1
|
Cigalotto L, Martinvalet D. Granzymes in health and diseases: the good, the bad and the ugly. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1371743. [PMID: 38646541 PMCID: PMC11026543 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1371743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Granzymes are a family of serine proteases, composed of five human members: GA, B, H, M and K. They were first discovered in the 1980s within cytotoxic granules released during NK cell- and T cell-mediated killing. Through their various proteolytic activities, granzymes can trigger different pathways within cells, all of which ultimately lead to the same result, cell death. Over the years, the initial consideration of granzymes as mere cytotoxic mediators has changed due to surprising findings demonstrating their expression in cells other than immune effectors as well as new intracellular and extracellular activities. Additional roles have been identified in the extracellular milieu, following granzyme escape from the immunological synapse or their release by specific cell types. Outside the cell, granzyme activities mediate extracellular matrix alteration via the degradation of matrix proteins or surface receptors. In certain contexts, these processes are essential for tissue homeostasis; in others, excessive matrix degradation and extensive cell death contribute to the onset of chronic diseases, inflammation, and autoimmunity. Here, we provide an overview of both the physiological and pathological roles of granzymes, highlighting their utility while also recognizing how their unregulated presence can trigger the development and/or worsening of diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lavinia Cigalotto
- Laboratory of Reactive Oxygen Species and Cytotoxic Immunity, Department Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Veneto Institute Of Molecular Medicine (VIMM), Padova, Italy
| | - Denis Martinvalet
- Laboratory of Reactive Oxygen Species and Cytotoxic Immunity, Department Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Veneto Institute Of Molecular Medicine (VIMM), Padova, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Aggio V, Fabbella L, Poletti S, Lorenzi C, Finardi A, Colombo C, Zanardi R, Furlan R, Benedetti F. Circulating cytotoxic immune cell composition, activation status and toxins expression associate with white matter microstructure in bipolar disorder. Sci Rep 2023; 13:22209. [PMID: 38097657 PMCID: PMC10721611 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-49146-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Patients with bipolar disorder (BD) show higher immuno-inflammatory setpoints, with in vivo alterations in white matter (WM) microstructure and post-mortem infiltration of T cells in the brain. Cytotoxic CD8+ T cells can enter and damage the brain in inflammatory disorders, but little is known in BD. Our study aimed to investigate the relationship between cytotoxic T cells and WM alterations in BD. In a sample of 83 inpatients with BD in an active phase of illness (68 depressive, 15 manic), we performed flow cytometry immunophenotyping to investigate frequencies, activation status, and expression of cytotoxic markers in CD8+ and tested for their association with diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) measures of WM microstructure. Frequencies of naïve and activated CD8+ cell populations expressing Perforin, or both Perforin and Granzyme, negatively associated with WM microstructure. CD8+ Naïve cells negative for Granzyme and Perforin positively associates with indexes of WM integrity, while the frequency of CD8+ memory cells negatively associates with index of WM microstructure, irrespective of toxins expression. The resulting associations involve measures representative of orientational coherence and myelination of the fibers (FA and RD), suggesting disrupted oligodendrocyte-mediated myelination. These findings seems to support the hypothesis that immunosenescence (less naïve, more memory T cells) can detrimentally influence WM microstructure in BD and that peripheral CD8+ T cells may participate in inducing an immune-related WM damage in BD mediated by killer proteins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Aggio
- Psychiatry and Clinical Psychobiology Unit, Division of Neurosciences, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, San Raffaele Turro, Via Stamira d'Ancona 20, 20127, Milano, Italy.
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy.
| | - Lorena Fabbella
- Clinical Neuroimmunology Unit, Division of Neuroscience, Institute of Experimental Neurology, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Sara Poletti
- Psychiatry and Clinical Psychobiology Unit, Division of Neurosciences, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, San Raffaele Turro, Via Stamira d'Ancona 20, 20127, Milano, Italy
| | - Cristina Lorenzi
- Psychiatry and Clinical Psychobiology Unit, Division of Neurosciences, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, San Raffaele Turro, Via Stamira d'Ancona 20, 20127, Milano, Italy
| | - Annamaria Finardi
- Clinical Neuroimmunology Unit, Division of Neuroscience, Institute of Experimental Neurology, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Cristina Colombo
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy
- Mood Disorders Unit, IRCCS Scientific Institute Ospedale San Raffaele, Milano, Italy
| | - Raffaella Zanardi
- Mood Disorders Unit, IRCCS Scientific Institute Ospedale San Raffaele, Milano, Italy
| | - Roberto Furlan
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy
- Clinical Neuroimmunology Unit, Division of Neuroscience, Institute of Experimental Neurology, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesco Benedetti
- Psychiatry and Clinical Psychobiology Unit, Division of Neurosciences, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, San Raffaele Turro, Via Stamira d'Ancona 20, 20127, Milano, Italy
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Levite M, Goldberg H. Autoimmune Epilepsy - Novel Multidisciplinary Analysis, Discoveries and Insights. Front Immunol 2022; 12:762743. [PMID: 35095841 PMCID: PMC8790247 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.762743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Epilepsy affects ~50 million people. In ~30% of patients the etiology is unknown, and ~30% are unresponsive to anti-epileptic drugs. Intractable epilepsy often leads to multiple seizures daily or weekly, lasting for years, and accompanied by cognitive, behavioral, and psychiatric problems. This multidisciplinary scientific (not clinical) 'Perspective' article discusses Autoimmune Epilepsy from immunological, neurological and basic-science angles. The article includes summaries and novel discoveries, ideas, insights and recommendations. We summarize the characteristic features of the respective antigens, and the pathological activity in vitro and in animal models of autoimmune antibodies to: Glutamate/AMPA-GluR3, Glutamate/NMDA-NR1, Glutamate/NMDA-NR2, GAD-65, GABA-R, GLY-R, VGKC, LGI1, CASPR2, and β2 GP1, found in subpopulations of epilepsy patients. Glutamate receptor antibodies: AMPA-GluR3B peptide antibodies, seem so far as the most exclusive and pathogenic autoimmune antibodies in Autoimmune Epilepsy. They kill neural cells by three mechanisms: excitotoxicity, Reactive-Oxygen-Species, and complement-fixation, and induce and/or facilitate brain damage, seizures, and behavioral impairments. In this article we raise and discuss many more topics and new insights related to Autoimmune Epilepsy. 1. Few autoimmune antibodies tilt the balance between excitatory Glutamate and inhibitory GABA, thereby promoting neuropathology and epilepsy; 2. Many autoantigens are synaptic, and have extracellular domains. These features increase the likelihood of autoimmunity against them, and the ease with which autoimmune antibodies can reach and harm these self-proteins. 3. Several autoantigens have 'frenetic character'- undergoing dynamic changes that can increase their antigenicity; 4. The mRNAs of the autoantigens are widely expressed in multiple organs outside the brain. If translated by default to proteins, broad spectrum detrimental autoimmunity is expected; 5. The autoimmunity can precede seizures, cause them, and be detrimental whether primary or epiphenomenon; 6. Some autoimmune antibodies induce, and associate with, cognitive, behavioral and psychiatric impairments; 7. There are evidences for epitope spreading in Autoimmune Epilepsy; 8. T cells have different 'faces' in the brain, and in Autoimmune Epilepsy: Normal T cells are needed for the healthy brain. Normal T cells are damaged by autoimmune antibodies to Glutamate/AMPA GluR3, which they express, and maybe by additional autoantibodies to: Dopamine-R, GABA-R, Ach-R, Serotonin-R, and Adrenergic-R, present in various neurological diseases (summarized herein), since T cells express all these Neurotransmitter receptors. However, autoimmune and/or cytotoxic T cells damage the brain; 9. The HLA molecules are important for normal brain function. The HLA haplotype can confer susceptibility or protection from Autoimmune Epilepsy; 10. There are several therapeutic strategies for Autoimmune Epilepsy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mia Levite
- Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
- Goldyne Savad Institute of Gene Therapy, Hadassah Hebrew University Hospital, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Hadassa Goldberg
- Epilepsy Center, Schneider Children’s Medical Center of Israel, Petach Tikva, Israel
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Harris KM, Clements MA, Kwilasz AJ, Watkins LR. T cell transgressions: Tales of T cell form and function in diverse disease states. Int Rev Immunol 2022; 41:475-516. [PMID: 34152881 PMCID: PMC8752099 DOI: 10.1080/08830185.2021.1921764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Insights into T cell form, function, and dysfunction are rapidly evolving. T cells have remarkably varied effector functions including protecting the host from infection, activating cells of the innate immune system, releasing cytokines and chemokines, and heavily contributing to immunological memory. Under healthy conditions, T cells orchestrate a finely tuned attack on invading pathogens while minimizing damage to the host. The dark side of T cells is that they also exhibit autoreactivity and inflict harm to host cells, creating autoimmunity. The mechanisms of T cell autoreactivity are complex and dynamic. Emerging research is elucidating the mechanisms leading T cells to become autoreactive and how such responses cause or contribute to diverse disease states, both peripherally and within the central nervous system. This review provides foundational information on T cell development, differentiation, and functions. Key T cell subtypes, cytokines that create their effector roles, and sex differences are highlighted. Pathological T cell contributions to diverse peripheral and central disease states, arising from errors in reactivity, are highlighted, with a focus on multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, neuropathic pain, and type 1 diabetes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Linda R. Watkins
- Corresponding author: Ph: 720-387-0304, Fax: 303-735-8290, , Address: 2860 Wilderness Place, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80301
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Fairless R, Bading H, Diem R. Pathophysiological Ionotropic Glutamate Signalling in Neuroinflammatory Disease as a Therapeutic Target. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:741280. [PMID: 34744612 PMCID: PMC8567076 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.741280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/30/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Glutamate signalling is an essential aspect of neuronal communication involving many different glutamate receptors, and underlies the processes of memory, learning and synaptic plasticity. Despite neuroinflammatory diseases covering a range of maladies with very different biological causes and pathophysiologies, a central role for dysfunctional glutamate signalling is becoming apparent. This is not just restricted to the well-described role of glutamate in mediating neurodegeneration, but also includes a myriad of other influences that glutamate can exert on the vasculature, as well as immune cell and glial regulation, reflecting the ability of neurons to communicate with these compartments in order to couple their activity with neuronal requirements. Here, we discuss the role of pathophysiological glutamate signalling in neuroinflammatory disease, using both multiple sclerosis and Alzheimer's disease as examples, and how current steps are being made to harness our growing understanding of these processes in the development of neuroprotective strategies. This review focuses in particular on N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and 2-amino-3-(3-hydroxy-5-methylisooxazol-4-yl) propionate (AMPA) type ionotropic glutamate receptors, although metabotropic, G-protein-coupled glutamate receptors may also contribute to neuroinflammatory processes. Given the indispensable roles of glutamate-gated ion channels in synaptic communication, means of pharmacologically distinguishing between physiological and pathophysiological actions of glutamate will be discussed that allow deleterious signalling to be inhibited whilst minimising the disturbance of essential neuronal function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Richard Fairless
- Department of Neurology, University Clinic Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.,Clinical Cooperation Unit (CCU) Neurooncology, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Hilmar Bading
- Department of Neurobiology, Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ricarda Diem
- Department of Neurology, University Clinic Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.,Clinical Cooperation Unit (CCU) Neurooncology, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Levite M, Safadi R, Milgrom Y, Massarwa M, Galun E. Neurotransmitters and Neuropeptides decrease PD-1 in T cells of healthy subjects and patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), and increase their proliferation and eradication of HCC cells. Neuropeptides 2021; 89:102159. [PMID: 34293596 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2021.102159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Revised: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
T cells of aged people, and of patients with either cancer or severe infections (including COVID-19), are often exhausted, senescent and dysfunctional, leading to increased susceptibilities, complications and mortality. Neurotransmitters and Neuropeptides bind their receptors in T cells, and induce multiple beneficial T cell functions. Yet, T cells of different people vary in the expression levels of Neurotransmitter and Neuropeptide receptors, and in the magnitude of the corresponding effects. Therefore, we performed an individual-based study on T cells of 3 healthy subjects, and 3 Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC) patients. HCC usually develops due to chronic inflammation. The inflamed liver induces reduction and inhibition of CD4+ T cells and Natural Killer (NK) cells. Immune-based therapies for HCC are urgently needed. We tested if selected Neurotransmitters and Neuropeptides decrease the key checkpoint protein PD-1 in human T cells, and increase proliferation and killing of HCC cells. First, we confirmed human T cells express all dopamine receptors (DRs), and glutamate receptors (GluRs): AMPA-GluR3, NMDA-R and mGluR. Second, we discovered that either Dopamine, Glutamate, GnRH-II, Neuropeptide Y and/or CGRP (10nM), as well as DR and GluR agonists, induced the following effects: 1. Decreased significantly both %PD-1+ T cells and PD-1 expression level per cell (up to 60% decrease, within 1 h only); 2. Increased significantly the number of T cells that proliferated in the presence of HCC cells (up to 7 fold increase), 3. Increased significantly T cell killing of HCC cells (up to 2 fold increase). 4. Few non-conventional combinations of Neurotransmitters and Neuropeptides had surprising synergistic beneficial effects. We conclude that Dopamine, Glutamate, GnRH-II, Neuropeptide Y and CGRP, alone or in combinations, can decrease % PD-1+ T cells and PD-1 expression per cell, in T cells of both healthy subjects and HCC patients, and increase their proliferation in response to HCC cells and killing of HCC cells. Yet, testing T cells of many more cancer patients is absolutely needed. Based on these findings and previous ones, we designed a novel "Personalized Adoptive Neuro-Immunotherapy", calling for validation of safety and efficacy in clinical trials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mia Levite
- Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91120, Israel; Institute of Gene Therapy, Hadassah Hebrew University Hospital, Ein Karem, Jerusalem 91120, Israel.
| | - Rifaat Safadi
- The Liver Unit, Hadassah Hebrew University Hospital, Ein Karem, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| | - Yael Milgrom
- The Liver Unit, Hadassah Hebrew University Hospital, Ein Karem, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| | - Muhammad Massarwa
- The Liver Unit, Hadassah Hebrew University Hospital, Ein Karem, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| | - Eithan Galun
- Institute of Gene Therapy, Hadassah Hebrew University Hospital, Ein Karem, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Holton KF. Micronutrients May Be a Unique Weapon Against the Neurotoxic Triad of Excitotoxicity, Oxidative Stress and Neuroinflammation: A Perspective. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:726457. [PMID: 34630015 PMCID: PMC8492967 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.726457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Excitotoxicity has been implicated in many neurological disorders and is a leading cause of oxidative stress and neuroinflammation in the nervous system. Most of the research to date has focused on each of these conditions individually; however, excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation have the ability to influence one another in a self-sustaining manner, thus functioning as a "neurotoxic triad." This perspective article re-introduces the concept of the neurotoxic triad and reviews how specific dietary micronutrients have been shown to protect against not only oxidative stress, but also excitotoxicity and neuroinflammation. Future dietary interventions for neurological disorders could focus on the effects on all three aspects of the neurotoxic triad.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen F Holton
- Nutritional Neuroscience Lab, Department of Health Studies, Center for Neuroscience and Behavior, American University, Washington, DC, United States
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Allegra A, Sant'Antonio E, Musolino C, Ettari R. New insights into neuropeptides regulation of immune system and hemopoiesis: effects on hematologic malignancies. Curr Med Chem 2021; 29:2412-2437. [PMID: 34521320 DOI: 10.2174/0929867328666210914120228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Several neurotransmitters and neuropeptides were reported to join to or to cooperate with different cells of the immune system, bone marrow, and peripheral cells and numerous data support that neuroactive molecules might control immune system activity and hemopoiesis operating on lymphoid organs, and the primary hematopoietic unit, the hematopoietic niche. Furthermore, many compounds seem to be able to take part to the leukemogenesis and lymphomagenesis process, and in the onset of multiple myeloma. In this review, we will assess the possibility that neurotransmitters and neuropeptides may have a role in the onset of haematological neoplasms, may affect the response to treatment or may represent a useful starting point for a new therapeutic approach. More in vivo investigations are needed to evaluate neuropeptide's role in haematological malignancies and the possible utilization as an antitumor therapeutic target. Comprehending the effect of the pharmacological administration of neuropeptide modulators on hematologic malignancies opens up new possibilities in curing clonal hematologic diseases to achieve more satisfactory outcomes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Allegra
- Department of Human Pathology in Adulthood and Childhood, University of Messina. Italy
| | | | - Caterina Musolino
- Department of Human Pathology in Adulthood and Childhood, University of Messina. Italy
| | - Roberta Ettari
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Chemistry, University of Messina. Italy
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Goldshmit Y, Perelroizen R, Yakovchuk A, Banyas E, Mayo L, David S, Benbenishty A, Blinder P, Shalom M, Ruban A. Blood glutamate scavengers increase pro-apoptotic signaling and reduce metastatic melanoma growth in-vivo. Sci Rep 2021; 11:14644. [PMID: 34282238 PMCID: PMC8290021 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-94183-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Inhibition of extracellular glutamate (Glu) release decreases proliferation and invasion, induces apoptosis, and inhibits melanoma metastatic abilities. Previous studies have shown that Blood-glutamate scavenging (BGS), a novel treatment approach, has been found to be beneficial in attenuating glioblastoma progression by reducing brain Glu levels. Therefore, in this study we evaluated the ability of BGS treatment to inhibit brain metastatic melanoma progression in-vivo. RET melanoma cells were implanted in C56BL/6J mice to induce brain melanoma tumors followed by treatment with BGS or vehicle administered for fourteen days. Bioluminescent imaging was conducted to evaluate tumor growth, and plasma/CSF Glu levels were monitored throughout. Immunofluorescence staining of Ki67 and 53BP1 was used to analyze tumor cell proliferation and DNA double-strand breaks. In addition, we analyzed CD8, CD68, CD206, p-STAT1 and iNOS expression to evaluate alterations in tumor micro-environment and anti-tumor immune response due to treatment. Our results show that BGS treatment reduces CSF Glu concentration and consequently melanoma growth in-vivo by decreasing tumor cell proliferation and increasing pro-apoptotic signaling in C56BL/6J mice. Furthermore, BGS treatment supported CD8+ cell recruitment and CD68+ macrophage invasion. These findings suggest that BGS can be of potential therapeutic relevance in the treatment of metastatic melanoma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yona Goldshmit
- Steyer School of Health Professions, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, P.O. Box 39040, 6997801, Tel Aviv, Israel.,Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, Monash Biotechnology, 15 Innovation Walk, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia
| | - Rita Perelroizen
- Shmunis School of Biomedicine and Cancer Research, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, 6997801, Tel Aviv, Israel.,Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, 6997801, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Alex Yakovchuk
- Steyer School of Health Professions, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, P.O. Box 39040, 6997801, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Evgeni Banyas
- Steyer School of Health Professions, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, P.O. Box 39040, 6997801, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Lior Mayo
- Shmunis School of Biomedicine and Cancer Research, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, 6997801, Tel Aviv, Israel.,Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, 6997801, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Sari David
- Steyer School of Health Professions, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, P.O. Box 39040, 6997801, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Amit Benbenishty
- Department of Biological Regulation, Weizmann Institute of Science, 7610001, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Pablo Blinder
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, 6997801, Tel Aviv, Israel.,Neurobiology Department, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, 6997801, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Moshe Shalom
- Steyer School of Health Professions, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, P.O. Box 39040, 6997801, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Angela Ruban
- Steyer School of Health Professions, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, P.O. Box 39040, 6997801, Tel Aviv, Israel. .,Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, 6997801, Tel Aviv, Israel.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Xu WL, Wang RL, Liu Z, Wu Q, Li XL, He Q, Zhu JQ. Granzyme B-Producing B Cells Function as a Feedback Loop for T Helper Cells in Liver Transplant Recipients with Acute Rejection. Inflammation 2021; 44:2270-2278. [PMID: 34120305 DOI: 10.1007/s10753-021-01498-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Granzyme B-producing B cells have been reportedly reported to be an important regulatory B cell subset in the pathogenesis of many diseases. However, its role in liver transplant recipients with acute rejection has never been well elucidated. Seventeen liver transplant recipients with acute rejection and 25 controls with stable liver function were enrolled in this study to determine the function of granzyme B-producing B cells via flow cytometry. Liver transplant recipients with acute rejection had higher expression of granzyme B in CD19+B cells when compared with controls. Following rejection, the granzyme B production was even elevated although comparison failed to reach significance. The percentages of CD27+granzyme B+CD19+B cells and CD138+granzyme B+CD19+B cells were lower than those of CD27-granzyme B+CD19+B cells and CD138-granzyme B+CD19+B cells in patients with acute rejection, respectively. While the production of CD27 and CD138 was not different between liver transplant recipients with and without acute rejection but increased expression of the two surface markers was observed following rejection. Furthermore, the frequency of granzyme B+CD19+B cells correlated with the level of alanine aminotransferase instead of tacrolimus. CD19+B cells could produce granzyme B when stimulated with IgG + IgM and CpG in the presence of the supernatant of activated CD4+CD25-T cells. In return, granzyme B+CD19+B cells could suppress the proliferation of CD4+CD25-T cells in a granzyme B- and contact-dependent manner. The increased expression of granzyme B in CD19+B cells from liver transplant recipients with acute rejection might function as a feedback loop for the activation of the CD4+CD25-T cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Li Xu
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreaticosplenic Surgery, Medical Research Center, Beijing Organ Transplant Center, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, No. 8 Gongtinan Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100020, China
| | - Ruo-Lin Wang
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreaticosplenic Surgery, Medical Research Center, Beijing Organ Transplant Center, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, No. 8 Gongtinan Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100020, China
| | - Zhe Liu
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreaticosplenic Surgery, Medical Research Center, Beijing Organ Transplant Center, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, No. 8 Gongtinan Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100020, China
| | - Qiao Wu
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreaticosplenic Surgery, Medical Research Center, Beijing Organ Transplant Center, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, No. 8 Gongtinan Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100020, China
| | - Xian-Liang Li
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreaticosplenic Surgery, Medical Research Center, Beijing Organ Transplant Center, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, No. 8 Gongtinan Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100020, China
| | - Qiang He
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreaticosplenic Surgery, Medical Research Center, Beijing Organ Transplant Center, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, No. 8 Gongtinan Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100020, China.
| | - Ji-Qiao Zhu
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreaticosplenic Surgery, Medical Research Center, Beijing Organ Transplant Center, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, No. 8 Gongtinan Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100020, China.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Hagn M, Jahrsdörfer B. Why do human B cells secrete granzyme B? Insights into a novel B-cell differentiation pathway. Oncoimmunology 2021; 1:1368-1375. [PMID: 23243600 PMCID: PMC3518509 DOI: 10.4161/onci.22354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
B cells are generally believed to operate as producers of high affinity antibodies to defend the body against microorganisms, whereas cellular cytotoxicity is considered as an exclusive prerogative of natural killer (NK) cells and cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). In conflict with this dogma, recent studies have demonstrated that the combination of interleukin-21 (IL-21) and B-cell receptor (BCR) stimulation enables B cells to produce and secrete the active form of the cytotoxic serine protease granzyme B (GrB). Although the production of GrB by B cells is not accompanied by that of perforin as in the case of many other GrB-secreting cells, recent findings suggest GrB secretion by B cells may play a significant role in early antiviral immune responses, in the regulation of autoimmune responses, and in cancer immunosurveillance. Here, we discuss in detail how GrB-secreting B cells may influence a variety of immune processes. A better understanding of the role that GrB-secreting B cells are playing in the immune system may allow for the development and improvement of novel immunotherapeutic approaches against infectious, autoimmune and malignant diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Hagn
- Cancer Immunology Program; Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre; Melbourne, Australia
| | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Balasa R, Barcutean L, Balasa A, Motataianu A, Roman-Filip C, Manu D. The action of TH17 cells on blood brain barrier in multiple sclerosis and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Hum Immunol 2020; 81:237-243. [PMID: 32122685 DOI: 10.1016/j.humimm.2020.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 02/05/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Th17 cells, known as a highly pro-inflammatory subtype of Th cells, are involved very early in numerous aspects of multiple sclerosis (MS) and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) neuropathology. A crucial event for the formation and accumulation of MS lesions is represented by the disruption of the blood brain barrier (BBB) in relapsing-remitting MS. Th17 cells also contribute to the progression of MS/EAE. These events will allow for the passage of inflammatory cells into the brain. Secondary to this, increased recruitment of neutrophils occurs, followed by increased protease activity that will continue to attract macrophages and monocytes, leading to brain inflammation with sustained myelin and axon damage. This review focuses mainly on the role of Th17 cells in penetrating the BBB and on their important effects on BBB disruption via their main secretion products, IL-17 and IL-22. We present the morphological aspects of Th17 cells that allow for intercellular contacts with BBB endothelial cells and the functional/secretory particularities of Th17 cells that allow for intercellular communications that enhance Th17 entry into the CNS. The cytokines and chemokines involved in these processes are described. In conclusion, Th17 cells can efficiently cross the BBB using pathways distinct from those used by Th1 cells, leading to BBB disruption, the activation of other inflammatory cells and neurodegeneration in MS patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rodica Balasa
- Neurology 1 Clinic, Emergency Clinical County Hospital Tirgu Mures, Romania; Neurology Department, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology Tirgu Mures, Romania
| | - Laura Barcutean
- Neurology 1 Clinic, Emergency Clinical County Hospital Tirgu Mures, Romania; Neurology Department, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology Tirgu Mures, Romania
| | - Adrian Balasa
- Neurosurgery Clinic, Emergency Clinical County Hospital Tirgu Mures, Romania
| | - Anca Motataianu
- Neurology 1 Clinic, Emergency Clinical County Hospital Tirgu Mures, Romania; Neurology Department, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology Tirgu Mures, Romania.
| | | | - Doina Manu
- Centre for Advanced Medical and Pharmaceutical Research, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology, Tirgu Mures, Romania
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Hodo TW, de Aquino MTP, Shimamoto A, Shanker A. Critical Neurotransmitters in the Neuroimmune Network. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1869. [PMID: 32973771 PMCID: PMC7472989 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2019] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Immune cells rely on cell-cell communication to specify and fine-tune their responses. They express an extensive network of cell communication modes, including a vast repertoire of cell surface and transmembrane receptors and ligands, membrane vesicles, junctions, ligand and voltage-gated ion channels, and transporters. During a crosstalk between the nervous system and the immune system these modes of cellular communication and the downstream signal transduction events are influenced by neurotransmitters present in the local tissue environments in an autocrine or paracrine fashion. Neurotransmitters thus influence innate and adaptive immune responses. In addition, immune cells send signals to the brain through cytokines, and are present in the brain to influence neural responses. Altered communication between the nervous and immune systems is emerging as a common feature in neurodegenerative and immunopathological diseases. Here, we present the mechanistic frameworks of immunostimulatory and immunosuppressive effects critical neurotransmitters - dopamine (3,4-dihydroxyphenethylamine), serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine), substance P (trifluoroacetate salt powder), and L-glutamate - exert on lymphocytes and non-lymphoid immune cells. Furthermore, we discuss the possible roles neurotransmitter-driven neuroimmune networks play in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders, autoimmune diseases, cancer, and outline potential clinical implications of balancing neuroimmune crosstalk by therapeutic modulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Wesley Hodo
- Department of Biochemistry, Cancer Biology, Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Meharry Medical College School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, United States.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Meharry Medical College School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, United States.,School of Graduate Studies and Research, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Maria Teresa Prudente de Aquino
- Department of Biochemistry, Cancer Biology, Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Meharry Medical College School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Akiko Shimamoto
- Department of Biochemistry, Cancer Biology, Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Meharry Medical College School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Anil Shanker
- Department of Biochemistry, Cancer Biology, Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Meharry Medical College School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, United States.,School of Graduate Studies and Research, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN, United States.,Host-Tumor Interactions Research Program, Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States.,Vanderbilt Center for Immunobiology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States.,Vanderbilt Institute for Infection, Immunology and Inflammation, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Rosenberg KM, Singh NJ. Mouse T cells express a neurotransmitter-receptor signature that is quantitatively modulated in a subset- and activation-dependent manner. Brain Behav Immun 2019; 80:275-285. [PMID: 30953766 PMCID: PMC6660347 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2019.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2018] [Revised: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurotransmitters are known to modulate the course of an immune response by targeting cells in both the innate and adaptive immune systems. Increasing evidence suggests that T cells, by expressing specific neurotransmitter receptors (NR) are directly regulated by them, leading to altered activation and skewed differentiation of the adaptive immune response. Given that gene expression in T cells changes in lineage- and activation-dependent fashion, it is expected that sensitivity to neurotransmitters may also vary along these lines. Here we generate an important resource for further analysis of this tier of immunoregulation, by identifying the distinct profile of NR transcripts that are expressed by peripheral T cells in mice, at different states of activation and differentiation. We find that only about 15% of the total annotated NR genes are transcribed in these T cells and most of them do not change in different subsets of T cells (CD8, CD4 - Naïve vs Memory vs Treg), or even when T cells migrate to different tissues. We suggest that the T cell-expressed NRs, found across all these subsets identifies a core, constitutive NR signature for the T cell lineage. In contrast, a very limited number (<2) of NRs were observed to mark each of the post-activation T cell states, suggesting that very specific neurotransmitter signals are available to modulate T cell responses in vivo in these subsets.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Nevil J Singh
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, HH 320A, 660 W Baltimore Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) has long been considered a CD4 T-cell disease, primarily because of the findings that the strongest genetic risk for MS is the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II locus, and that T cells play a central role in directing the immune response. The importance that the T helper (Th)1 cytokine, interferon γ (IFN-γ), and the Th17 cytokine, interleukin (IL)-17, play in MS pathogenesis is indicated by recent clinical trial data by the enhanced presence of Th1/Th17 cells in central nervous system (CNS) tissue, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and blood, and by research on animal models of MS, such as experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Although the majority of research on MS pathogenesis has centered on the role of effector CD4 T cells, accumulating data suggests that CD8 T cells may play a significant role in the human disease. In fact, in contrast to most animal models, the primary T cell found in the CNS in patients with MS, is the CD8 T cell. As patient-derived effector T cells are also resistant to mechanisms of dominant tolerance such as that induced by interaction with regulatory T cells (Tregs), their reduced response to regulation may also contribute to the unchecked effector T-cell activity in patients with MS. These concepts will be discussed below.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Belinda J Kaskow
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Clare Baecher-Allan
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Tien WS, Chen JH, Wu KP. SheddomeDB: the ectodomain shedding database for membrane-bound shed markers. BMC Bioinformatics 2017; 18:42. [PMID: 28361715 PMCID: PMC5374707 DOI: 10.1186/s12859-017-1465-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A number of membrane-anchored proteins are known to be released from cell surface via ectodomain shedding. The cleavage and release of membrane proteins has been shown to modulate various cellular processes and disease pathologies. Numerous studies revealed that cell membrane molecules of diverse functional groups are subjected to proteolytic cleavage, and the released soluble form of proteins may modulate various signaling processes. Therefore, in addition to the secreted protein markers that undergo secretion through the secretory pathway, the shed membrane proteins may comprise an additional resource of noninvasive and accessible biomarkers. In this context, identifying the membrane-bound proteins that will be shed has become important in the discovery of clinically noninvasive biomarkers. Nevertheless, a data repository for biological and clinical researchers to review the shedding information, which is experimentally validated, for membrane-bound protein shed markers is still lacking. RESULTS In this study, the database SheddomeDB was developed to integrate publicly available data of the shed membrane proteins. A comprehensive literature survey was performed to collect the membrane proteins that were verified to be cleaved or released in the supernatant by immunological-based validation experiments. From 436 studies on shedding, 401 validated shed membrane proteins were included, among which 199 shed membrane proteins have not been annotated or validated yet by existing cleavage databases. SheddomeDB attempted to provide a comprehensive shedding report, including the regulation of shedding machinery and the related function or diseases involved in the shedding events. In addition, our published tool ShedP was embedded into SheddomeDB to support researchers for predicting the shedding event on unknown or unrecorded membrane proteins. CONCLUSIONS To the best of our knowledge, SheddomeDB is the first database for the identification of experimentally validated shed membrane proteins and currently may provide the most number of membrane proteins for reviewing the shedding information. The database included membrane-bound shed markers associated with numerous cellular processes and diseases, and some of these markers are potential novel markers because they are not annotated or validated yet in other databases. SheddomeDB may provide a useful resource for discovering membrane-bound shed markers. The interactive web of SheddomeDB is publicly available at http://bal.ym.edu.tw/SheddomeDB/ .
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Sheng Tien
- Institute of Biomedical Informatics, National Yang Ming University, Taipei, 112, Taiwan.,Bioinformatics Program, Taiwan International Graduate Program, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 115, Taiwan
| | - Jun-Hong Chen
- Department of Computer Science, National Taipei University of Education, Taipei, 106, Taiwan
| | - Kun-Pin Wu
- Institute of Biomedical Informatics, National Yang Ming University, Taipei, 112, Taiwan.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Levite M. Glutamate, T cells and multiple sclerosis. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2017; 124:775-798. [PMID: 28236206 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-016-1661-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2016] [Accepted: 11/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the nervous system, where it induces multiple beneficial and essential effects. Yet, excess glutamate, evident in a kaleidoscope of acute and chronic pathologies, is absolutely catastrophic, since it induces excitotoxicity and massive loss of brain function. Both the beneficial and the detrimental effects of glutamate are mediated by a large family of glutamate receptors (GluRs): the ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs) and the metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs), expressed by most/all cells of the nervous system, and also by many non-neural cells in various peripheral organs and tissues. T cells express on their cell surface several types of functional GluRs, and so do few other immune cells. Furthermore, glutamate by itself activates resting normal human T cells, and induces/elevates key T cell functions, among them: T cell adhesion, chemotactic migration, cytokine secretion, gene expression and more. Glutamate has also potent effects on antigen/mitogen/cytokine-activated T cells. Furthermore, T cells can even produce and release glutamate, and affect other cells and themselves via their own glutamate. Multiple sclerosis (MS) and its animal model Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis (EAE) are mediated by autoimmune T cells. In MS and EAE, there are excess glutamate levels, and multiple abnormalities in glutamate degrading enzymes, glutamate transporters, glutamate receptors and glutamate signaling. Some GluR antagonists block EAE. Enhancer of mGluR4 protects from EAE via regulatory T cells (Tregs), while mGluR4 deficiency exacerbates EAE. The protective effect of mGluR4 on EAE calls for testing GluR4 enhancers in MS patients. Oral MS therapeutics, namely Fingolimod, dimethyl fumarate and their respective metabolites Fingolimod-phosphate and monomethyl fumarate, can protect neurons against acute glutamatergic excitotoxic damage. Furthermore, Fingolimod reduce glutamate-mediated intracortical excitability in relapsing-remitting MS. Glatiramer acetate -COPAXONE®, an immunomodulator drug for MS, reverses TNF-α-induced alterations of striatal glutamate-mediated excitatory postsynaptic currents in EAE-afflicted mice. With regard to T cells of MS patients: (1) The cell surface expression of a specific GluR: the AMPA GluR3 is elevated in T cells of MS patients during relapse and with active disease, (2) Glutamate and AMPA (a selective agonist for glutamate/AMPA iGluRs) augment chemotactic migration of T cells of MS patients, (3) Glutamate augments proliferation of T cells of MS patients in response to myelin-derived proteins: MBP and MOG, (4) T cells of MS patients respond abnormally to glutamate, (5) Significantly higher proliferation values in response to glutamate were found in MS patients assessed during relapse, and in those with gadolinium (Gd)+ enhancing lesions on MRI. Furthermore, glutamate released from autoreactive T cells induces excitotoxic cell death of neurons. Taken together, the evidences accumulated thus far indicate that abnormal glutamate levels and signaling in the nervous system, direct activation of T cells by glutamate, and glutamate release by T cells, can all contribute to MS. This may be true also to other neurological diseases. It is postulated herein that the detrimental activation of autoimmune T cells by glutamate in MS could lead to: (1) Cytotoxicity in the CNS: T cell-mediated killing of neurons and glia cells, which would subsequently increase the extracellular glutamate levels, and by doing so increase the excitotoxicity mediated by excess glutamate, (2) Release of proinflammatory cytokines, e.g., TNFα and IFNγ that increase neuroinflammation. Finally, if excess glutamate, abnormal neuronal signaling, glutamate-induced activation of T cells, and glutamate release by T cells are indeed all playing a key detrimental role in MS, then optional therapeutic tolls include GluR antagonists, although these may have various side effects. In addition, an especially attractive therapeutic strategy is the novel and entirely different therapeutic approach to minimize excess glutamate and excitotoxicity, titled: 'brain to blood glutamate scavenging', designed to lower excess glutamate levels in the CNS by 'pumping it out' from the brain to the blood. The glutamate scavanging is achieved by lowering glutamate levels in the blood by intravenous injection of the blood enzyme glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (GOT). The glutamate-scavenging technology, which is still experimental, validated so far for other brain pathologies, but not tested on MS or EAE yet, may be beneficial for MS too, since it could decrease both the deleterious effects of excess glutamate on neural cells, and the activation of autoimmune T cells by glutamate in the brain. The topic of glutamate scavenging, and also its potential benefit for MS, are discussed towards the end of the review, and call for research in this direction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mia Levite
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Pharmacy, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel. .,Institute of Gene Therapy, Hadassah Medical Center, 91120, Ein Karem, Jerusalem, Israel.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Bhandage AK, Jin Z, Hellgren C, Korol SV, Nowak K, Williamsson L, Sundström-Poromaa I, Birnir B. AMPA, NMDA and kainate glutamate receptor subunits are expressed in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) where the expression of GluK4 is altered by pregnancy and GluN2D by depression in pregnant women. J Neuroimmunol 2017; 305:51-58. [PMID: 28284346 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2017.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2016] [Revised: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 01/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The amino acid glutamate opens cation permeable ion channels, the iGlu receptors. These ion channels are abundantly expressed in the mammalian brain where glutamate is the main excitatory neurotransmitter. The neurotransmitters and their receptors are being increasingly detected in the cells of immune system. Here we examined the expression of the 18 known subunits of the iGlu receptors families; α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA), kainate, N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) and delta in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). We compared the expression of the subunits between four groups: men, non-pregnant women, healthy pregnant women and depressed pregnant women. Out of 18 subunits of the iGlu receptors, mRNAs for 11 subunits were detected in PBMCs from men and non-pregnant women; AMPA: GluA3, GluA4, kainate: GluK2, GluK4, GluK5, NMDA: GluN1, GluN2C, GluN2D, GluN3A, GluN3B, and delta: GluD1. In the healthy and the depressed pregnant women, in addition, the delta GluD2 subunit was identified. The mRNAs for GluK4, GluK5, GluN2C and GluN2D were expressed at a higher level than other subunits. Gender, pregnancy or depression during pregnancy altered the expression of GluA3, GluK4, GluN2D, GluN3B and GluD1 iGlu subunit mRNAs. The greatest changes recorded were the lower GluA3 and GluK4 mRNA levels in pregnant women and the higher GluN2D mRNA level in healthy but not in depressed pregnant women as compared to non-pregnant individuals. Using subunit specific antibodies, the GluK4, GluK5, GluN1, GluN2C and GluN2D subunit proteins were identified in the PBMCs. The results show expression of specific iGlu receptor subunit in the PBMCs and support the idea of physiology-driven changes of iGlu receptors subtypes in the immune cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amol K Bhandage
- Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Zhe Jin
- Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Charlotte Hellgren
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Sergiy V Korol
- Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Krzysztof Nowak
- Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | | | - Bryndis Birnir
- Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
|
20
|
Modjeski K, Levy S, Ture S, Field D, Shi G, Ko K, Zhu Q, Morrell C. Glutamate Receptor Interacting Protein 1 Regulates CD4(+) CTLA-4 Expression and Transplant Rejection. Am J Transplant 2016; 16:1383-93. [PMID: 26601915 PMCID: PMC5672809 DOI: 10.1111/ajt.13623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2015] [Revised: 10/30/2015] [Accepted: 11/08/2015] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
PDZ domains are common 80- to 90-amino-acid regions named after the first three proteins discovered to share these domains: postsynaptic density 95, discs large, and zonula occludens. PDZ domain-containing proteins typically interact with the C-terminus of membrane receptors. Glutamate receptor interacting protein 1 (GRIP1), a seven-PDZ domain protein scaffold, regulates glutamate receptor surface expression and trafficking in neurons. We have found that human and mouse T cells also express GRIP1. T cell-specific GRIP1(-/-) mice >11 weeks old had prolonged cardiac allograft survival. Compared with wild-type T cells, in vitro stimulated GRIP1(-/-) T cells had decreased expression of activation markers and increased apoptotic surface marker expression. Surface expression of the strong T cell inhibitory molecule cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) was increased on GRIP1(-/-) T cells from mice >11 weeks old. CTLA-4 increases with T cell stimulation and its surface expression on GRIP1(-/-) T cells remained high after stimulation was removed, indicating a possible internalization defect in GRIP1-deficient T cells. CTLA-4-blocking antibody treatment following heart transplantation led to complete rejection in T cell GRIP1(-/-) mice, indicating that increased CTLA-4 surface expression contributed to the extended graft survival. Our data indicate that GRIP1 regulates T cell activation by regulating CTLA-4 surface expression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K.L. Modjeski
- Aab Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY, USA,Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - S.C. Levy
- Aab Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - S.K. Ture
- Aab Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - D.J. Field
- Aab Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - G. Shi
- Aab Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - K. Ko
- Aab Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Q. Zhu
- Aab Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY, USA,Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - C.N. Morrell
- Aab Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Vieira ÉLM, de Oliveira GNM, Lessa JMK, Gonçalves AP, Oliveira ACP, Bauer ME, Sander JW, Cendes F, Teixeira AL. Peripheral leukocyte profile in people with temporal lobe epilepsy reflects the associated proinflammatory state. Brain Behav Immun 2016; 53:123-130. [PMID: 26640228 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2015.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2015] [Revised: 11/25/2015] [Accepted: 11/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Markers of low-grade peripheral inflammation have been reported amongst people with epilepsy. The mechanisms underlying this phenomenon are unknown. We attempted to characterize peripheral immune cells and their activation status in people with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) and healthy controls. METHODS AND RESULTS Twenty people with TLE and 19 controls were recruited, and peripheral blood lymphocyte and monocyte subsets evaluated ex vivo by multi-color flow cytometry. People with TLE had higher expression of HLA-DR, CD69, CTLA-4, CD25, IL-23R, IFN-γ, TNF and IL-17 in CD4(+) lymphocytes than controls. Granzyme A, CTLA-4, IL-23R and IL-17 expression was also elevated in CD8(+) T cells from people with TLE. Frequency of HLA-DR in CD19(+) B cells and regulatory T cells CD4(+)CD25(+)Foxp3(+) producing IL-10 was higher in TLE when compared with controls. A negative correlation between CD4(+) expressing co-stimulatory molecules (CD69, CD25 and CTLA-4) with age at onset of seizures was found. The frequency of CD4(+)CD25(+)Foxp3(+) cells was also positively correlated with age at onset of seizures. CONCLUSION Immune cells of people with TLE show an activation profile, mainly in effector T cells, in line with the low-grade peripheral inflammation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Érica Leandro Marciano Vieira
- Neuroscience Division, Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Medical Investigation, School of Medicine, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
| | - Guilherme Nogueira M de Oliveira
- Epilepsy Treatment Advanced Centre (NATE), Felício Rocho Hospital, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil; Medicine School, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri (UFVJM), Diamantina, MG, Brazil
| | - João Marcelo K Lessa
- Neuroscience Division, Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Medical Investigation, School of Medicine, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula Gonçalves
- Neuroscience Division, Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Medical Investigation, School of Medicine, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil; Epilepsy Treatment Advanced Centre (NATE), Felício Rocho Hospital, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Antônio Carlos P Oliveira
- Neuroscience Division, Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Medical Investigation, School of Medicine, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Moises E Bauer
- Laboratório de Imunologia do Envelhecimento, Instituto de Pesquisas Biomédicas, PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Josemir W Sander
- Stichting Epilepsie Instellingen Nederland (SEIN), Heemstede, The Netherlands; NIHR University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre, UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, Epilepsy Society, Chalfont St Peter, SL9 0RJ, UK
| | | | - Antônio Lúcio Teixeira
- Neuroscience Division, Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Medical Investigation, School of Medicine, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Bhela S, Kempsell C, Manohar M, Dominguez-Villar M, Griffin R, Bhatt P, Kivisakk-Webb P, Fuhlbrigge R, Kupper T, Weiner H, Baecher-Allan C. Nonapoptotic and extracellular activity of granzyme B mediates resistance to regulatory T cell (Treg) suppression by HLA-DR-CD25hiCD127lo Tregs in multiple sclerosis and in response to IL-6. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2015; 194:2180-9. [PMID: 25637022 PMCID: PMC4428169 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1303257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
In autoimmune patients, regulatory T cells (Tregs) are increasingly found to be unable to suppress patient-derived T cells, an outcome referred to as Treg resistance. In this study, we show that CD4 T cells from patients with multiple sclerosis resist suppression by patient-derived or healthy donor-derived ex vivo Tregs. Importantly, we report that granzyme B (GzmB) contributes to this Treg resistance via a novel, apoptosis-independent mechanism. We show that memory CD4(+)CD127(lo)FOXP3(+) Treg subsets do not express GzmB, whereas activated, nonregulatory CD4 T cells isolated from patients with multiple sclerosis express higher levels of GzmB than do cells from healthy donors. In contrast to the intracellular GzmB that mediates apoptosis, GzmB can be found in extracellular fluids where it is hypothesized to regulate other cellular processes. In this study, we show that providing extracellular GzmB strongly inhibits Treg suppression, without altering Treg viability. However, when GzmB and GzmB-specific inhibitor are both provided to the cocultures, Treg suppression occurs. Thus, these data suggest that a novel activity of extracellular GzmB is to regulate Treg suppression. Additionally, we find that the suppression-abrogating cytokine IL-6 augments GzmB expression by human CD4 T cells, and it inhibits Treg suppression via this nonapoptotic GzmB-mediated mechanism. Lastly, in examining the mechanism whereby GzmB inhibits Treg function, we show that extracellular GzmB reduces Treg expression of CD39 and programmed death ligand 1. Collectively, these data indicate that extracellular GzmB plays an unexpected, nonapoptotic role in regulating Treg suppression and suggest that inactivation of specifically the extracellular activity of GzmB may be an efficacious therapeutic in autoimmunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Siddheshvar Bhela
- Center for Neurologic Disease, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115; and
| | - Christine Kempsell
- Department of Dermatology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Monali Manohar
- Department of Dermatology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Margarita Dominguez-Villar
- Center for Neurologic Disease, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115; and
| | - Russell Griffin
- Department of Dermatology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Pooja Bhatt
- Department of Dermatology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Pia Kivisakk-Webb
- Center for Neurologic Disease, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115; and
| | - Robert Fuhlbrigge
- Department of Dermatology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Thomas Kupper
- Department of Dermatology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Howard Weiner
- Center for Neurologic Disease, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115; and
| | - Clare Baecher-Allan
- Center for Neurologic Disease, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115; and Department of Dermatology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Levite M. Glutamate receptor antibodies in neurological diseases: anti-AMPA-GluR3 antibodies, anti-NMDA-NR1 antibodies, anti-NMDA-NR2A/B antibodies, anti-mGluR1 antibodies or anti-mGluR5 antibodies are present in subpopulations of patients with either: epilepsy, encephalitis, cerebellar ataxia, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and neuropsychiatric SLE, Sjogren's syndrome, schizophrenia, mania or stroke. These autoimmune anti-glutamate receptor antibodies can bind neurons in few brain regions, activate glutamate receptors, decrease glutamate receptor's expression, impair glutamate-induced signaling and function, activate blood brain barrier endothelial cells, kill neurons, damage the brain, induce behavioral/psychiatric/cognitive abnormalities and ataxia in animal models, and can be removed or silenced in some patients by immunotherapy. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2014; 121:1029-75. [PMID: 25081016 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-014-1193-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2014] [Accepted: 03/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter of the Central Nervous System (CNS), and it is crucially needed for numerous key neuronal functions. Yet, excess glutamate causes massive neuronal death and brain damage by excitotoxicity--detrimental over activation of glutamate receptors. Glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity is the main pathological process taking place in many types of acute and chronic CNS diseases and injuries. In recent years, it became clear that not only excess glutamate can cause massive brain damage, but that several types of anti-glutamate receptor antibodies, that are present in the serum and CSF of subpopulations of patients with a kaleidoscope of human neurological diseases, can undoubtedly do so too, by inducing several very potent pathological effects in the CNS. Collectively, the family of anti-glutamate receptor autoimmune antibodies seem to be the most widespread, potent, dangerous and interesting anti-brain autoimmune antibodies discovered up to now. This impression stems from taking together the presence of various types of anti-glutamate receptor antibodies in a kaleidoscope of human neurological and autoimmune diseases, their high levels in the CNS due to intrathecal production, their multiple pathological effects in the brain, and the unique and diverse mechanisms of action by which they can affect glutamate receptors, signaling and effects, and subsequently impair neuronal signaling and induce brain damage. The two main families of autoimmune anti-glutamate receptor antibodies that were already found in patients with neurological and/or autoimmune diseases, and that were already shown to be detrimental to the CNS, include the antibodies directed against ionotorpic glutamate receptors: the anti-AMPA-GluR3 antibodies, anti-NMDA-NR1 antibodies and anti-NMDA-NR2 antibodies, and the antibodies directed against Metabotropic glutamate receptors: the anti-mGluR1 antibodies and the anti-mGluR5 antibodies. Each type of these anti-glutamate receptor antibodies is discussed separately in this very comprehensive review, with regards to: the human diseases in which these anti-glutamate receptor antibodies were found thus far, their presence and production in the nervous system, their association with various psychiatric/behavioral/cognitive/motor impairments, their possible association with certain infectious organisms, their detrimental effects in vitro as well as in vivo in animal models in mice, rats or rabbits, and their diverse and unique mechanisms of action. The review also covers the very encouraging positive responses to immunotherapy of some patients that have either of the above-mentioned anti-glutamate receptor antibodies, and that suffer from various neurological diseases/problems. All the above are also summarized in the review's five schematic and useful figures, for each type of anti-glutamate receptor antibodies separately. The review ends with a summary of all the main findings, and with recommended guidelines for diagnosis, therapy, drug design and future investigations. In the nut shell, the human studies, the in vitro studies, as well as the in vivo studies in animal models in mice, rats and rabbit revealed the following findings regarding the five different types of anti-glutamate receptor antibodies: (1) Anti-AMPA-GluR3B antibodies are present in ~25-30% of patients with different types of Epilepsy. When these anti-glutamate receptor antibodies (or other types of autoimmune antibodies) are found in Epilepsy patients, and when these autoimmune antibodies are suspected to induce or aggravate the seizures and/or the cognitive/psychiatric/behavioral impairments that sometimes accompany the seizures, the Epilepsy is called 'Autoimmune Epilepsy'. In some patients with 'Autoimmune Epilepsy' the anti-AMPA-GluR3B antibodies associate significantly with psychiatric/cognitive/behavior abnormalities. In vitro and/or in animal models, the anti-AMPA-GluR3B antibodies by themselves induce many pathological effects: they activate glutamate/AMPA receptors, kill neurons by 'Excitotoxicity', and/or by complement activation modulated by complement regulatory proteins, cause multiple brain damage, aggravate chemoconvulsant-induced seizures, and also induce behavioral/motor impairments. Some patients with 'Autoimmune Epilepsy' that have anti-AMPA-GluR3B antibodies respond well (although sometimes transiently) to immunotherapy, and thanks to that have reduced seizures and overall improved neurological functions. (2) Anti-NMDA-NR1 antibodies are present in patients with autoimmune 'Anti-NMDA-receptor Encephalitis'. In humans, in animal models and in vitro the anti-NMDA-NR1 antibodies can be very pathogenic since they can cause a pronounced decrease of surface NMDA receptors expressed in hippocampal neurons, and also decrease the cluster density and synaptic localization of the NMDA receptors. The anti-NMDA-NR1 antibodies induce these effects by crosslinking and internalization of the NMDA receptors. Such changes can impair glutamate signaling via the NMDA receptors and lead to various neuronal/behavior/cognitive/psychiatric abnormalities. Anti-NMDA-NR1 antibodies are frequently present in high levels in the CSF of the patients with 'Anti-NMDA-receptor encephalitis' due to their intrathecal production. Many patients with 'Anti-NMDA receptor Encephalitis' respond well to several modes of immunotherapy. (3) Anti-NMDA-NR2A/B antibodies are present in a substantial number of patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) with or without neuropsychiatric problems. The exact percentage of SLE patients having anti-NMDA-NR2A/B antibodies varies in different studies from 14 to 35%, and in one study such antibodies were found in 81% of patients with diffuse 'Neuropshychiatric SLE', and in 44% of patients with focal 'Neuropshychiatric SLE'. Anti-NMDA-NR2A/B antibodies are also present in subpopulations of patients with Epilepsy of several types, Encephalitis of several types (e.g., chronic progressive limbic Encephalitis, Paraneoplastic Encephalitis or Herpes Simplex Virus Encephalitis), Schizophrenia, Mania, Stroke, or Sjorgen syndrome. In some patients, the anti-NMDA-NR2A/B antibodies are present in both the serum and the CSF. Some of the anti-NMDA-NR2A/B antibodies cross-react with dsDNA, while others do not. Some of the anti-NMDA-NR2A/B antibodies associate with neuropsychiatric/cognitive/behavior/mood impairments in SLE patients, while others do not. The anti-NMDA-NR2A/B antibodies can undoubtedly be very pathogenic, since they can kill neurons by activating NMDA receptors and inducing 'Excitotoxicity', damage the brain, cause dramatic decrease of membranal NMDA receptors expressed in hippocampal neurons, and also induce behavioral cognitive impairments in animal models. Yet, the concentration of the anti-NMDA-NR2A/B antibodies seems to determine if they have positive or negative effects on the activity of glutamate receptors and on the survival of neurons. Thus, at low concentration, the anti-NMDA-NR2A/B antibodies were found to be positive modulators of receptor function and increase the size of NMDA receptor-mediated excitatory postsynaptic potentials, whereas at high concentration they are pathogenic as they promote 'Excitotoxcity' through enhanced mitochondrial permeability transition. (4) Anti-mGluR1 antibodies were found thus far in very few patients with Paraneoplastic Cerebellar Ataxia, and in these patients they are produced intrathecally and therefore present in much higher levels in the CSF than in the serum. The anti-mGluR1 antibodies can be very pathogenic in the brain since they can reduce the basal neuronal activity, block the induction of long-term depression of Purkinje cells, and altogether cause cerebellar motor coordination deficits by a combination of rapid effects on both the acute and the plastic responses of Purkinje cells, and by chronic degenerative effects. Strikingly, within 30 min after injection of anti-mGluR1 antibodies into the brain of mice, the mice became ataxic. Anti-mGluR1 antibodies derived from patients with Ataxia also caused disturbance of eye movements in animal models. Immunotherapy can be very effective for some Cerebellar Ataxia patients that have anti-mGluR1 antibodies. (5) Anti-mGluR5 antibodies were found thus far in the serum and CSF of very few patients with Hodgkin lymphoma and Limbic Encephalopathy (Ophelia syndrome). The sera of these patients that contained anti-GluR5 antibodies reacted with the neuropil of the hippocampus and cell surface of live rat hippocampal neurons, and immunoprecipitation from cultured neurons and mass spectrometry demonstrated that the antigen was indeed mGluR5. Taken together, all these evidences show that anti-glutamate receptor antibodies are much more frequent among various neurological diseases than ever realized before, and that they are very detrimental to the nervous system. As such, they call for diagnosis, therapeutic removal or silencing and future studies. What we have learned by now about the broad family of anti-glutamate receptor antibodies is so exciting, novel, unique and important, that it makes all future efforts worthy and essential.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mia Levite
- School of Behavioral Sciences, Academic College of Tel-Aviv-Yafo, Tel Aviv, Israel,
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Towards Neuroimmunotherapy for Cancer: the Neurotransmitters Glutamate, Dopamine and GnRH-II augment substantially the ability of T cells of few Head and Neck cancer patients to perform spontaneous migration, chemotactic migration and migration towards the autologous tumor, and also elevate markedly the expression of CD3zeta and CD3epsilon TCR-associated chains. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2014; 121:1007-27. [DOI: 10.1007/s00702-014-1242-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2014] [Accepted: 05/06/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
|
25
|
The neurotransmitter glutamate and human T cells: glutamate receptors and glutamate-induced direct and potent effects on normal human T cells, cancerous human leukemia and lymphoma T cells, and autoimmune human T cells. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2014; 121:983-1006. [DOI: 10.1007/s00702-014-1167-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2013] [Accepted: 01/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
|
26
|
Levite M, Ganor Y. Autoantibodies to glutamate receptors can damage the brain in epilepsy, systemic lupus erythematosus and encephalitis. Expert Rev Neurother 2014; 8:1141-60. [DOI: 10.1586/14737175.8.7.1141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
|
27
|
El Mesallamy HO, Hamdy NM, Mostafa DM, Amin AI. The serine protease granzyme B as an inflammatory marker, in relation to the insulin receptor cleavage in human obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2013; 34:179-86. [PMID: 24195710 DOI: 10.1089/jir.2013.0059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic inflammation and insulin resistance form hallmarks of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). An increased circulating level of the serine protease granzyme B (GzmB) is observed during prolonged inflammation and is implicated in the pathogenesis of several chronic inflammatory diseases. Moreover, insulin receptor cleavage by unknown proteases, yielding elevated levels of insulin receptor α-subunit (IRα), was observed in T2DM and was proposed as a new mechanism of insulin resistance. Therefore, a possible association between GzmB and IRα is suggested. Accordingly, this study was set to explore whether GzmB and IRα levels are altered in T2DM patients with the impact of obesity. Furthermore, we aimed to identify if GzmB contributes towards inflammation and insulin resistance through its suggested extracellular activities. All subjects were assessed for anthropometric and metabolic parameters related to obesity and T2DM. In addition, fasting plasma insulin, GzmB, interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and IRα levels were estimated by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay. Levels of GzmB and IRα were found to be significantly elevated in T2DM patients compared to nondiabetic subjects. In addition, GzmB levels were positively correlated with measures of obesity and insulin resistance, IL-1β, IRα, and other metabolic parameters. While multiple linear regression analysis revealed that both T2DM and central obesity were predicting factors for GzmB, our findings reveal a possible role of GzmB in T2DM.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hala O El Mesallamy
- 1 Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University , Cairo, Egypt
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Ganor Y, Drillet-Dangeard AS, Lopalco L, Tudor D, Tambussi G, Delongchamps NB, Zerbib M, Bomsel M. Calcitonin gene-related peptide inhibits Langerhans cell-mediated HIV-1 transmission. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 210:2161-70. [PMID: 24081951 PMCID: PMC3804954 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20122349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Upon its mucosal entry, human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) is internalized by Langerhans cells (LCs) in stratified epithelia and transferred locally to T cells. In such epithelia, LCs are in direct contact with peripheral neurons secreting calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP). Although CGRP has immunomodulatory effects on LC functions, its potential influence on the interactions between LCs and HIV-1 is unknown. We show that CGRP acts via its receptor expressed by LCs and interferes with multiple steps of LC-mediated HIV-1 transmission. CGRP increases langerin expression, decreases selected integrins, and activates NF-κB, resulting in decreased HIV-1 intracellular content, limited formation of LC-T cell conjugates, and elevated secretion of the CCR5-binding chemokine CCL3/MIP-1α. These mechanisms cooperate to efficiently inhibit HIV-1 transfer from LCs to T cells and T cell infection. In vivo, HIV-1 infection decreases CGRP plasma levels in both vaginally SHIV-challenged macaques and HIV-1-infected individuals. CGRP plasma levels return to baseline after highly active antiretroviral therapy. Our results reveal a novel path by which a peripheral neuropeptide acts at the molecular and cellular levels to limit mucosal HIV-1 transmission and suggest that CGRP receptor agonists might be used therapeutically against HIV-1.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yonatan Ganor
- Mucosal Entry of HIV-1 and Mucosal Immunity, Department of Cell Biology and Host Pathogen Interactions, Cochin Institute, French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS; UMR 8104), 75014 Paris, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Adriani W, Koot S, Columba-Cabezas S, Romano E, Travaglini D, van den Bos R, Granstrem O, Ali SF, Laviola G. Immunization with DAT fragments is associated with long-term striatal impairment, hyperactivity and reduced cognitive flexibility in mice. Behav Brain Funct 2012. [PMID: 23192105 PMCID: PMC3537576 DOI: 10.1186/1744-9081-8-54] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Possible interactions between nervous and immune systems in neuro-psychiatric disorders remain elusive. Levels of brain dopamine transporter (DAT) have been implicated in several impulse-control disorders, like attention deficit / hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Here, we assessed the interplay between DAT auto-immunity and behavioural / neurochemical phenotype. Methods Male CD-1 mice were immunized with DAT peptide fragments (DAT-i), or vehicle alone (VEH), to generate elevated circulating levels of DAT auto-antibodies (aAbs). Using an operant delay-of-reward task (20 min daily sessions; timeout 25 sec), mice had a choice between either an immediate small amount of food (SS), or a larger amount of food after a delay (LL), which increased progressively across sessions (from 0 to 150 sec). Results DAT-i mice exhibited spontaneous hyperactivity (2 h-longer wake-up peak; a wake-up attempt during rest). Two sub-populations differing in behavioural flexibility were identified in the VEH control group: they showed either a clear-cut decision to select LL or clear-cut shifting towards SS, as expected. Compared to VEH controls, choice-behaviour profile of DAT-i mice was markedly disturbed, together with long-lasting alterations of the striatal monoamines. Enhanced levels of DA metabolite HVA in DAT-i mice came along with slower acquisition of basal preferences and with impaired shifting; elevation also in DOPAC levels was associated with incapacity to change a rigid selection strategy. This scarce flexibility of performance is indicative of a poor adaptation to task contingencies. Conclusions Hyperactivity and reduced cognitive flexibility are patterns of behaviour consistent with enduring functional impairment of striatal regions. It is yet unclear how anti-DAT antibodies could enter or otherwise affect these brain areas, and which alterations in DAT activity exactly occurred after immunization. Present neuro-behavioural alterations, coming along with an experimentally-induced rise of circulating DAT-directed aAbs, open the issue of a potential role for auto-immunity in vulnerability to impulse-control disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Walter Adriani
- Dept. Cell Biology & Neurosciences, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Wang T, Lee MH, Choi E, Pardo-Villamizar CA, Lee SB, Yang IH, Calabresi PA, Nath A. Granzyme B-induced neurotoxicity is mediated via activation of PAR-1 receptor and Kv1.3 channel. PLoS One 2012; 7:e43950. [PMID: 22952817 PMCID: PMC3430617 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0043950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2012] [Accepted: 07/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing evidence supports a critical role of T cells in neurodegeneration associated with acute and subacute brain inflammatory disorders. Granzyme B (GrB), released by activated T cells, is a cytotoxic proteinase which may induce perforin-independent neurotoxicity. Here, we studied the mechanism of perforin-independent GrB toxicity by treating primary cultured human neuronal cells with recombinant GrB. GrBactivated the protease-activated receptor (PAR)-1 receptor on the neuronal cell surface leading to decreased intracellular cyclic AMP levels. This was followed by increased expression and translocation of the voltage gated potassium channel, Kv1.3 to the neuronal cell membrane. Similar expression of Kv1.3 was also seen in neurons of the cerebral cortex adjacent to active inflammatory lesions in patients with multiple sclerosis. Kv1.3 expression was followed by activation of Notch-1 resulting in neurotoxicity. Blocking PAR-1, Kv1.3 or Notch-1 activation using specific pharmacological inhibitors or siRNAs prevented GrB-induced neurotoxicity. Furthermore, clofazimine protected against GrB-induced neurotoxicity in rat hippocampus, in vivo. These observations indicate that GrB released from T cells induced neurotoxicity by interacting with the membrane bound Gi-coupled PAR-1 receptor and subsequently activated Kv1.3 and Notch-1. These pathways provide novel targets to treat T cell-mediated neuroinflammatory disorders. Kv1.3 is of particular interest since it is expressed on the cell surface, only under pathological circumstances, and early in the cascade of events making it an attractive therapeutic target.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tongguang Wang
- Section of Infections of the Nervous System, National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Myoung-Hwa Lee
- Section of Infections of the Nervous System, National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Elliot Choi
- Section of Infections of the Nervous System, National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | | | - Sung Bin Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - In Hong Yang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Singapore Institute for Nanotechnology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Peter A. Calabresi
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Avindra Nath
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Section of Infections of the Nervous System, National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Trachtenberg A, Pushkarsky T, Heine S, Constant S, Brichacek B, Bukrinsky M. The level of CD147 expression correlates with cyclophilin-induced signalling and chemotaxis. BMC Res Notes 2011; 4:396. [PMID: 21989251 PMCID: PMC3198701 DOI: 10.1186/1756-0500-4-396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2011] [Accepted: 10/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Previous studies identified CD147 as the chemotactic receptor on inflammatory leukocytes for extracellular cyclophilins (eCyp). However, CD147 is not known to associate with signal transducing molecules, so other transmembrane proteins, such as proteoglycans, integrins, and CD98, were suggested as receptor or co-receptor for eCyp. CD147 is ubiquitously expressed on many cell types, but relationship between the level of CD147 expression and cellular responses to eCyp has never been analyzed. Given the role of eCyp in pathogenesis of many diseases, it is important to know whether cellular responses to eCyp are regulated at the level of CD147 expression. Results Here, we manipulated CD147 expression levels on HeLa cells using RNAi and investigated the signalling and chemotactic responses to eCypA. Both Erk activation and chemotaxis correlated with the level of CD147 expression, with cells exhibiting low level expression being practically unresponsive to eCypA. Conclusions Our results provide the first demonstration of a chemotactic response of HeLa cells to eCypA, establish a correlation between the level of CD147 expression and the magnitude of cellular responses to eCypA, and indicate that CD147 may be a limiting factor in the receptor complex determining cyclophilin-induced Erk activation and cell migration.
Collapse
|
32
|
Vojdani A, Lambert J. The Role of Th17 in Neuroimmune Disorders: Target for CAM Therapy. Part II. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2011; 2011:984965. [PMID: 19622601 PMCID: PMC3137879 DOI: 10.1093/ecam/nep063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2008] [Accepted: 05/22/2009] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Decades of research went into understanding the role that Th1 autoreactive T-cells play in neuroinflammation. Here we describe another effector population, the IL-17-producing T-helper lineage (Th17), which drives the inflammatory process. Through the recruitment of inflammatory infiltration neutrophils and the activation of matrix metalloproteinases, IL-17, a cytokine secreted by Th17 cells, contributes to blood-brain barrier breakdown and the subsequent attraction of macrophages and monocytes into the nervous system. The entry of cells along with the local production of inflammatory cytokines leads to myelin and axonal damage. This activation of the inflammatory response system is induced by different pathogenic factors, such as gut bacterial endotoxins resulting in progressive neurodegeneration by Th17 cells. Through the understanding of the role of bacterial endotoxins and other pathogenic factors in the induction of autoimmune diseases by Th17 cells, CAM practitioners will be able to design CAM therapies targeting IL-17 activity. Targeted therapy can restore the integrity of the intestinal and blood-brain barriers using probiotics, N-acetyl-cysteine, α-lipoic acid, resveratrol and others for their patients with autoimmunities, in particular those with neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration.
Collapse
|
33
|
Han KH, Ro H, Hong JH, Lee EM, Cho B, Yeom HJ, Kim MG, Oh KH, Ahn C, Yang J. Immunosuppressive mechanisms of embryonic stem cells and mesenchymal stem cells in alloimmune response. Transpl Immunol 2011; 25:7-15. [PMID: 21635949 DOI: 10.1016/j.trim.2011.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2011] [Revised: 05/12/2011] [Accepted: 05/13/2011] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Although both embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are known to have immunosuppressive effects, the mechanisms of immunosuppression are still controversial. Both types of stem cells suppressed not only the proliferation but also survival of CD4(+) T cells in vitro. They suppressed secretion of various cytokines (IL-2, IL-12, IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-4, IL-5, IL-1β, and IL-10), whereas there was no change in the levels of TGF-β or IDO. Classic and modified transwell experiments demonstrated that immunosuppressive activities were mainly mediated by cell-to-cell contact. Granzyme B in the ESCs played a significant role in their immunosuppression, whereas PDL-1, Fas ligand, CD30 or perforin was not involved in the contact-dependent immunosuppression. However, none of the above molecules played a significant role in the immunosuppression by the MSCs. Interestingly, both stem cells increased the proportion of Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells. Our results showed that both ESCs and MSCs suppressed the survival as well as the proliferation of T cells by mainly contact-dependent mechanisms and increased the proportion of regulatory T cells. Granzyme B was involved in immunosuppression by the ESCs in a perforin-independent manner.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kyu Hyun Han
- Transplantation Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Genetic and environmental factors influence the development of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) are proposed as a molecular link between the human genome and environmental factors, such as viruses, in lupus pathogenesis. RECENT FINDINGS The HRES-1 human ERV encodes a 28-kD nuclear autoantigen and a 24-kD small GTP-ase, termed HRES-1/Rab4. HRES-1/p28 is a target of cross-reactive antiviral antibodies, whereas HRES-1/Rab4 regulates the surface expression of CD4 via endosome recycling. The tat gene of HIV-1 induces the expression of HRES-1/Rab4, which in turn downregulates expression of CD4 and susceptibility to reinfection by HIV-1. HRES-1/Rab4 is overexpressed in lupus T cells where it correlates with increased recycling of CD4 and CD3 and contributes to downregulation of CD3/TCRzeta via lysosomal degradation. Chilblain lupus has been linked to the deficiency of 3'-5' repair exonuclease Trex1 that metabolizes DNA reverse-transcribed from ERV. Trex1 deficiency or blocked integration of ERV-encoded DNA also promotes lupus in murine models. SUMMARY ERV proteins may trigger lupus through structural and functional molecular mimicry, whereas the accumulation of ERV-derived nucleic acids stimulates interferon and anti-DNA antibody production in SLE.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andras Perl
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine and Microbiology and Immunology, State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Afonina IS, Cullen SP, Martin SJ. Cytotoxic and non-cytotoxic roles of the CTL/NK protease granzyme B. Immunol Rev 2010; 235:105-16. [DOI: 10.1111/j.0105-2896.2010.00908.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
|
36
|
Hendel A, Hiebert PR, Boivin WA, Williams SJ, Granville DJ. Granzymes in age-related cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases. Cell Death Differ 2010; 17:596-606. [PMID: 20139894 DOI: 10.1038/cdd.2010.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic inflammation is a hallmark of age-related cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases. Granzymes are a family of serine proteases that have been traditionally viewed as initiators of immune-mediated cell death. However, recent findings suggest that the pathophysiological role of granzymes is complex. Emerging functions for granzymes in extracellular matrix degradation, autoimmunity, and inflammation suggests a multifactorial mechanism by which these enzymes are capable of mediating tissue damage. Recent discoveries showing that granzymes can be produced and secreted by nonimmune cells during disease provide an additional layer of intricacy. This review examines the emerging biochemical and clinical evidence pertaining to intracellular and/or extracellular granzymes in the pathogenesis of aging and cardiopulmonary diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Hendel
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Providence Heart+Lung Institute, St. Paul's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Abstract
Human plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) are crucially involved in the modulation of adaptive T-cell responses in the course of neoplastic, viral, and autoimmune disorders. In several of these diseases elevated extracellular levels of the serine protease granzyme B (GrB) are observed. Here we demonstrate that human pDCs can be an abundant source of GrB and that such GrB(+) pDCs potently suppress T-cell proliferation in a GrB-dependent, perforin-independent manner, a process reminiscent of regulatory T cells. Moreover, we show that GrB expression is strictly regulated on a transcriptional level involving Janus kinase 1 (JAK1), signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), and STAT5 and that interleukin-3 (IL-3), a cytokine secreted by activated T cells, plays a central role for GrB induction. Moreover, we find that the immunosuppressive cytokine IL-10 enhances, while Toll-like receptor agonists and CD40 ligand strongly inhibit, GrB secretion by pDCs. GrB-secreting pDCs may play a regulatory role for immune evasion of tumors, antiviral immune responses, and autoimmune processes. Our results provide novel information about the complex network of pDC-T-cell interactions and may contribute to an improvement of prophylactic and therapeutic vaccinations.
Collapse
|
38
|
Ganor Y, Grinberg I, Ganor Y, Grinberg I, Reis A, Cooper I, Goldstein RS, Levite M. Human T-leukemia and T-lymphoma express glutamate receptor AMPA GluR3, and the neurotransmitter glutamate elevates the cancer-related matrix-metalloproteinases inducer CD147/EMMPRIN, MMP-9 secretion and engraftment of T-leukemiain vivo. Leuk Lymphoma 2009; 50:985-97. [DOI: 10.1080/10428190902878448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
|
39
|
Hagn M, Schwesinger E, Ebel V, Sontheimer K, Maier J, Beyer T, Syrovets T, Laumonnier Y, Fabricius D, Simmet T, Jahrsdörfer B. Human B cells secrete granzyme B when recognizing viral antigens in the context of the acute phase cytokine IL-21. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 183:1838-45. [PMID: 19592644 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0901066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Human B cells are currently not known to produce the proapoptotic protease granzyme B (GrB) in physiological settings. We have discovered that BCR stimulation with either viral Ags or activating Abs in the context of the acute phase cytokine IL-21 can induce the secretion of substantial amounts of GrB by human B cells. Importantly, GrB response to viral Ags was significantly stronger in B cells from subjects recently vaccinated against the corresponding viruses as compared with unvaccinated subjects. GrB-secreting B cells featured a homogeneous CD19(+)CD20(+)CD27(-)CD38(-)IgD(-) phenotype, improved survival, and enhanced expression of costimulatory, Ag-presenting and cell-adhesion molecules. B cell-derived GrB was enzymatically active and its induction required the activation of similar signaling pathways as those in CTLs. Our findings suggest that GrB-secreting B cells support the early antiviral immune response against viruses with endosomal entry pathways, thereby counteracting overwhelming viral replication at the beginning of an infection until virus-specific T cells from draining lymph nodes arrive at the site of infection. Our data may also explain the elevated serum GrB levels found in the early phase of various viral diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Hagn
- Laboratory of Tumor and B Cell Immunology, Institute of Pharmacology of Natural Products and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Ulm, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Takahashi Y, Mine J, Kubota Y, Yamazaki E, Fujiwara T. A substantial number of Rasmussen syndrome patients have increased IgG, CD4+T cells, TNFα, and Granzyme B in CSF. Epilepsia 2009; 50:1419-31. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1528-1167.2008.01977.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
|
41
|
Pleasure D. Diagnostic and pathogenic significance of glutamate receptor autoantibodies. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 65:589-92. [PMID: 18474732 DOI: 10.1001/archneur.65.5.589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Autoantibodies against glutamate receptors, first reported in Rasmussen encephalitis, have been observed in other focal epilepsies, central nervous system ischemic infarcts, transient ischemic attacks, sporadic olivopontocerebellar atrophy, systemic lupus erythematosus, and paraneoplastic encephalopathies. The detection of glutamate receptor autoantibodies is not useful in the evaluation of Rasmussen encephalitis but may be a biomarker for brain ischemia, and it is helpful in diagnosing certain paraneoplastic encephalopathies. Passive transfer of glutamate receptor autoantibodies from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus or paraneoplastic encephalopathy suggests that glutamate receptor autoantibodies can actively contribute to neurologic dysfunction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David Pleasure
- Department of Neurology, University of California, Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Chowdhury D, Lieberman J. Death by a thousand cuts: granzyme pathways of programmed cell death. Annu Rev Immunol 2008; 26:389-420. [PMID: 18304003 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.immunol.26.021607.090404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 451] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The granzymes are cell death-inducing enzymes, stored in the cytotoxic granules of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells, that are released during granule exocytosis when a specific virus-infected or transformed target cell is marked for elimination. Recent work suggests that this homologous family of serine esterases can activate at least three distinct pathways of cell death. This redundancy likely evolved to provide protection against pathogens and tumors with diverse strategies for evading cell death. This review discusses what is known about granzyme-mediated pathways of cell death as well as recent studies that implicate granzymes in immune regulation and extracellular proteolytic functions in inflammation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dipanjan Chowdhury
- Dana Farber Cancer Institute and Department of Radiation Oncology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
Autoantibodies against opioid or glutamate receptors are associated with changes in morphine reward and physical dependence in mice. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008; 197:535-48. [PMID: 18265961 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-007-1062-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2007] [Accepted: 12/21/2007] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Possible interactions between nervous and immune systems during opioid addiction remain elusive. Recombinant mu-delta opioid receptors (MDOR) and the glutamate receptor 1 (GluR1) subunit of amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid glutamate receptors are involved in acute and chronic effects of morphine. Elevated levels of autoantibodies (aAbs) to these receptors were demonstrated in heroin human addicts and in animal models. This study characterized the role of aAbs to these receptors in behavioral modulations recruited during opioid tolerance and sensitization. METHODS AND FINDINGS Male CD-1 mice, immunized with either MDOR or GluR1 peptide fragments (80 microg intraperitoneal (i.p.)), were examined for spontaneous behavior and response to morphine (5 mg/kg i.p.). Spontaneous home-cage activity, novelty-induced self-grooming and morphine-induced hyperactivity were higher in GluR1 mice compared to Vehicle subjects, whereas MDOR immunization was associated with an increased morphine-induced conditioned place preference. In response to escalating doses of morphine (from 10 to 60 mg/kg i.p., twice daily) and naloxone-precipitated withdrawal (1 mg/kg subcutaneous), GluR1 mice exhibited a more marked stereotyped sniffing behavior and less body tremors compared to Vehicle subjects, whereas less sniffing and teeth chattering were found in MDOR mice. The expected downregulation of mu receptor binding sites, induced by chronic morphine in vehicle subjects, was completely absent following MDOR immunization. CONCLUSIONS These findings indicate an altered response to morphine-related reinforcing and aversive effects in MDOR mice and altered coping with the environment in GluR1 mice. Circulating aAbs to specific neuroreceptors may alter the response to opiates and play a role as determinants of vulnerability to opiate addiction.
Collapse
|
44
|
Poulopoulou C. Comment on "TCR activation eliminates glutamate receptor GluR3 from the cell surface of normal human T cells, via an autocrine/paracrine granzyme B-mediated proteolytic cleavage". THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:2007; author reply 2007. [PMID: 18250401 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.4.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
45
|
Miglio G, Dianzani C, Fallarini S, Fantozzi R, Lombardi G. Stimulation of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors modulates Jurkat T cell growth and adhesion to fibronectin. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2007; 361:404-9. [PMID: 17662248 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2007] [Accepted: 07/04/2007] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The aims of this study were to investigate the expression and the functional roles of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors in leukemic Jurkat T cells. RT-PCR and immunofluorescence/confocal microscopy analysis showed that Jurkat T cells express the NR1 and NR2B subunits of the NMDA receptors. Exposure of Jurkat cells to either (5S,10R)-(+)-5-methyl-10,11-dihydro-5H-dibenzo[a,b]cyclohepten-5,10-imine [(+)-MK 801] or D-(-)-2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid (D-AP5), two selective NMDA receptor antagonists, limited cell growth by inhibiting cell cycle progression and inducing apoptosis, whereas l-glutamate (1 microM) and NMDA (10 microM) significantly increased (137.2+/-22.0%; P<0.01) Jurkat T cell adhesion to fibronectin. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that Jurkat T cells express NMDA receptors functionally active in controlling cell growth and adhesion to fibronectin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gianluca Miglio
- Department of Anatomy, Pharmacology and Forensic Medicine, University of Turin, Via Pietro Giuria 9, 10125 Turin, Italy
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
46
|
Franco R, Pacheco R, Lluis C, Ahern GP, O'Connell PJ. The emergence of neurotransmitters as immune modulators. Trends Immunol 2007; 28:400-7. [PMID: 17689291 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2007.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2007] [Revised: 06/18/2007] [Accepted: 07/24/2007] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Initially, the idea that neurotransmitters could serve as immunomodulators emerged with the discovery that their release and diffusion from nervous tissue could lead to signaling through lymphocyte cell-surface receptors and the modulation of immune function. It is now evident that neurotransmitters can also be released from leukocytes and act as autocrine or paracrine modulators. Here, we review the data indicating that leukocytes synthesize and release 'neurotransmitters' and we also discuss the diverse effects that these compounds exert in a variety of immune cells. The role of neurotransmitters in immune-related diseases is also reviewed succinctly. Current and future developments in understanding the cross-talk between the immune and nervous systems will probably identify new avenues for treating immune-mediated diseases using agonists or antagonists of neurotransmitter receptors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Franco
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS) and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, Diagonal 645, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
47
|
Expression of ionotropic glutamate receptor GLUR3 and effects of glutamate on MBP- and MOG-specific lymphocyte activation and chemotactic migration in multiple sclerosis patients. J Neuroimmunol 2007; 188:146-58. [PMID: 17628700 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2007.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2006] [Revised: 05/21/2007] [Accepted: 05/31/2007] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The present study was aimed at confirming the presence of GluR3 on T lymphocytes and to assess the effect of glutamate on proliferative responses to myelin basic protein (MBP) and myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) and chemotactic migration to CXCL12/stromal cell-derived factor-1, RANTES, and MIP-1alpha in 15 control subjects and 20 relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (MS) patients (10 in a stable clinical phase and 10 during relapse). T lymphocytes of control subjects and MS patients express both mRNA and protein of GluR3 receptors, as shown by RT-PCR and immunoblot analyses. An up-regulation was evident during relapse and in patients with neuroradiological evidence of disease activity. Glutamate and AMPA at concentrations of 10 nM to 10 muM were able to enhance T lymphocyte proliferation to MBP and MOG and the chemotactic migration of T cells both in controls and MS patients. In the latter group, significantly higher proliferation values in response to glutamate were found in patients assessed during relapse and in those with gadolinium (Gd)+ enhancing lesions on MRI. Glutamate concentrations above 10 muM appeared to be inhibitory on MBP and MOG-specific T-lymphocyte proliferation as well as chemotactic response in both patients and controls. Higher GluR3 expression and higher activating effect of glutamate on T cells of MS patients during relapses and with evidence of disease activity on MRI suggests the involvement of glutamate-mediated mechanisms in the T-cell detrimental effects. In MS patients, glutamate within physiological ranges in the cerebrospinal fluid and brain extracellular space might enhance myelin antigen-specific proliferation and chemotactic migration via activation of AMPA receptors, which can be relevant for myelin and neuronal damage in MS. Excess glutamate levels seem to induce an inhibitory effect on lymphocyte function, and therefore the detrimental effect of this excitatory amino acid in this case could be attributed to a direct toxicity on glial and neuronal cells.
Collapse
|