishi
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, Nagoya 468-8503, Japan
| | - Masayasu Miyajima
- Laboratory Animal Center, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama 641-8509, Japan
| | - Hyota Takamatsu
- Department of Immunopathology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Kikutani
- Department of Molecular Immunology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Atsushi Kumanogoh
- Department of Immunopathology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Kazunori Yukawa
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, Nagoya 468-8503, Japan
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Kumawat KL, Kaushik DK, Goswami P, Basu A. Acute exposure to lead acetate activates microglia and induces subsequent bystander neuronal death via caspase-3 activation. Neurotoxicology 2014; 41:143-53. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2014.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2013] [Revised: 01/20/2014] [Accepted: 02/04/2014] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Won SY, Kim SR, Maeng S, Jin BK. Interleukin-13/Interleukin-4-induced oxidative stress contributes to death of prothrombinkringle-2 (pKr-2)-activated microglia. J Neuroimmunol 2013; 265:36-42. [PMID: 24090651 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2013.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2013] [Revised: 09/12/2013] [Accepted: 09/14/2013] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The present study examined whether Interleukin-13 (IL-13) or IL-4, an anti-inflammatory cytokine, could induce cell death of activated microglia by prothrombin kringle-2 (pKr-2) which is a domain of prothrombin distinct from thrombin. Microglia cell death was detected at eight days after co-treatment of pKr-2 with IL-13/IL-4 in vitro. This cell death was assessed by live assay, dead assay, TUNEL and MTT assay. In parallel, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production was evident as assessed by superoxide assay, WST-1 and analyzing DCF in combination of pKr-2 and IL-13 or IL-4 treated microglia. The IL-13/IL-4-enhanced ROS production and cell death in pKr-2 activated microglia was partially inhibited by an NADPH oxidase inhibitor, apocynin and/or by several antioxidants. Moreover, Western blot analysis showed a significant increase in cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression in combination of pKr-2 and IL-13 or IL-4 treated microglia, which was partially inhibited by apocynin and an antioxidant, trolox. Additional studies demonstrated that microglia cell death was reversed by treatment with COX-2 inhibitor, NS398. Our data strongly suggest that oxidative stress and COX-2 activation through NADPH oxidase may contribute to IL-13/IL-4 induced cell death of pKr-2 activated microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- So-Yoon Won
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Research Center, Chungbuk National University College of Medicine, Cheongju 361-763, South Korea
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Pan HC, Yang CN, Hung YW, Lee WJ, Tien HR, Shen CC, Sheehan J, Chou CT, Sheu ML. Reciprocal modulation of C/EBP-α and C/EBP-β by IL-13 in activated microglia prevents neuronal death. Eur J Immunol 2013; 43:2854-65. [DOI: 10.1002/eji.201343301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2013] [Revised: 06/08/2013] [Accepted: 07/19/2013] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hung Chuan Pan
- Faculty of Medicine; School of Medicine; National Yang-Ming University; Taipei Taiwan
- Department of Neurosurgery; Taichung Veterans General Hospital; Taichung Taiwan
| | - Cheng Ning Yang
- Institute of Neuroscience; School of Life Science; National Yang-Ming University; Taipei Taiwan
| | - Yi Wen Hung
- Department of Education and Research; Taichung Veterans General Hospital; Taichung Taiwan
- Department of Veterinary Medicine; College of Veterinary Medicine; National Chung Hsing University; Taichung Taiwan
| | - Wen Jane Lee
- Department of Education and Research; Taichung Veterans General Hospital; Taichung Taiwan
| | - Hsing Ru Tien
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences; College of Life Science; National Chung Hsing University; Taichung Taiwan
| | - Chin Chang Shen
- Institute of Nuclear Energy Research; Atomic Energy Council; Longtan Taoyuan Taiwan
| | - Jason Sheehan
- Department of Neurological Surgery; University of Virginia Health System; Charlottesville VA USA
| | - Chiang Ting Chou
- School of Nursing; Chang Gung University of Science and Technology; Chiayi Campus Taiwan
| | - Meei Ling Sheu
- Department of Education and Research; Taichung Veterans General Hospital; Taichung Taiwan
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences; College of Life Science; National Chung Hsing University; Taichung Taiwan
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Jeong HK, Ji K, Min K, Joe EH. Brain inflammation and microglia: facts and misconceptions. Exp Neurobiol 2013; 22:59-67. [PMID: 23833554 PMCID: PMC3699675 DOI: 10.5607/en.2013.22.2.59] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2013] [Revised: 06/17/2013] [Accepted: 06/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
THE INFLAMMATION THAT ACCOMPANIES ACUTE INJURY HAS DUAL FUNCTIONS: bactericidal action and repair. Bactericidal functions protect damaged tissue from infection, and repair functions are initiated to aid in the recovery of damaged tissue. Brain injury is somewhat different from injuries in other tissues in two respects. First, many cases of brain injury are not accompanied by infection: there is no chance of pathogens to enter in ischemia or even in traumatic injury if the skull is intact. Second, neurons are rarely regenerated once damaged. This raises the question of whether bactericidal inflammation really occurs in the injured brain; if so, how is this type of inflammation controlled? Many brain inflammation studies have been conducted using cultured microglia (brain macrophages). Even where animal models have been used, the behavior of microglia and neurons has typically been analyzed at or after the time of neuronal death, a time window that excludes the inflammatory response, which begins immediately after the injury. Therefore, to understand the patterns and roles of brain inflammation in the injured brain, it is necessary to analyze the behavior of all cell types in the injured brain immediately after the onset of injury. Based on our experience with both in vitro and in vivo experimental models of brain inflammation, we concluded that not only microglia, but also astrocytes, blood inflammatory cells, and even neurons participate and/or regulate brain inflammation in the injured brain. Furthermore, brain inflammation played by these cells protects neurons and repairs damaged microenvironment but not induces neuronal damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hey-Kyeong Jeong
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 442-721, Korea. ; Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 442-721, Korea. ; Chronic Inflammatory Disease Research Center, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 442-721, Korea. ; National Research Lab of Brain Inflammation, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 442-721, Korea
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Costa BM, Yao H, Yang L, Buch S. Role of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in cocaine-induced microglial cell death. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2013; 8:705-14. [PMID: 23404095 PMCID: PMC3663878 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-013-9438-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2012] [Accepted: 01/28/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
While it has been well-documented that drugs of abuse such as cocaine can enhance progression of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-associated neuropathological disorders, the underlying mechanisms mediating these effects remain poorly understood. The present study was undertaken to examine the effects of cocaine on microglial viability. Herein we demonstrate that exposure of microglial cell line-BV2 or rat primary microglia to exogenous cocaine resulted in decreased cell viability as determined by MTS and TUNEL assays. Microglial toxicity of cocaine was accompanied by an increase in the expression of cleaved caspase-3 as demonstrated by western blot assays. Furthermore, increased microglial toxicity was also associated with a concomitant increase in the production of intracellular reactive oxygen species, an effect that was ameliorated in cells pretreated with NADPH oxidase inhibitor apocynin, thus emphasizing the role of oxidative stress in this process. A novel finding of this study was the involvement of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) signaling mediators such as PERK, Elf2α, and CHOP, which were up regulated in cells exposed to cocaine. Reciprocally, blocking CHOP expression using siRNA ameliorated cocaine-mediated cell death. In conclusion these findings underscore the importance of ER stress in modulating cocaine induced microglial toxicity. Understanding the link between ER stress, oxidative stress and apoptosis could lead to the development of therapeutic strategies targeting cocaine-mediated microglial death/dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blaise Mathias Costa
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198-5880, USA
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Vidal PM, Lemmens E, Dooley D, Hendrix S. The role of “anti-inflammatory” cytokines in axon regeneration. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2013; 24:1-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2012.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2012] [Accepted: 08/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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35
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Morrison BE, Marcondes MCG, Nomura DK, Sanchez-Alavez M, Sanchez-Gonzalez A, Saar I, Kim KS, Bartfai T, Maher P, Sugama S, Conti B. Cutting edge: IL-13Rα1 expression in dopaminergic neurons contributes to their oxidative stress-mediated loss following chronic peripheral treatment with lipopolysaccharide. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 189:5498-502. [PMID: 23169588 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1102150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Inflammation and its mediators, including cytokines and reactive oxygen species, are thought to contribute to neurodegeneration. In the mouse brain, we found that IL-13Rα1 was expressed in the dopaminergic (DA) neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta, which are preferentially lost in human Parkinson's disease. Mice deficient for Il13ra1 exhibited resistance to loss of DA neurons in a model of chronic peripheral inflammation using bacterial LPS. IL-13, as well as IL-4, potentiated the cytotoxic effects of t-butyl hydroperoxide and hydrogen peroxide on mouse DA MN9D cells. Collectively, our data indicate that expression of IL-13Rα1 on DA neurons can increase their susceptibility to oxidative stress-mediated damage, thereby contributing to their preferential loss. In humans, Il13ra1 lies on the X chromosome within the PARK12 locus of susceptibility to Parkinson's disease, suggesting that IL-13Rα1 may have a role in the pathogenesis of this neurodegenerative disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brad E Morrison
- Molecular and Integrative Neurosciences Department, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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Inflammation modulates expression of laminin in the central nervous system following ischemic injury. J Neuroinflammation 2012; 9:159. [PMID: 22759265 PMCID: PMC3414761 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-9-159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2012] [Accepted: 07/03/2012] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ischemic stroke induces neuronal death in the core of the infarct within a few hours and the secondary damage in the surrounding regions over a long period of time. Reduction of inflammation using pharmacological reagents has become a target of research for the treatment of stroke. Cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), a marker of inflammation, is induced during stroke and enhances inflammatory reactions through the release of enzymatic products, such as prostaglandin (PG) E2. METHODS Wild-type (WT) and COX-2 knockout (COX-2KO) mice were subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). Additionally, brain slices derived from these mice or brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) were exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) conditions. The expression levels of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins were assessed and correlated with the state of inflammation. RESULTS We found that components of the ECM, and specifically laminin, are transiently highly upregulated on endothelial cells after MCAO or OGD. This upregulation is not observed in COX-2KO mice or WT mice treated with COX-2 inhibitor, celecoxib, suggesting that COX-2 is associated with changes in the levels of laminins. CONCLUSIONS Taken together, we report that transient ECM remodeling takes place early after stroke and suggest that this increase in ECM protein expression may constitute an effort to revascularize and oxygenate the tissue.
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Abstract
Contrary to early views, we now know that systemic inflammatory/immune responses transmit to the brain. The microglia, the resident "macrophages" of the brain's innate immune system, are most responsive, and increasing evidence suggests that they enter a hyper-reactive state in neurodegenerative conditions and aging. As sustained over-production of microglial pro-inflammatory mediators is neurotoxic, this raises great concern that systemic inflammation (that also escalates with aging) exacerbates or possibly triggers, neurological diseases (Alzheimer's, prion, motoneuron disease). It is known that inflammation has an essential role in the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD), since amyloid-β (Aβ) is able to activate microglia, initiating an inflammatory response, which could have different consequences for neuronal survival. On one hand, microglia may delay the progression of AD by contributing to the clearance of Aβ, since they phagocyte Aβ and release enzymes responsible for Aβ degradation. Microglia also secrete growth factors and anti-inflammatory cytokines, which are neuroprotective. In addition, microglia removal of damaged cells is a very important step in the restoration of the normal brain environment, as if left such cells can become potent inflammatory stimuli, resulting in yet further tissue damage. On the other hand, as we age microglia become steadily less efficient at these processes, tending to become over-activated in response to stimulation and instigating too potent a reaction, which may cause neuronal damage in its own right. Therefore, it is critical to understand the state of activation of microglia in different AD stages to be able to determine the effect of potential anti-inflammatory therapies. We discuss here recent evidence supporting both the beneficial or detrimental performance of microglia in AD, and the attempt to find molecules/biomarkers for early diagnosis or therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Egle Solito
- Centre for Translational Medicine and Therapeutics, William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and The London, Queen Mary’s School of Medicine and DentistryLondon, UK
| | - Magdalena Sastre
- Centre for Neuroscience, Division of Experimental Medicine, Imperial College LondonLondon, UK
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Tufekci KU, Meuwissen R, Genc S, Genc K. Inflammation in Parkinson's disease. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2012; 88:69-132. [PMID: 22814707 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-398314-5.00004-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disease that is characterized by the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta. Inflammatory responses manifested by glial reactions, T cell infiltration, and increased expression of inflammatory cytokines, as well as other toxic mediators derived from activated glial cells, are currently recognized as prominent features of PD. The consistent findings obtained by various animal models of PD suggest that neuroinflammation is an important contributor to the pathogenesis of the disease and may further propel the progressive loss of nigral dopaminergic neurons. Furthermore, although it may not be the primary cause of PD, additional epidemiological, genetic, pharmacological, and imaging evidence support the proposal that inflammatory processes in this specific brain region are crucial for disease progression. Recent in vitro studies, however, have suggested that activation of microglia and subsequently astrocytes via mediators released by injured dopaminergic neurons is involved. However, additional in vivo experiments are needed for a deeper understanding of the mechanisms involved in PD pathogenesis. Further insight on the mechanisms of inflammation in PD will help to further develop alternative therapeutic strategies that will specifically and temporally target inflammatory processes without abrogating the potential benefits derived by neuroinflammation, such as tissue restoration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kemal Ugur Tufekci
- Department of Neuroscience, Health Science Institute, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey
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Vause CV, Durham PL. Identification of cytokines and signaling proteins differentially regulated by sumatriptan/naproxen. Headache 2011; 52:80-9. [PMID: 22150557 DOI: 10.1111/j.1526-4610.2011.02048.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The goal of this study was to use protein array analysis to investigate temporal regulation of stimulated cytokine expression in trigeminal ganglia and the spinal trigeminal nucleus in response to co-treatment of sumatriptan and naproxen sodium or individual drug. BACKGROUND Activation of neurons and glia in trigeminal ganglia and the spinal trigeminal nucleus leads to increased levels of cytokines that promote peripheral and central sensitization, which are key events in migraine pathology. While recent clinical studies have provided evidence that a combination of sumatriptan and naproxen sodium is more efficacious in treating migraine than either drug alone, it is not well understood why the combination therapy is superior to monotherapy. METHODS Male Sprague-Dawley rats were left untreated (control), injected with capsaicin, or pretreated with sumatriptan/naproxen, sumatriptan, or naproxen for 1 hour prior to capsaicin. Trigeminal ganglia and the spinal trigeminal nucleus were isolated 2 and 24 hours after capsaicin or drug treatment, and levels of 90 proteins were determined using a RayBio® Label-Based Rat Antibody Array (RayBiotech, Norcross, GA, USA). RESULTS Capsaicin stimulated a >3-fold increase in expression of the majority of cytokines in trigeminal ganglia at 2 hours that was sustained at 24 hours. Significantly, treatment with sumatriptan/naproxen almost completely abolished the stimulatory effects of capsaicin at 2 and 24 hours. Capsaicin stimulated >3-fold expression of more proteins in the spinal trigeminal nucleus at 24 hours when compared to 2 hours. Similarly, sumatriptan/naproxen abolished capsaicin stimulation of proteins in the spinal trigeminal nucleus at 2 hours and greatly suppressed protein expression 24 hours post-capsaicin injection. Interestingly, treatment with sumatriptan alone suppressed expression of different cytokines in trigeminal ganglia and the spinal trigeminal nucleus than repressed by naproxen sodium. CONCLUSION We found that the combination of sumatriptan/naproxen was effective in blocking capsaicin stimulation of pro-inflammatory proteins implicated in the development of peripheral and central sensitization in response to capsaicin activation of trigeminal neurons. Based on our findings that sumatriptan and naproxen regulate expression of different proteins in trigeminal ganglia and the spinal trigeminal nucleus, we propose that these drugs function on therapeutically distinct cellular targets to suppress inflammation and pain associated with migraine.
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Mitra S, Chakrabarti N, Bhattacharyya A. Differential regional expression patterns of α-synuclein, TNF-α, and IL-1β; and variable status of dopaminergic neurotoxicity in mouse brain after Paraquat treatment. J Neuroinflammation 2011; 8:163. [PMID: 22112368 PMCID: PMC3247140 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-8-163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2011] [Accepted: 11/24/2011] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Paraquat (1, 1-dimethyl-4, 4-bipyridium dichloride; PQ) causes neurotoxicity, especially dopaminergic neurotoxicity, and is a supposed risk factor for Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the cellular and molecular mechanisms of PQ-induced neurodegeneration are far from clear. Previous studies have shown that PQ induces neuroinflammation and dopaminergic cell loss, but the prime cause of those events is still in debate. Methods We examined the neuropathological effects of PQ not only in substantia nigra (SN) but also in frontal cortex (FC) and hippocampus of the progressive mouse (adult Swiss albino) model of PD-like neurodegeneration, using immunohistochemistry, western blots, and histological and biochemical analyses. Results PQ caused differential patterns of changes in cellular morphology and expression of proteins related to PD and neuroinflammation in the three regions examined (SN, FC and hippocampus). Coincident with behavioral impairment and brain-specific ROS generation, there was differential immunolocalization and decreased expression levels of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) in the three regions, whereas α-synuclein immunopositivity increased in hippocampus, increased in FC and decreased in SN. PQ-induced neuroinflammation was characterized by area-specific changes in localization and appearances of microglial cells with or without activation and increment in expression patterns of tumor necrosis factor-α in the three regions of mouse brain. Expression of interleukin-1β was increased in FC and hippocampus but not significantly changed in SN. Conclusion The present study demonstrates that PQ induces ROS production and differential α-synuclein expression that promotes neuroinflammation in microglia-dependent or -independent manners, and produces different patterns of dopaminergic neurotoxicity in three different regions of mouse brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soham Mitra
- Immunology Lab, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India
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Interleukin 4 induces the apoptosis of mouse microglial cells by a caspase-dependent mechanism. Neurobiol Dis 2011; 43:616-24. [PMID: 21624466 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2011.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2011] [Revised: 04/20/2011] [Accepted: 05/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglial cells are resident macrophages in the central nervous system (CNS) and become activated in many pathological conditions. Activation of microglial cells results in reactive microgliosis, manifested by an increase in cell number in the affected CNS regions. The control of microgliosis may be important to prevent pathological damage to the brain. The type 2 cytokine IL-4 has been reported to be protective in brain inflammation. However, its effect on microglial cell survival was not well understood. In this study, we report a dual effect of IL-4 on the survival of mouse microglial cells. In a 6h short term culture, IL-4 reduced the death of microglial cells induced by staurosporine. In contrast, in long term treatment (more than 48h), IL-4 increased the apoptotic death of both primary mouse microglial cells and a microglial cell line N9. Mechanistic studies revealed that, in microglial cells, IL-4 increased the levels of cleaved caspase 3 and PARP, which is down-stream of activated caspase 3. In addition, IL-4 down regulated the autophagy and the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-xL in microglial cells. On the other hand, the pre-incubation of microglial cells with IL-4 for 24h, attenuated the cell death induced by the neurotoxic peptide amyloid beta 1-42 (Aβ42). Our observations demonstrate a novel function of IL-4 in regulating the survival of microglial cells, which may have important significance in reduction of undesired inflammatory responses in the CNS.
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Li H, Zhao Y, Zhou S, Heng CK. Serum Amyloid A Activates Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor γ through Extracellularly Regulated Kinase 1/2 and COX-2 Expression in Hepatocytes. Biochemistry 2010; 49:9508-17. [DOI: 10.1021/bi100645m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hongzhe Li
- Department of Paediatrics, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119074
| | - Yulan Zhao
- Advanced Institute of NBIC Integrated Drug Discovery and Development, East China Normal University, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Shuli Zhou
- Department of Paediatrics, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119074
| | - Chew-Kiat Heng
- Department of Paediatrics, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119074
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Liu SH, Yang CN, Pan HC, Sung YJ, Liao KK, Chen WB, Lin WZ, Sheu ML. IL-13 downregulates PPAR-gamma/heme oxygenase-1 via ER stress-stimulated calpain activation: aggravation of activated microglia death. Cell Mol Life Sci 2010; 67:1465-76. [PMID: 20221786 PMCID: PMC11115918 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-009-0255-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2009] [Revised: 12/02/2009] [Accepted: 12/29/2009] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Interleukin 13 (IL-13) has been shown to induce the death of activated microglia. We observed that IL-13, but not IL-4 or IL-10, significantly enhanced endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress induction, apoptosis and death in microglia activated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). IL-13 enhanced ER stress-regulated calpain activation and calpain-II expression in LPS-activated microglia. Calpain-II siRNA effectively reversed the IL-13 + LPS-activated caspase-12 activation. Expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-gamma) was also increased in activated microglia, and this was effectively blocked by IL-13 and recombinant calpain. Both HO-1 inhibitor and PPAR-gamma antagonist augmented, but calpain inhibitor and PPAR-gamma agonists reversed, apoptosis induction in activated microglia. Transfection of PPAR-gamma siRNA effectively inhibited HO-1 protein expression in activated microglia. LPS stimulated transcriptional activation of HO-1 via an increase in PPAR-gamma DNA binding activity, which was reversed by IL-13. These results indicate that an ER stress-related calpain-down-regulated PPAR-gamma/HO-1 pathway is involved in the IL-13-enhanced activated death of microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shing Hwa Liu
- Institute of Toxicology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
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Icariin attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced microglial activation and resultant death of neurons by inhibiting TAK1/IKK/NF-kappaB and JNK/p38 MAPK pathways. Int Immunopharmacol 2010; 10:668-78. [PMID: 20347053 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2010.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2010] [Revised: 02/24/2010] [Accepted: 03/17/2010] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Microglia in the central nervous system (CNS) play an important role in the initiation of neuroinflammatory response. Icariin, a compound from Epimedium brevicornum Maxim, has been reported to have anti-inflammatory effect on the macrophage cell line RAW264.7. However, it is currently unknown what anti-inflammatory role icariin may play in the CNS. Here, we reported the discovery that icariin significantly inhibited the release of nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E (PGE)-2, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mRNA expression of proinflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, interleukin (IL)-1beta and IL-6 in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated microglia. Icariin also inhibited the protein expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 in a dose-dependent manner. Further mechanism studies revealed that icariin blocked TAK1/IKK/NF-kappaB and JNK/p38 MAPK pathways. It was also found that icariin reduced the degeneration of cortical neurons induced by LPS-activated microglia in neuron-microglia co-culture system. Taken together these findings provide mechanistic insights into the suppressive effect of icariin on LPS-induced neuroinflammatory response in microglia, and emphasize the neuroprotective effect and therapeutic potential of icariin in neuroinflammatory diseases.
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Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR): balance for survival in parasitic infections. J Biomed Biotechnol 2010; 2010:828951. [PMID: 20169106 PMCID: PMC2821783 DOI: 10.1155/2010/828951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2009] [Accepted: 11/10/2009] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Parasitic infections induce a magnitude of host responses. At the opposite ends of the spectrum are those that ensure the host's needs to eliminate the invaders and to minimize damage to its own tissues. This review analyzes how parasites would manipulate immunity by activating the immunosuppressive nuclear factor, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) with type 2 cytokines and free fatty acids from arachidonic acid metabolism. PPARs limit the action of type 1 immunity, in which classically activated macrophages act through the production of proinflammatory signals, to spare the parasites. They also favor the development of alternately activated macrophages which control inflammation so the host would not be destroyed. Possibly, the nuclear factors hold a pivotal role in the establishment of chronic infection by delicately balancing the pro- and anti-inflammatory signaling mechanisms and their ligands may be used as combination therapeutics to limit host pathology.
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Jiang M, Fernandez S, Jerome WG, He Y, Yu X, Cai H, Boone B, Yi Y, Magnuson MA, Roy-Burman P, Matusik RJ, Shappell SB, Hayward SW. Disruption of PPARgamma signaling results in mouse prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia involving active autophagy. Cell Death Differ 2009; 17:469-81. [PMID: 19834493 PMCID: PMC2821953 DOI: 10.1038/cdd.2009.148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARgamma) regulates the interface between cellular lipid metabolism, redox status and organelle differentiation. Conditional prostatic epithelial knockout of PPARgamma in mice resulted in focal hyperplasia which developed into mouse prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (mPIN). The grade of PIN became more severe with time. Electron microscopy (EM) showed accumulated secondary lysosomes containing cellular organelles and debris suggestive of autophagy. Consistent with this analysis the autophagy marker LC-3 was found to be upregulated in areas of PIN in PPARgamma KO tissues. We selectively knocked down PPARgamma2 isoform in wild-type mouse prostatic epithelial cells and examined the consequences of this in a tissue recombination model. Histopathologically grafted tissues resembled the conditional PPARgamma KO mouse prostates. EM studies of PPARgamma- and PPARgamma2-deficient epithelial cells in vitro were suggestive of autophagy, consistent with the prostatic tissue analysis. This was confirmed by examining expression of beclin-1 and LC-3. Gene expression profiling in PPARgamma-/gamma2-deficient cells indicated a major dysregulation of cell cycle control and metabolic signaling networks related to peroxisomal and lysosomal maturation, lipid oxidation and degradation. The putative autophagic phenotypes of PPARgamma-deficient cells could be rescued by re-expression of either gamma1 or gamma2 isoform. We conclude that disruption of PPARgamma signaling results in autophagy and oxidative stress during mPIN pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Jiang
- Department of Urologic Surgery, A-1302 MCN, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232-2765, USA.
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Matsumoto T, Inoue H, Sato Y, Kita Y, Nakano T, Noda N, Eguchi-Tsuda M, Moriwaki A, Kan-O K, Matsumoto K, Shimizu T, Nagasawa H, Sakuda S, Nakanishi Y. Demethylallosamidin, a chitinase inhibitor, suppresses airway inflammation and hyperresponsiveness. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2009; 390:103-8. [PMID: 19782048 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2009.09.075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2009] [Accepted: 09/19/2009] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Acidic mammalian chitinase is upregulated in response to allergen exposure in the lung. We investigated the effects of chitinase inhibitors, allosamidin (Allo) and demethylallosamidin (Dma), on asthmatic responses. Mice were subjected to IL-13 instillation into the airways or to ovalbumin sensitization plus exposure with or without treatment of Allo or Dma. Airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) and inflammation were evaluated. Allo and Dma attenuated airway eosinophilia and the upregulation of eotaxin after IL-13 instillation, while Dma, but not Allo, suppressed AHR in IL-13-induced asthma. Allo or Dma suppressed the elevated chitinase activity in BAL fluids after IL-13 to similar levels. The bronchoprotective PGE(2) levels in BAL fluids were elevated after IL-13 instillation. Allo, but not Dma, suppressed the overproduction of PGE(2) and the expression of COX-2 and PGE synthase-1 induced by IL-13. In ovalbumin-induced asthma, Dma suppressed AHR more strongly than Allo. These findings suggest that Dma attenuates asthmatic responses induced by IL-13 without affecting PGE(2) synthesis. Dma may have potential as therapeutic agents for asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takafumi Matsumoto
- Research Institute for Diseases of the Chest, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
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Microglial VEGF receptor response is an integral chemotactic component in Alzheimer's disease pathology. J Neurosci 2009; 29:3-13. [PMID: 19129379 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2888-08.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
We hypothesize that microglial chemotactic responses to amyloid-beta peptide (Abeta(1-42)) serve as an early and integral component of inflammatory response in Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain. This study reports a receptor for vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), termed VEGF-1 (Flt-1), subserves microglial chemotactic responses induced by Abeta(1-42) stimulation, in vivo and in vitro. Expression of Flt-1 was significantly increased in tissue obtained from AD patients [compared with tissue from nondemented (ND) individuals], in Abeta(1-42)-injected rat hippocampus, and in peptide-stimulated human microglia. Single and double immunohistochemical staining demonstrated marked immunoreactivity, for both Flt-1 and its ligand VEGF, in association with microglia and Abeta deposits in AD, but not ND, brain tissue. Functionally, treatment with anti-Flt-1 antibody was highly effective in inhibiting microglial mobility and chemotactic responses measured in vitro using a transwell migration assay. In vivo, transplanted enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP)-labeled microglia exhibited Flt-1-dependent chemotaxis induced by peptide injection with anti-Flt-1 effective in blocking migration of cells. Importantly, anti-Flt-1 reduction of microglial mobility was neuroprotective in peptide-injected hippocampus and associated with a significant increase in numbers of viable hippocampal neurons. The results of this study suggest critical functional roles for Flt-1 in mediating microglial chemotactic inflammatory responses which contribute to pathological conditions in AD brain.
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de Oliveira ACP, Candelario-Jalil E, Bhatia HS, Lieb K, Hüll M, Fiebich BL. Regulation of prostaglandin E2 synthase expression in activated primary rat microglia: evidence for uncoupled regulation of mPGES-1 and COX-2. Glia 2008; 56:844-55. [PMID: 18383341 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is among the most important mediators involved in neuroinflammatory processes. The final step of its synthesis is regulated by enzymes termed prostaglandin E2 synthases (PGES). Three PGES are known, cytosolic (c)PGES, membrane-associated (m)PGES-1 and mPGES-2. The expression of mPGES-1 is induced by inflammatory stimuli such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS), interleukin (IL)-1beta, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha. Although some roles of mPGES-1 have already been suggested, its function in the CNS and the signaling pathways involved in its upregulation are poorly understood. In this study, we examined the regulation of mPGES-1 in primary rat microglia and the signaling pathways involved in its expression. Whereas the expression of cPGES and mPGES-2 was not stimulated by LPS, low doses of LPS (0.1-1 ng/mL) sufficiently stimulated mPGES-1 mRNA expression. A corresponding protein synthesis, however, was obtained only with higher doses (10-100 ng/mL). The LPS-induced increase of mPGES-1 was inhibited by different signaling pathway inhibitors, such as SP600125, LY294002, GF109203X, and SC-514, suggesting the involvement of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI-3K)/Akt, protein kinase C (PKC) pathways, and the nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB, respectively. In contrast to other reports, LPS-induced mPGES-1 synthesis was not invariably coupled to the synthesis of COX-2, since inhibition of PI-3K with LY294002 decreased mPGES-1 but increased COX-2 levels. This detailed view of the intracellular signaling pathways involved in mPGES-1 expression in activated microglia opens a new avenue in the search for novel potential therapeutic targets to reduce neuroinflammation, and demonstrates that mPGES-1 expression is not strictly coupled to the expression of COX-2.
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Kim B, Lee JH, Yang MS, Jou I, Joe EH. Retinoic acid enhances prostaglandin E2 production through increased expression of cyclooxygenase-2 and microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 in rat brain microglia. J Neurosci Res 2008; 86:1353-60. [PMID: 18183617 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.21593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Retinoic acid (RA) is a well-known antiinflammatory agent. In this study, we show that RA has a dual effect on cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression in inflammatory activated microglia, the resident brain macrophages. After treatment of microglia with LPS or thrombin, COX-2 expression was induced in two phases, specifically, an initial increase at about 12 hr after stimulation followed by a decrease, and another increase at about 48-72 hr. However, PGE(2) and 15d-PGJ(2) were detected at about 12 hr, and the levels continuously increased thereafter. Interestingly, all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) suppressed the expression of early-phase COX-2 but augmented late-phase COX-2 and inhibited iNOS in the whole time sequence. ATRA enhanced PGE(2) production but had little effect on 15d-PGJ(2). Moreover, ATRA selectively up-regulated the expression of a PGE(2) synthase, mPGES-1, but had little effect on the PGD(2) synthase, H-PGDS. The results collectively suggest that ATRA modulates microglial responses to inflammatory stimulators, particularly at the late phase, via enhancement of COX-2 expression and PGE(2) production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beomsue Kim
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Kyunggi-do, Korea
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