High prevalence of Schistosoma japonicum infection in water buffaloes in the Philippines assessed by real-time polymerase chain reaction

Epidemiological Study on Humans, Animals and Snails for Schistosomiasis in Two Endemic Municipalities Nearing Elimination in Bohol, the Philippines

PURPOSE

A comprehensive survey was conducted to assess the prevalence of Schistosoma japonicum infection in humans, water buffaloes, and snails in the two endemic municipalities of Talibon and Trinidad in Bohol, Philippines, which are nearing elimination.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Human stool and blood samples were collected from barangays with snail breeding sites, and results showed higher positivity rates using the rSjTPx-1-ELISA compared to the Kato-Katz technique. Human stool examination for showed a 0.57% positivity rate for S. japonicum in San Vicente, Trinidad, while no cases were found in San Roque, Talibon. On the other hand, 3.43% of human serum samples from San Vicente, Trinidad, and 46.20% from San Roque, Talibon tested seropositive. Similarly, water buffalo samples revealed 16.95% seropositivity in Talibon and 10% in Trinidad. Additionally, snail infection was determined microscopically from collected Oncomelania hupensis quadrasi snails in Talibon, but no schistosome parasites were detected in the crushed snail tissues.

CONCLUSION

These findings highlight that despite progress towards elimination, schistosomiasis transmission persists in these areas, emphasizing the need for continued surveillance and targeted interventions.

Seroprevalence of Schistosoma japonicum Infection Among Dogs and Water Buffaloes Using Recombinant Antigen ELISA in New Corella, Davao del Norte, Philippines

PURPOSE

Animal reservoirs are important targets for controlling and eliminating schistosomiasis. Prevalence studies showed that dogs (Canis familiaris) and water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) are important reservoirs of S. japonicum. Previous studies have validated the use of the recombinant proteins Sj1TR, Sj7TR, and SjTPx-1 in ELISA as diagnostics for dogs and water buffaloes from schistosomiasis-endemic areas. In this study, we aimed to determine the seroprevalence of S. japonicum among dogs and water buffaloes in New Corella, Davao del Norte, Philippines, using the recombinant proteins Sj1TR, Sj7TR, and SjTPx-1 in ELISA format.

METHODS

Fecal and serum samples were collected from dogs (n = 63) and water buffaloes (n = 57). Schistosome-positive samples were detected using formalin-ether concentration technique (FECT), stool polymerase chain reaction, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using soluble egg antigen (SEA), rSj1TR, rSj7TR, and rSjTPx-1. Positivity rates, sensitivity, specificity, predictive values, accuracy, and kappa values were calculated.

RESULTS

Mean positivity rates for schistosome infection were high for both dogs (x = 15.40%) and water buffaloes (x = 6.32%). On dogs, the sensitivity and specificity of the tests are as follows: 66.67% and 100% for rSj7TR-ELISA, while 100% and 93.33% for rSjTPx-1-ELISA, respectively. rSjTPx-1-ELISA showed the highest agreement with stool PCR among all diagnostic tests, with an overall kappa value of 0.824. On water buffaloes, the sensitivity and specificity of both rSj1TR-ELISA and rSjTPx-1-ELISA are 100.0% and 98.15%. Both tests also had an overall kappa value of 0.84.

CONCLUSION

To ensure elimination and prevention of schistosomiasis in humans, the use of validated serological diagnostics such as recombinant antigen ELISA is preferable for field detection in animals, especially in resource-limited areas.

MaxEnt modeling of the potential risk of schistosomiasis in the Philippines using bioclimatic factors

Schistosomiasis is a parasitic infection caused by Schistosoma japonicum. It remains a principal local health issue in the Philippines, demonstrating endemicity in 28 provinces and afflicting thousands of Filipino individuals annually. Despite this, no clear distribution maps for the disease have been comprehensively reported. Therefore, species distribution modeling (SDM) employing the MaxEnt algorithm and GIS application techniques was utilized to denote the potential risk of schistosomiasis in the country. With a high AUC score of 0.846, the SDM yielded a favorable and reliable correlative map illustrating a predicted schistosomal temporal distribution concentrated primarily on the country's eastern portion with a more pronounced wet than dry season. The precipitation of the driest quarter was determined to be the most significant contributing factor among the bioclimatic variables evaluated. This suggests a possible increase in adaptations concerning the rainfall and thermal tolerances of the parasites' vectors. Moreover, socioeconomic status between Philippine regions revealed an inverse proportion with the number of schistosomiasis cases. This study also discussed the potential role of climate change on the range shifts and the potential risk of parasite infection in the Philippines.

Transmission-Blocking Vaccines against Schistosomiasis Japonica

Control of schistosomiasis japonica, endemic in Asia, including the Philippines, China, and Indonesia, is extremely challenging. Schistosoma japonicum is a highly pathogenic helminth parasite, with disease arising predominantly from an immune reaction to entrapped parasite eggs in tissues. Females of this species can generate 1000-2200 eggs per day, which is about 3- to 15-fold greater than the egg output of other schistosome species. Bovines (water buffalo and cattle) are the predominant definitive hosts and are estimated to generate up to 90% of parasite eggs released into the environment in rural endemic areas where these hosts and humans are present. Here, we highlight the necessity of developing veterinary transmission-blocking vaccines for bovines to better control the disease and review potential vaccine candidates. We also point out that the approach to producing efficacious transmission-blocking animal-based vaccines before moving on to human vaccines is crucial. This will result in effective and feasible public health outcomes in agreement with the One Health concept to achieve optimum health for people, animals, and the environment. Indeed, incorporating a veterinary-based transmission vaccine, coupled with interventions such as human mass drug administration, improved sanitation and hygiene, health education, and snail control, would be invaluable to eliminating zoonotic schistosomiasis.

A compartmental model for Schistosoma japonicum transmission dynamics in the Philippines

Schistosomiasis is a chronic and debilitating neglected tropical disease (NTD), second only to malaria as one of the most devastating parasitic diseases. Caused by a parasitic flatworm of the genus Schistosoma, infection occurs when skin comes in contact with contaminated freshwater that contains schistosome-hosting snails. The disease continues to be endemic in many regions of the Philippines, where it poses a significant public health challenge due to a lack of healthcare resources. In the Philippines, additional mammalian reservoirs for the S. japonicum parasite, especially bovines such as carabaos, also facilitate the spread of schistosomiasis. We extend existing compartment models to include human, snail, bovine, and free-living Schistosoma for a comprehensive look at the transmission dynamics of the disease. Sensitivity analysis of model parameters shows that the carabaos themselves can sustain the endemicity of schistosomiasis. Thus, we consider the control method of farming mechanization to avoid contaminated freshwater sources. We find that a reduction of contaminated water contacts by at least 77% will break the transmission cycle and eliminate the disease. However, reducing the contact by about 70% will still result in decrease of human schistosomiasis prevalence to under 1% in 15 years or less. Achieving such high reduction of contact rates could be a daunting task, especially in rural areas. Still, the potential to eliminate or at least reduce the schistosomiasis prevalence should be considered an additional benefit of mechanization efforts in the Philippines.

Diagnosis of Schistosoma infection in non-human animal hosts: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Reliable and field-applicable diagnosis of schistosome infections in non-human animals is important for surveillance, control, and verification of interruption of human schistosomiasis transmission. This study aimed to summarize uses of available diagnostic techniques through a systematic review and meta-analysis.

METHODOLOGY AND PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

We systematically searched the literature and reports comparing two or more diagnostic tests in non-human animals for schistosome infection. Out of 4,909 articles and reports screened, 19 met our inclusion criteria, four of which were considered in the meta-analysis. A total of 14 techniques (parasitologic, immunologic, and molecular) and nine types of non-human animals were involved in the studies. Notably, four studies compared parasitologic tests (miracidium hatching test (MHT), Kato-Katz (KK), the Danish Bilharziasis Laboratory technique (DBL), and formalin-ethyl acetate sedimentation-digestion (FEA-SD)) with quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), and sensitivity estimates (using qPCR as the reference) were extracted and included in the meta-analyses, showing significant heterogeneity across studies and animal hosts. The pooled estimate of sensitivity was 0.21 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.03-0.48) with FEA-SD showing highest sensitivity (0.89, 95% CI: 0.65-1.00).

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Our findings suggest that the parasitologic technique FEA-SD and the molecular technique qPCR are the most promising techniques for schistosome diagnosis in non-human animal hosts. Future studies are needed for validation and standardization of the techniques for real-world field applications.

Molecular Techniques as Alternatives of Diagnostic Tools in China as Schistosomiasis Moving towards Elimination

Schistosomiasis japonica caused by the trematode flukes of Schistosoma japonicum was one of the most grievous infectious diseases in China in the mid-20th century, while its elimination has been placed on the agenda of the national strategic plan of healthy China 2030 after 70 years of continuous control campaigns. Diagnostic tools play a pivotal role in warfare against schistosomiasis but must adapt to the endemic status and objectives of activities. With the decrease of prevalence and infection intensity of schistosomiasis in human beings and livestock, optimal methodologies with high sensitivity and absolute specificity are needed for the detection of asymptomatic cases or light infections, as well as disease surveillance to verify elimination. In comparison with the parasitological methods with relatively low sensitivity and serological techniques lacking specificity, which both had been widely used in previous control stages, the molecular detection methods based on the amplification of promising genes of the schistosome genome may pick up the baton to assist the eventual aim of elimination. In this article, we reviewed the developed molecular methods for detecting S. japonicum infection and their application in schistosomiasis japonica diagnosis. Concurrently, we also analyzed the chances and challenges of molecular tools to the field application process in China.

The status of schistosomiasis japonica control in the Philippines: The need for an integrated approach to address a multidimensional problem

Schistosomiasis japonica remains a public health concern in many areas of the Philippines. Adequate and updated information is essential to enhance policy and service delivery toward control and elimination. Despite the efforts on schistosomiasis control in the Philippines, some challenges remain in these dimensions. An integrated surveillance system is recommended to determine the prevalence of infection in humans, animal reservoirs, and snail intermediate hosts, allowing the identification of high-priority areas for targeted interventions. This will entail the enhancement of laboratory diagnosis capacity through the use of more sensitive techniques, complemented by capacity building of concerned human and animal health professionals. Given the zoonotic nature of schistosomiasis japonica, adopting the One Health approach is essential to influence policies and interventions that may accelerate control and elimination. This can be achieved through the attainment of mass drug administration coverage targets and intensified case finding and management, robust implementation and integration of veterinary public health activities, the conduct of snail control measures, provision of safe water, sanitation, and hygiene services, and health promotion and education into the national schistosomiasis control and elimination program. This review aimed to describe the status of schistosomiasis japonica control in the Philippines in the context of human health, animal health, vector ecology and management, environmental health, and sociocultural dimensions.

Integrating genomic and epidemiologic data to accelerate progress toward schistosomiasis elimination

The global community has adopted ambitious goals to eliminate schistosomiasis as a public health problem, and new tools are needed to achieve them. Mass drug administration programs, for example, have reduced the burden of schistosomiasis, but the identification of hotspots of persistent and reemergent transmission threaten progress toward elimination and underscore the need to couple treatment with interventions that reduce transmission. Recent advances in DNA sequencing technologies make whole-genome sequencing a valuable and increasingly feasible option for population-based studies of complex parasites such as schistosomes. Here, we focus on leveraging genomic data to tailor interventions to distinct social and ecological circumstances. We consider two priority questions that can be addressed by integrating epidemiological, ecological, and genomic information: (1) how often do non-human host species contribute to human schistosome infection? and (2) what is the importance of locally acquired versus imported infections in driving transmission at different stages of elimination? These questions address processes that can undermine control programs, especially those that rely heavily on treatment with praziquantel. Until recently, these questions were difficult to answer with sufficient precision to inform public health decision-making. We review the literature related to these questions and discuss how whole-genome approaches can identify the geographic and taxonomic sources of infection, and how such information can inform context-specific efforts that advance schistosomiasis control efforts and minimize the risk of reemergence.

High prevalence of Schistosoma japonicum by perfusion in naturally exposed water buffalo in a region of the Philippines endemic for human schistosomiasis

In the past decade, ecological surveys emphasized rats and dogs as the most significant animal reservoirs for Schistosoma japonicum (S.j) in the Philippines. However, recent studies demonstrated 51-91% prevalence of schistosomiasis among water buffalo using qPCR in the Sj endemic regions in the Philippines. In order to resolve the inconsistency of reported surveys regarding Sj endemicity among carabao, a domestic water buffalo that is the most important draught animal, we introduced 42 schistosome negative water buffalo to Macanip, Jaro municipality, Leyte, the Philippines, a subsistence rice-farming village that has been the focus of schistosomiasis japonica studies of our group for the past 20 years. We conducted perfusion to the remaining 34 buffalo that survived 10 months of nature exposure and Typhoon Haiyan. Thirty-three water buffalo were found to be positive with at least 1 pair of worms from the mesenteric vein. The infection rate is 97%, with the worm burden of 94 (95% confidence interval, 49-138 worms) worms. To our knowledge, this is the first report about S. japonicum worm burden in naturally infected water buffalo in the Philippines. The fact that with less than one-year of exposure, in this human schistosomiasis endemic area, only 1 out of 34 water buffalo was uninfected is striking. Urgent attention is needed for a cost-effective technique for monitoring Sj infection in animals and humans. Meanwhile, intervention implementation, including water buffalo treatment and vaccination, should be taken into consideration.

VY. Prevalence of Schistosoma japonicum infection in water buffaloes in selected areas in Davao del Norte and Davao de Oro, the Philippines

Background and Aim: Schistosomiasis (SCH) japonica is a zoonotic disease that can infect several mammalian hosts. Bovines, particularly water buffaloes, are considered the most important reservoir hosts due to the high levels of schistosome eggs, they excrete into the environment. In the Philippines, the previous studies have revealed a high prevalence of SCH in bovines in selected provinces in Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. However, there is a lack of studies on SCH in the Davao Region, Mindanao, where the infection remains a public health concern. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of SCH in water buffaloes in four barangays (villages) each in Braulio Dujali, Davao del Norte and Maragusan, Davao de Oro, Southeastern Mindanao, the Philippines. Materials and Methods: Fecal samples from 91 water buffaloes were collected intrarectally, processed using the formalin-ethyl acetate sedimentation technique, and examined microscopically to determine the prevalence of SCH. Results: A total of three water buffaloes (8.6%) in Maragusan were determined to be positive for Schistosoma japonicum, while none in Braulio Dujali. The prevalence of other parasites (Fasciola spp. [53.8%], Paramphistome spp. [20.9%], Amphistome spp. [16.5%], Strongyle spp. [11.0%], Balantidium spp. [9.9%], Eurytrema spp. [2.2%], and Gongylonema pulchrum [1.1%]) was also observed. Conclusion: The results of the study provide baseline data on the presence of S. japonicum in water buffaloes in the Davao Region, Mindanao. Strategies for controlling and eliminating SCH in animal reservoir hosts, especially in water buffaloes, are necessary for the long-term control and elimination of SCH in humans.

Granuloma formation and tissue pathology in Schistosoma japonicum versus Schistosoma mansoni infections

Schistosomiasis is the most important helminth disease in the world from a public health perspective. S mansoni and S japonicum account for the majority of global intestinal schistosomiasis cases, and the pathogenesis is widely assumed to be fundamentally similar. However, the majority of research on schistosomiasis has been carried out on S mansoni and comparisons between the two species are rarely made. Here, we will discuss aspects of both older and recent literature where such comparisons have been made, with a particular focus on the pathological agent, the host granulomatous response to the egg. Major differences between the two species are apparent in features such as egg production patterns and cellular infiltration; however, it is also clear that even subtle differences in the cascade of various cytokines and chemokines contribute to the different levels of pathology observed between these two main species of intestinal schistosomiasis. A better understanding of such differences at species level will be vital when it comes to the development of new treatment strategies and vaccines.

Field Evaluation of Recombinant Antigen ELISA in Detecting Zoonotic Schistosome Infection Among Water Buffaloes in Endemic Municipalities in the Philippines

In this study, we investigated the use of recombinant antigens thioredoxin peroxidase-1 (rSjTPx-1) and tandem repeat rSj1TR in evaluating the antibody positivity rates of Schistosoma japonicum infection among water buffaloes from four endemic areas in the Philippines, two municipalities with high endemicity (Calatrava, Negros Occidental and Catarman, Northern Samar) and two municipalities nearing elimination with no cases of human schistosomiasis (Talibon and Trinidad, Bohol). These recombinant antigen ELISA assays were compared with other diagnostic tests including SEA-ELISA, FECT, and fecal-based PCR. Results showed that rSj1TR-ELISA has the highest agreement with PCR in all study areas. Furthermore, significant positivity rates among water buffaloes were seen in Talibon and Trinidad, indicating that water buffaloes are maintaining the schistosome parasites in transmission areas even in the absence of human infection. Hence, serological assay using a more sensitive and specific rSj1TR-ELISA can be used for animal surveillance to prevent emergence and re-emergence of human schistosomiasis.

Schistosoma japonicum infections in cattle and water buffaloes of farming communities of Koronadal City, Philippines

Background and Aim: Schistosomiasis is one of the seven neglected tropical diseases that are of public health concern in the Philippines. The disease is prevalent in few of the barangays (communities) in Koronadal City, Philippines. Status of the Schistosoma japonicum infections in domestic animal reservoir host has yet to be explored in these endemic communities. The study aimed to determine the prevalence and infection intensity of the disease in cattle and water buffaloes of endemic communities of Koronadal City. Materials and Methods: Schistosomiasis was investigated in 70 cattle and 38 water buffaloes from three endemic communities in Koronadal City. The copro-parasitological technique used was the formalin-ethyl acetate sedimentation method. Results: S. japonicum infection was observed in 48.6% of cattle and 60.5% in water buffaloes. The bovine contamination index indicated that all infected animals released 3,505,500 eggs/day. On average, infected cattle released 1,674,500 eggs daily, while infected water buffaloes liberated 1,932,000 eggs in the environment daily. Conclusion: Cattle and water buffaloes in these endemic areas are infected with S. japonicum. These animals release large numbers of eggs in the environment daily; hence, played an important role in disease transmission. Those living and working in endemic areas should be aware of the inherent dangers of the disease.

Zoonotic transmission of intestinal helminths in southeast Asia: Implications for control and elimination

Intestinal helminths are extremely widespread and highly prevalent infections of humans, particularly in rural and poor urban areas of low and middle-income countries. These parasites have chronic and often insidious effects on human health and child development including abdominal problems, anaemia, stunting and wasting. Certain animals play a fundamental role in the transmission of many intestinal helminths to humans. However, the contribution of zoonotic transmission to the overall burden of human intestinal helminth infection and the relative importance of different animal reservoirs remains incomplete. Moreover, control programmes and transmission models for intestinal helminths often do not consider the role of zoonotic reservoirs of infection. Such reservoirs will become increasingly important as control is scaled up and there is a move towards interruption and even elimination of parasite transmission. With a focus on southeast Asia, and the Philippines in particular, this review summarises the major zoonotic intestinal helminths, risk factors for infection and highlights knowledge gaps related to their epidemiology and transmission. Various methodologies are discussed, including parasite genomics, mathematical modelling and socio-economic analysis, that could be employed to improve understanding of intestinal helminth spread, reservoir attribution and the burden associated with infection, as well as assess effectiveness of interventions. For sustainable control and ultimately elimination of intestinal helminths, there is a need to move beyond scheduled mass deworming and to consider animal and environmental reservoirs. A One Health approach to control of intestinal helminths is proposed, integrating interventions targeting humans, animals and the environment, including improved access to water, hygiene and sanitation. This will require coordination and collaboration across different sectors to achieve best health outcomes for all.

The contribution of domestic animals to the transmission of schistosomiasis japonica in the Lindu Subdistrict of the Central Sulawesi Province, Indonesia

Background and Aim:

Schistosomiasis is endemic in Indonesia and is found in three remote areas in Central Sulawesi Province. Non-human mammals serve as reservoir hosts, meaning the disease is zoonotic. The previous schistosomiasis studies in animals from the Lindu Subdistrict did not determine which domestic animal species can serve as the primary source of transmission. No animals have been treated in Indonesia to control the disease; therefore, the parasite’s life cycle is not blocked entirely. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and identify the risk factors associated with, Schistosoma japonicum infection in animals, and identify animals’ relative contributions to S. japonicum transmission in the Lindu Subdistrict.

Materials and Methods:

A cross-sectional survey of S. japonicum infected animals was conducted in five villages of the Lindu Subdistrict. Fecal samples were collected from 134 selected animals (13 cattle, 26 buffaloes, 28 horses, 59 pigs, and 8 dogs). S. japonicum infection and infection intensity were determined using the Danish Bilharziasis Laboratory method. Environmental contamination with schistosome eggs was measured. The data were analyzed using a Chi-square test.

Results:

The overall prevalence of schistosomiasis was 32.9%, with the prevalence of infection in each species of animal at 61.5% in cattle, 42.3% in buffaloes, 25.0% in horses, 35.6% in pigs, and 12.5% in dogs. Free-range pigs were 8.667 times more likely to have S. japonicum infection than pigs kept in cages. Buffaloes, cattle, and horses were the primary sources of S. japonicum egg contamination, with relative transmission indices of 59.15%, 22.80%, and 10.61%, respectively.

Conclusion:

Bovines and horses are the main contributors to schistosomiasis transmission in the Lindu Subdistrict. In conjunction with other schistosomiasis control programs, the government should treat infected animals living within endemic areas where there are high infection rates of S. japonicum.

Collaborative RNAS+ research: Priorities and outcomes

Over the past 20 years, RNAS⁺ has been generating research results from highly collaborative projects meant to promote and advance understanding in various aspects of schistosomiasis. Epidemiological studies in endemic countries like the Philippines, the People's Republic of China (PR China), the Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) and Cambodia clarified the role of reservoir hosts in transmission and the use of spatio-temporal methods such as remote sensing and geographical information systems (GIS) in surveillance of schistosomiasis. Morbidity studies proposed factors that might influence development of fibrosis, anaemia and malnutrition in schistosomiasis. Immune responses in schistosomiasis continue to be an interesting focus in research to explain possible development of resistance with age. Results of evaluation of candidate vaccine molecules are also presented. New diagnostics are continually being developed in response to the call for more sensitive and field applicable techniques that will be used for surveillance in areas nearing elimination of the disease. Several studies presented here show the insufficiency of mass drug administration (MDA) with praziquantel in eliminating the disease. Emphasis is given to an integrated control approach that can be accomplished through intensive and extensive intersectoral collaboration.

Assessing the nonhuman primate reservoir of Schistosoma mansoni in Africa: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Reports of natural infections of Schistosoma mansoni in a number of species of nonhuman primates (NHPs) in Africa, coupled with the substantial overlap of NHP habitats and human schistosomiasis endemic areas, has led to concerns about the role of NHPs in the transmission of human schistosomiasis. We conducted a systematic review of the literature to describe the current scope of knowledge for Africa, for the NHP species implicated, their geographical distribution, infection rates with S. mansoni, and to discuss the implications for public health and conservation.

MAIN TEXT

A systematic search of the literature was performed using PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, the World Health Organization (WHO) library database, World Cat, and ScienceDirect without any language restriction. Studies examining S. mansoni infection of any African NHP species were included. Study types, primate species, their geographical distribution, and parasite diagnostic techniques reported in the studies were qualitatively summarized. Data for species with sample sizes ≥10 were included in the meta-analysis. We assessed the reported infection rate, and used a random-effects model to estimate the summary infection rates and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). We assessed heterogeneity among studies using the I2 statistics. Twenty-nine publications, from 1960 to 2018, were identified and included in the review. The studies examined a total of 2962 primates belonging to 22 species in 11 genera across ten countries (Cameroon, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Kenya, Nigeria, Senegal, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zimbabwe), and S. mansoni infections were found in nine species of five genera in all countries. When we excluded studies with sample sizes < 10, data from 24 studies on 11 species of primates in three genera in ten countries remained in the meta-analysis. The overall pooled estimate of infection rate was 10% (95% CI: 6-16%) with high heterogeneity (I2 = 94.77%) across countries and species/genera. Among the three genera, Pan had the highest infection rate of 15% (95% CI: 0-55%), followed by Papio at 11% (95% CI: 6-18%), and Cercopithecus at 5% (95% CI: 0-14%). The association between NHP and human infections was positive, but not significant, due to low study sample matches and high variation.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that S. mansoni infection rate is high in African NHPs, with substantial heterogeneities across species/genera and countries in Africa. Given the evidence for potential spillover and spillback of S. mansoni between African NHPs and humans, further research is urgently needed to understand ecology and mechanisms of transmission of the parasite between NHP and human hosts, in order to inform control strategies of this important neglected tropical disease.

Knowledge, attitudes and practices related to schistosomiasis transmission and control in Leyte, Philippines

Schistosomiasis is a chronic but preventable disease that affects 260 million people worldwide. In the Philippines, 860,000 people are afflicted with Schistosoma japonicum annually, and another 6.7 million live in endemic areas. The disease’s complex epidemiology as well as the influence of poverty in endemic areas demand an integrated, multi-sectoral approach to disease control. Results from behavioral or sociocultural studies on schistosomiasis could improve the content and impact of schistosomiasis control in rural villages in the Philippines. We investigated knowledge, attitudes and practices related to schistosomiasis transmission and control in an endemic village in Leyte Province, Philippines. We administered a questionnaire to 219 participants covering 1) knowledge and attitudes related to schistosomiasis, its symptoms, and its transmission; 2) attitudes and practices in relation to schistosomiasis prevention; 3) willingness to comply with public health control programs; and 4) whether the respondent had previously contracted schistosomiasis. Responses revealed fairly high measures of schistosomiasis knowledge (mean 17.0 out of 23 questions, range 6–23), but also inconsistent disease prevention behavior. A high proportion of participants (72.6%, n = 159) reported previous disease. Participant belief in the preventability of schistosomiasis was revealed to be a key attitude, as carabao owners who believed in prevention were over five times more likely to be willing to vaccinate their carabaos (OR = 5.24, 95% CI 1.20–27.68, P = 0.04). Additionally, participants who did not believe in prevention were about twice as likely to report previous disease (OR = 2.31, 95% CI 1.02–5.63, P = 0.05). Our results suggest that future public health interventions should address barriers to disease-preventing behavior, as well as maintaining community belief in disease prevention. Comprehensive disease control programs should be supplemented by sociocultural and behavioral context in order to improve their impact in endemic communities.

Schistosomiasis is a chronic tropical disease caused by parasitic worms of the genus Schistosoma. In the Philippines, Schistosoma japonicum afflicts over 800,000 people annually, and another 6.7 million live in endemic areas. The current national control program based on human mass treatment has been unable to eliminate schistosomiasis on its own. This is in part due to the poverty of endemic areas as well as the parasite’s complex life cycle, which includes transmission by freshwater snails and livestock. A more comprehensive disease control strategy would include periodic treatment and vaccination of the widely used domestic water buffalo or carabao. Sociocultural and behavioral research would also inform and improve the impact of future control programs. To this end, we investigated knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to schistosomiasis in an endemic village in Leyte, Philippines. We found high levels of disease knowledge and awareness, but also inconsistencies in disease prevention habits. Belief in whether schistosomiasis could be prevented was important in this community, associated with previous disease experience as well as receptivity to new strategies like livestock vaccination. This kind of social context is vital to future public health campaigns, and highlights the importance of cross-disciplinary work to achieve successful disease control.

Asian Schistosomiasis: Current Status and Prospects for Control Leading to Elimination

Schistosomiasis is an infectious disease caused by helminth parasites of the genus Schistosoma. Worldwide, an estimated 250 million people are infected with these parasites with the majority of cases occurring in sub-Saharan Africa. Within Asia, three species of Schistosoma cause disease. Schistosoma japonicum is the most prevalent, followed by S. mekongi and S. malayensis. All three species are zoonotic, which causes concern for their control, as successful elimination not only requires management of the human definitive host, but also the animal reservoir hosts. With regard to Asian schistosomiasis, most of the published research has focused on S. japonicum with comparatively little attention paid to S. mekongi and even less focus on S. malayensis. In this review, we examine the three Asian schistosomes and their current status in their endemic countries: Cambodia, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Myanmar, and Thailand (S. mekongi); Malaysia (S. malayensis); and Indonesia, People's Republic of China, and the Philippines (S. japonicum). Prospects for control that could potentially lead to elimination are highlighted as these can inform researchers and disease control managers in other schistosomiasis-endemic areas, particularly in Africa and the Americas.

DNA Diagnostics for Schistosomiasis Control

Despite extensive efforts over the last few decades, the global disease burden of schistosomiasis still remains unacceptably high. This could partly be attributed to the lack of accurate diagnostic tools for detecting human and animal schistosome infections in endemic areas. In low transmission and low prevalence areas where schistosomiasis elimination is targeted, case detection requires a test that is highly sensitive. Diagnostic tests with low sensitivity will miss individuals with low infection intensity and these will continue to contribute to transmission, thereby interfering with the efficacy of the control measures operating. Of the many diagnostic approaches undertaken to date, the detection of schistosome DNA using DNA amplification techniques including polymerase chain reaction (PCR) provide valuable adjuncts to more conventional microscopic and serological methods, due their accuracy, high sensitivity, and the capacity to detect early pre-patent infections. Furthermore, DNA-based methods represent important screening tools, particularly in those endemic areas with ongoing control where infection prevalence and intensity have been reduced to very low levels. Here we review the role of DNA diagnostics in the path towards the control and elimination of schistosomiasis.

A perspective for improving the sensitivity of detection: The application of multi-epitope recombinant antigen in serological analysis of buffalo schistosomiasis

The sensitivity and specificity are two crucial aspects of addressing the efficacy of diagnostic antigens. Achilles' heel of low sensitivity rate exists in current diagnostic recombinant antigens for schistosomiasis detection. This study focused on the diagnosis of water buffalo schistosomiasis japonica and a perspective of improving recombinant antigens' sensitivity was assessed using archived 220 water buffalo sera (114 positive sera, 92 negative sera and 14 Paramphistomum-infected sera) and the method of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The subjects included two trivalent recombinant proteins, one bivalent antigen and two single-molecular antigens. The crude antigen SEA (soluble egg antigen) was employed as reference antigen. The highest sensitivity rate in the five recombinant antigens assigned to the trivalent multi-epitope antigen PA4 (95.61%, 109/114), no significant difference with SEA (100%, 114/114, p = .836), and showing remarkable differences with the two single-molecular antigens (p < 0.01). In term of specificity, two trivalent multi-epitope antigens PA4 (97.83%, 90/92), PA5 (100%, 92/92) and the bivalent antigen PA3 (98.91%, 91/92) had few differences with one monovalent antigens PA1 (97.83%, 90/92, p = .304/0.103/0.640), significant differences with another monovalent antigens PA2 (92.39%, 85/92, p < 0.01) and SEA (82.61%, 76/92, p < 0.01). Additional, all the recombinant antigens had low cross-reactivity (7.14%, 1/14, 0% for PA5) with serum samples of paramphistomiasis, contrast with that of SEA (50%, 7/14, p < 0.01). The results indicated that multi-epitope antigens have the possibility to improve diagnostic sensitivity and the trivalent multi-epitope antigen PA4 possesses greater likelihood to be a diagnostic antigen for water buffalo schistosomiasis.

Some facts on south asian schistosomiasis and need for international collaboration

In this review, we are discussing South Asian schistosomiasis; more specifically species which are responsible for schistosomiasis in India or South Asia -Schistosoma indicum, S. spindale, S. nasale, S. incognitum, S. gimvicum (S.haematobium), Bivitellobilharzia nairi, Orientobilharzia bomfordi, O. dattai, O. turkestanicum and O.harinasutai, their survival strategies such as mild pathology to the host, producing low egg number and utilizing fresh water snails (Indoplanorbis exustus and Lymnaea luteola) in stagnant water bodies like ponds, lakes, ditches, low laying areas, marshy lands and rice fields. Presently, correct identification of blood fluke species, their immature stages, male schistosomes and their intermediate host details like strain variations, susceptibilities, ecologies are not well studied. Species like B. nairi, O. bomfordi, O. harinasutai (Lymnaea rubiginosa intermediate host for O.harinasutai in Thailand) are also not well studied. Moreover, snail species like Oncomalania spp are not from South Asia, but species of Tricula or Neotricula are reported from this geography, which gives indications of S. mekongi like blood fluke presence in the area. Although in humans, cercarial dermatitis is rampant in rural population with occasional reporting of schistosome eggs in stools, human schistosomiasis is considered absent from this region, despite finding a foci (now dead) of urinary schistosomiasis in Gimvi village of Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra, India. There is great difficulty in diagnosing the infection in man and animals due to low egg production, hence development of a single step antigen detection test is the need of the hour. Interestingly, lethal effect of praziquantel was seen against S.haematobium and S.mansoni. However, this drug failed to cause significant reduction of S. incognitum and S. spindale experimentally suggesting some differences in the biology of two groups of the schistosomes. Triclabendazole showed adulticidal effect at a dose rate of 20 mg/kg body against female schistosome worms, but at lower dose (10 mg/kg body wt) of the drug, a dose that is used in treating bovine fascioliasis, it is providing chances of drug resistance of the persisting schistosomes against triclabendazole. Though the South Asian institutes have all the facilities to tackle issues related to existing schistosomes, it is recommended to develop an international collaboration by establishing an international centre on schistosomiasis in India.

Real-time PCR diagnosis of Schistosoma japonicum in low transmission areas of China

Background

Schistosomiasis in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) can be traced back to antiquity. In the past 60 years, the Chinese government has made great efforts to control this persistent disease with elimination slated by 2020 through the implementation of a comprehensive control strategy. This strategy aims to reduce the role of bovines and humans as sources of infection as a pre-requisite for elimination through transmission interruption. The goal of elimination will be achievable only by the implementation of a sustainable surveillance and control system, with sensitive diagnosis a key feature so that the true disease burden is not underestimated. Currently used diagnostics lack the necessary sensitivity to accurately determine the prevalence of Schistosoma japonicum infection in areas with low infection intensities. It is of critical importance to find and treat people and to identify animals with low-level infections if the National Control Programme for China is to achieve schistosomiasis elimination.

Methods

We evaluated a real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assay using 633 human stool samples collected from five villages in Hunan, Anhui, Hubei, and Jiangxi provinces, and 182 bovine (70 cattle and 112 buffalo) stool samples obtained from four villages in Hunan, Anhui, and Jiangxi provinces in the PRC. All stool samples were subjected to the miracidium hatching test (MHT, a diagnostic procedure used in the National Schistosomiasis Control Programme) and the qPCR assay. Samples positive by MHT were subjected to either the Kato-Katz technique for humans, or the formalin-ethyl acetate sedimentation-digestion (FEA-SD) procedure for bovines, to determine infection intensities.

Results

The qPCR assay exhibited a high level of sensitivity in the detection of S. japonicum infections. With both the human and bovine samples, a significantly higher prevalence was determined using the qPCR assay (11.06% humans, 24.73% bovines) than with the MHT (0.93% humans, 7.69% bovines). The animal contamination index (calculated using data obtained with the qPCR technique) for all positive bovines was 27 618 000 eggs per day, indicating a considerable amount of environmental egg contamination that would be underestimated using less sensitive diagnostic procedures.

Conclusions

The qPCR assay we have evaluated will be applicable as a future field diagnostic and surveillance tool in low-transmission zones where schistosomiasis elimination is targeted and for monitoring post-intervention areas to verify that elimination has been maintained.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s40249-018-0390-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

A candidate recombinant antigen for diagnosis of schistosomiasis japonica in domestic animals

Domestic animals infected with Schistosoma japonicum are a major source of infection and play an important role in transmission to humans. A key strategy for the elimination of schistosomiasis is to control the sources of infection. In the present study, we identified a candidate diagnostic antigen-encoding gene, SjMRP1, the putative multidrug resistance protein 1 gene, by screening a cDNA phage display library from 44-day-old S. japonicum worms using IgGs from goat, cattle, and buffalo infected with S. japonicum. We cloned and expressed the fragment of SjMRP1 and subsequently evaluated the diagnostic potential of the recombinant protein rSjMRP1. In the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay of rSjMRP1 (rSjMRP1-ELISA), the sensitivity in goat, cattle, and buffalo was 95.6% (86/90), 100% (22/22), and 90% (81/90), respectively, and the specificity was 100% (30/30) in goat and cattle and 96.67% (29/30) in buffalo. These results were not significantly different from soluble egg antigen (SEA)-ELISA results. Notably, rSjMRP1-ELISA has no cross reaction with Haemonchus contortus, a most common nematode seen in goat and bovine in China, in 13 infected goats, and with Orientobilhazia turkestanica, which is genetically under Schistosoma, in 36 infected goats; whereas SEA-ELISA showed false positive rate of 15.38% and 83.33% in the two respective animal groups. The results obtained here suggest that rSjMRP1 may be used for diagnosis of S. japonicum infection of domestic animals.

Nucleic acid detection in the diagnosis and prevention of schistosomiasis

Schistosomiasis is an important zoonotic parasitic disease that causes serious harms to humans and animals. Surveillance and diagnosis play key roles in schistosomiasis control, however, current techniques for surveillance and diagnosis of the disease have limitations. As genome data for parasites are increasing, novel techniques for detection incorporating nucleotide sequences are receiving widespread attention. These sensitive, specific, and rapid detection methods are particularly important in the diagnosis of low-grade and early infections, and may prove to have clinical significance. This paper reviews the progress of nucleic acid detection in the diagnosis and prevention of schistosomiasis, including such aspects as the selection of target genes, and development and application of nucleic acid detection methods.

Evaluation of recombinant multi-epitope proteins for diagnosis of goat schistosomiasis by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

Background

Schistosomiasis is a huge threat to human and animal health. Apart from bovines, goats play an important role in the transmission of schistosomiasis in some endemic areas of China. An accessible, quality-assured goat schistosomiasis diagnostic technique is needed. Recently, our laboratory identified two recombinant diagnostic antigens, SjPGM and SjRAD23 via an immuno-proteomic method. The application of these two recombinant antigens to develop a higher sensitivity and specificity technique for the sheep schistosomiasis diagnosis is urgently needed.

Methods

Epitopes of SjPGM and SjRAD23 were predicted and three polypeptides, two from SjRAD23 and one from SjPGM, were selected. Recombinant plasmids containing two to three DNA sequences encoding predicted polypeptides or large hydrophilic region of Sj23 (LHD-Sj23) were constructed and expressed. Eight recombinant schistosome antigens including four multi-epitope proteins and four recombinant single-molecule antigens as well as SEA, were assessed by ELISA in 91 sera from schistosome-infected goats, 44 sera from non-infected goats, 37 sera from Orientobilharzia-infected goats, and 12 from Haemonchus contortus-infected goats.

Results

ELISA tests showed that three multi-epitope proteins had higher sensitivity than the four single-molecule antigens (rSjRAD23, rSjPGM, rBSjRAD23-1, rBSj23) and the multi-epitope protein rBSjPGM-BSjRAD23-1-BSj23 had the highest sensitivity (97.8 %, 89/91) and maintained good specificity (100 %, 44/44) as well as low cross-reactivity with haemonchosis (8.33 %, 3/12) and orientobilharziasis (13.51 %, 5/37) in the diagnosis of goat schistosomiasis. In contrast, when SEA was applied as a diagnosis antigen, it had 100 % (91/91) sensitivity, 75 % (33/44) specificity, 25 and 83.78 % cross-reactivity with haemonchosis (3/12) and orientobilharziasis (31/37), respectively.

Conclusions

The application of recombinant multi-epitope proteins may increase the sensitivity of diagnosis technique and retain high specificity of single-molecule antigens for schistosomiasis, and the recombinant antigen rBSjPGM-BSjRAD23-1-BSj23 has the potential to be used as a diagnosis antigen for goat schistosomiasis.

National survey data for zoonotic schistosomiasis in the Philippines grossly underestimates the true burden of disease within endemic zones: implications for future control

Zoonotic schistosomiasis has a long endemic history in the Philippines. Human mass drug administration has been the cornerstone of schistosomiasis control in the country for the past three decades. Recent publications utilizing retrospective national survey data have indicated that the national human prevalence of the disease is <1%, hence the disease is now close to elimination. However, the evidence for such a claim is weak, given that less than a third of the human population is currently being treated annually within endemic zones and only a third of those treated actually swallow the tablets. For those who consume the drug at the single oral dose of 40mg/kg, the estimated cure rate is 52% based on a recent meta-analysis. Thus, approximately 5% of the endemic human population is in reality receiving the appropriate treatment. To compound this public health problem, most of the bovines in the endemic communities are concurrently infected but are not treated under the current national control programme. Given this evidence, it is believed that the human prevalence of schistosomiasis within endemic regions has been grossly underestimated. Inherent flaws in the reporting of national schistosomiasis prevalence data are reported here, and the problems of utilizing national retrospective data in making geographic information system (GIS) risk maps and advising policy makers of the outcomes are highlighted.

Development of Paramyosin as a Vaccine Candidate for Schistosomiasis

Schistosomiasis, caused by three principal species of diecious trematodes (flatworms), currently afflicts over 250 million individuals, results in an estimated 2–15% chronic disability, and contributes to poor health and economic stagnation in endemic areas. Although schistosomiasis is effectively treated with praziquantel, rapid reinfection with rebound morbidity precludes effective control based on chemotherapy alone and justifies current efforts to develop vaccines for these parasites. Paramyosin (Pmy), an invertebrate muscle-associated protein, has emerged as a promising vaccine candidate for both Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma japonicum. Herein, we discuss the discovery of Pmy, its development as a vaccine candidate in rodents and bovines, as well as studies of naturally occurring immune responses to Pmy in prospective, observational human studies. We conclude with a proposed developmental plan to move Pmy toward Phase I clinical trials.

Isolation, enrichment and primary characterisation of vitelline cells from Schistosoma mansoni obtained by the organ isolation method

In the emerging era of post-genomic research on schistosomes, new methods are required to functionally analyse genes of interest in more detail. Among other tools, schistosome cell lines are needed to overcome present research constraints. Based on a recently established organ isolation protocol for adult Schistosoma mansoni, we report here on the successful enrichment of vitellarium tissue and isolation of vitelline cells. Morphological analyses performed by bright field, fluorescence, scanning and transmission electron microscopy showed typical features of S1 to S4 stage vitelline cells. In addition, molecular analyses using reverse transcription-PCR confirmed the identity of vitelline cells. Cytological and physiological studies included staining experiments with viability dyes and a neutral lipid stain, as well as calcium (Ca2+) imaging. Together they demonstrated cell viability, the possibility to define the differentiation stage of individual vitelline cells, and the suitability to investigate Ca(2+)-associated processes herein. Finally, fluorescence-activated cell sorting was shown to be a convenient way to separate and enrich S1 to S4 stage vitelline cells. In summary, these results demonstrate the expedience of the organ isolation protocol to obtain vitellarium tissue. Importantly, the protocol allows vitelline cells representing defined differentiation stages to be purified, which can be cultured in vitro and used to investigate diverse aspects of schistosome reproductive biology in the post-genomic era.

The roles of water, sanitation and hygiene in reducing schistosomiasis: a review

Schistosomiasis is a disease caused by infection with blood flukes of the genus Schistosoma. Transmission of, and exposure to, the parasite result from faecal or urinary contamination of freshwater containing intermediate host snails, and dermal contact with the same water. The World Health Assembly resolution 65.21 from May 2012 urges member states to eliminate schistosomiasis through preventive chemotherapy (i.e. periodic large-scale administration of the antischistosomal drug praziquantel to school-aged children and other high-risk groups), provision of water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) and snail control. However, control measures focus almost exclusively on preventive chemotherapy, while only few studies made an attempt to determine the impact of upgraded access to safe water, adequate sanitation and good hygiene on schistosome transmission. We recently completed a systematic review and meta-analysis pertaining to WASH and schistosomiasis and found that people with safe water and adequate sanitation have significantly lower odds of a Schistosoma infection. Importantly though, the transmission of schistosomiasis is deeply entrenched in social-ecological systems, and hence is governed by setting-specific cultural and environmental factors that determine human behaviour and snail populations. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of the literature, which explores the transmission routes of schistosomes, particularly focussing on how these might be disrupted with WASH-related technologies and human behaviour. Additionally, future research directions in this area are highlighted.

High prevalence of Schistosoma japonicum and Fasciola gigantica in bovines from Northern Samar, the Philippines

The cause of zoonotic schistosomiasis in the Philippines is Schistosoma japonicum, which infects up to 46 mammalian hosts, including humans and bovines. In China, water buffaloes have been identified as major reservoir hosts for schistosomiasis japonica, contributing up to 75% of human transmission. In the Philippines, water buffaloes (carabao; Bubalus bubalis carabanesis) have, historically, been considered unimportant reservoirs. We therefore revisited the possible role of bovines in schistosome transmission in the Philippines, using the recently described formalin-ethyl acetate sedimentation (FEA-SD) technique and a qPCR assay to examine fecal samples from 153 bovines (both carabao and cattle) from six barangays in Northern Samar. A high prevalence of S. japonicum was found using qPCR and FEA-SD in both cattle (87.50% and 77.08%, respectively) and carabao (80.00% and 55.24%, respectively). The average daily egg output for each bovine was calculated at 195,000. High prevalence and infection intensity of F. gigantica was also found in the bovines by qPCR and FEA-SD (95.33% and 96.00%, respectively). The identification of bovines as major reservoir hosts for S. japonicum transmission suggests that bovine treatment and/or vaccination, as one becomes available, should be included in any future control program that aims to reduce the disease burden due to schistosomiasis in the Philippines.

Real-time PCR demonstrates high prevalence of Schistosoma japonicum in the Philippines: implications for surveillance and control

Background

The Philippines has a population of approximately 103 million people, of which 6.7 million live in schistosomiasis-endemic areas with 1.8 million people being at risk of infection with Schistosoma japonicum. Although the country-wide prevalence of schistosomiasis japonica in the Philippines is relatively low, the prevalence of schistosomiasis can be high, approaching 65% in some endemic areas. Of the currently available microscopy-based diagnostic techniques for detecting schistosome infections in the Philippines and elsewhere, most exhibit varying diagnostic performances, with the Kato-Katz (KK) method having particularly poor sensitivity for detecting low intensity infections. This suggests that the actual prevalence of schistosomiasis japonica may be much higher than previous reports have indicated.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Six barangay (villages) were selected to determine the prevalence of S. japonicum in humans in the municipality of Palapag, Northern Samar. Fecal samples were collected from 560 humans and examined by the KK method and a validated real-time PCR (qPCR) assay. A high S. japonicum prevalence (90.2%) was revealed using qPCR whereas the KK method indicated a lower prevalence (22.9%). The geometric mean eggs per gram (GMEPG) determined by the qPCR was 36.5 and 11.5 by the KK. These results, particularly those obtained by the qPCR, indicate that the prevalence of schistosomiasis in this region of the Philippines is much higher than historically reported.

Conclusions/Significance

Despite being more expensive, qPCR can complement the KK procedure, particularly for surveillance and monitoring of areas where extensive schistosomiasis control has led to low prevalence and intensity infections and where schistosomiasis elimination is on the horizon, as for example in southern China.

Schistosomiasis is caused by infection with trematode blood flukes of the genus Schistosoma. Schistosoma japonicum is the causative agent of schistosomiasis in the Philippines, China and parts of Indonesia. In the Philippines, 6.7 million people live in endemic areas and 1.8 million are at risk of infection whereas concerted control efforts over the past 50 years in China have reduced the number of infected individuals considerably. Currently used microscopic techniques for diagnosis, notably the Kato-Katz (KK) technique, lack sensitivity in areas with low intensity schistosome infections. We have used a molecular diagnostic approach (qPCR), to assess the prevalence of S. japonicum in humans from six barangays in Northern Samar, the Philippines. The qPCR performed considerably better than the KK as a diagnostic procedure and could be an important tool in the future for surveillance and monitoring of areas where extensive schistosomiasis control has led to low prevalence and intensity infections and where schistosomiasis elimination is possible.

Towards improved diagnosis of neglected zoonotic trematodes using a One Health approach

Reaching the goal of control, elimination and eradication of the Neglected Tropical Disease in a foreseeable future provides significant challenges at the ground level especially regarding helminthiasis. Helminths are still mainly diagnoses by egg identification in stool, methods with low sensitivity and for most species low specificity. Cross-sectoral collaboration with regard to zoonoses is almost non-existing and cross-validation by inter-laboratory evaluation of diagnostic tests is not a common practice. The aim of this review was to elucidate the dilemma of helminth diagnosis using zoonotic trematodes as examples. Much progress has been made improving the diagnostic sensitivity of Opisthorchis and Clonorchis using DNA-based techniques but the specificity of these tests is still a challenge due to the many most common but neglected intestinal trematodes. The burden of these diseases and ways to control them remains to be elucidated. Although efficacious drugs are available, the effectiveness of mass drug administration remains to be assessed. The importance of animal reservoirs and ways to control the diseases in animals are yet unknown. Diagnostic challenges regarding Schistosoma japonicum and Schistosoma mekongi include the many light infections and the persisting influx from the animal reservoirs. The sensitivity of the faecal based techniques suited morbidity control but will be insufficient for elimination of the helminths. More accurate diagnostic tools are required and new algorithms for detection and progression of helminth elimination will be needed. Standardized inter-laboratory test validation, inter-sectoral collaboration and establishment of an international One Health diagnostic platform, sharing best practices on diagnosis of helminth zoonoses, could all significantly contribute to control and elimination of these diseases.

Schistosomiasis japonica: modelling as a tool to explore transmission patterns

Modelling is an important tool for the exploration of Schistosoma japonicum transmission patterns. It provides a general theoretical framework for decision-makers and lends itself specifically to assessing the progress of the national control programme by following the outcome of surveys. The challenge of keeping up with the many changes of social, ecological and environmental factors involved in control activities is greatly facilitated by modelling that can also indicate which activities are critical and which are less important. This review examines the application of modelling tools in the epidemiological study of schistosomiasis japonica during the last 20 years and explores the application of enhanced models for surveillance and response. Updated and timely information for decision-makers in the national elimination programme is provided but, in spite of the new modelling techniques introduced, many questions remain. Issues on application of modelling are discussed with the view to improve the current situation with respect to schistosomiasis japonica.

Contrasting patterns of structural host specificity of two species of Heligmosomoides nematodes in sympatric rodents

Host specificity is a fundamental property of parasites. Whereas most studies focus on measures of specificity on host range, only few studies have considered quantitative aspects such as infection intensity or prevalence. The relative importance of these quantitative aspects is still unclear, mainly because of methodological constraints, yet central to a precise assessment of host specificity. Here, we assessed simultaneously two quantitative measures of host specificity of Heligmosomoides glareoli and Heligmosomoides polygyrus polygyrus infections in sympatric rodent hosts. We used standard morphological techniques as well as real-time quantitative PCR and sequencing of the rDNA ITS2 fragment to analyse parasite infection via faecal sample remains. Although both parasite species are thought to be strictly species-specific, we found morphologically and molecularly validated co- and cross-infections. We also detected contrasting patterns within and between host species with regard to specificity for prevalence and intensity of infection. H. glareoli intensities were twofold higher in bank voles than in yellow-necked mice, but prevalence did not differ significantly between species (33 vs. 18%). We found the opposite pattern in H. polygyrus infections with similar intensity levels between host species but significantly higher prevalence in mouse hosts (56 vs. 10%). Detection rates were higher with molecular tools than morphological methods. Our results emphasize the necessity to consider quantitative aspects of specificity for a full view of a parasites' capacity to replicate and transmit in hosts and present a worked example of how modern molecular tools help to advance our understanding of selective forces in host-parasite ecology and evolution.

Schistosoma japonicum in Samar, the Philippines: infection in dogs and rats as a possible risk factor for human infection

The role that animals play in the transmission of Schistosoma japonicum to humans in the Philippines remains uncertain and prior studies have not included several species, adjustment for misclassification error and clustering, or used a cohort design. A cohort study of 2468 people providing stool samples at 12 months following praziquantel treatment in 50 villages of Western Samar, the Philippines, was conducted. Stool samples from dogs, cats, rats, and water buffaloes were collected at baseline (2003-2004) and follow-up (2005). Latent-class hierarchical Bayesian log-binomial models adjusting for misclassification errors in diagnostic tests were used. The village-level baseline and follow-up prevalences of cat, dog, and rat S. japonicum infection were associated with the 12-month cumulative incidence of human S. japonicum infection, with similar magnitude and precision of effect, but correlation between infection levels made it difficult to divide their respective effects. The cumulative incidence ratios associated with a 1% increase in the prevalence of infection in dogs at baseline and in rats at follow-up were 1·04 [95% Bayesian credible interval (BCI) 1·02-1·07] and 1·02 (95% BCI 1·01-1·04), respectively, when both species were entered in the model. Dogs appear to play a role in human schistosomiasis infection while rats could be used as schistosomiasis sentinels.

Serum albumin and α-1 acid glycoprotein impede the killing of Schistosoma mansoni by the tyrosine kinase inhibitor Imatinib

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The Abl tyrosine-kinase inhibitor Imatinib is toxic to S. mansoni in vitro but not in vivo in rodents.

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Blood components like serum albumin and alpha-1 acid glycoprotein (AGP) negated Imatinib’s toxicity in vitro.

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Erythromycin partially restored the toxicity of Imatinib in vitro.

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High levels of AGP upon infection make rodents poor models for examining some small molecule inhibitors.

In the search for new drugs and drug targets to treat the flatworm disease schistosomiasis, protein kinases (PKs) have come under particular scrutiny because of their essential roles in developmental and physiological processes in schistosome parasites. In this context the application of the anti-cancer Abl tyrosine kinase (TK) inhibitor Imatinib (Gleevec/Glivec; STI-571) to adult Schistosoma mansoni in vitro has indicated negative effects on diverse physiological processes including survival.

Motivated by these in vitro findings, we performed in vivo experiments in rodent models of S. mansoni infection. Unexpectedly, Imatinib had no effect on worm burden or egg-production. We found that the blood components serum albumin (SA) and alpha-1 acid glycoprotein (AGP or orosomucoid) negated Imatinib’s deleterious effects on adult S. mansoni and schistosomula (post-infective larvae) in vitro. This negative effect was partially reversed by erythromycin. AGP synthesis can increase as a consequence of inflammatory processes or infection; in addition upon infection AGP levels are 6–8 times higher in mice compared to humans. Therefore, mice and probably other rodents are poor infection models for measuring the effects of Imatinib in vivo. Accordingly, we suggest the routine evaluation of the ability of AGP and SA to block in vitro anti-schistosomal effects of small molecules like Imatinib prior to laborious and expensive animal experiments.

Imatinib treatment causes substantial transcriptional changes in adult Schistosoma mansoni in vitro exhibiting pleiotropic effects

BACKGROUND

Schistosome parasites cause schistosomiasis, one of the most important infectious diseases worldwide. For decades Praziquantel (PZQ) is the only drug widely used for controlling schistosomiasis. The absence of a vaccine and fear of PZQ resistance have motivated the search for alternatives. Studies on protein kinases (PKs) demonstrated their importance for diverse physiological processes in schistosomes. Among others two Abl tyrosine kinases, SmAbl1 and SmAbl2, were identified in Schistosoma mansoni and shown to be transcribed in the gonads and the gastrodermis. SmAbl1 activity was blocked by Imatinib, a known Abl-TK inhibitor used in human cancer therapy (Gleevec/Glivec). Imatinib exhibited dramatic effects on the morphology and physiology of adult schistosomes in vitro causing the death of the parasites.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Here we show modeling data supporting the targeting of SmAbl1/2 by Imatinib. A biochemical assay confirmed that SmAbl2 activity is also inhibited by Imatinib. Microarray analyses and qRT-PCR experiments were done to unravel transcriptional processes influenced by Imatinib in adult schistosomes in vitro demonstrating a wide influence on worm physiology. Surface-, muscle-, gut and gonad-associated processes were affected as evidenced by the differential transcription of e.g. the gynecophoral canal protein gene GCP, paramyosin, titin, hemoglobinase, and cathepsins. Furthermore, transcript levels of VAL-7 and egg formation-associated genes such as tyrosinase 1, p14, and fs800-like were affected as well as those of signaling genes including a ribosomal protein S6 kinase and a glutamate receptor. Finally, a comparative in silico analysis of the obtained microarray data sets and previous data analyzing the effect of a TGFβR1 inhibitor on transcription provided first evidence for an association of TGFβ and Abl kinase signaling. Among others GCP and egg formation-associated genes were identified as common targets.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

The data affirm broad negative effects of Imatinib on worm physiology substantiating the role of PKs as interesting targets.

The Schistosoma japonicum self-cure phenomenon in water buffaloes: potential impact on the control and elimination of schistosomiasis in China

Schistosomiasis japonica, caused by Schistosoma japonicum, is an important zoonotic disease in China, the Philippines and small pockets of Indonesia. In addition to infecting people, S. japonicum can infect over 40 species of wild and domestic animals which have varying impacts on human infection. It is now generally accepted that bovines, particularly water buffaloes, are the major reservoir for human infection in China as they are naturally infected with schistosomes and deposit more eggs into the environment than humans or any other animal host. This complicates control efforts and the economic burden associated with schistosomiasis morbidity and mortality has taken its toll on both human and livestock populations. Over the last 50years, the schistosomiasis control program in China has made great strides in reducing prevalence and morbidity, and the Chinese authorities now aim to eliminate the disease nationwide in the next decade. Current Chinese control strategies place particular importance on interventions targeting bovines including: praziquantel treatment, barrier farming to prevent grazing in transmission areas, their replacement with mechanized tractors and possible bovine vaccination. A number of studies have shown that in the period following S. japonicum infection, the worm burden drops sharply in water buffaloes and some other animal hosts such as pigs. This is due to a self-cure phenomenon whereby there is parasite clearance by both immune and non-immune factors. Here we review studies investigating the self-cure effect, paying particular attention to S. japonicum infection in water buffaloes, and discuss its potential impact on the future schistosomiasis control and elimination efforts in China. Further understanding of the mechanism of self-cure in water buffaloes could be important for future schistosome vaccine design and delivery.

Road to the elimination of schistosomiasis from Asia: the journey is far from over

Schistosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease with a very long endemic history in Asia. Great strides have been made to control the disease in China and the Philippines but the road to elimination is far from over, given the zoonotic nature of the schistosome parasites in both countries.

Bilharzia: Pathology, Diagnosis, Management and Control

More than one billion people travel internationally each year and approximately 100 million to the tropics. Schistosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by trematode blood flukes of the genus Schistosoma. It currently infects over 250 million people worldwide and results in approximately 25 million disability adjusted life years lost. Clinical manifestations depend on the affected organ. Subtle morbidities have also been documented including: growth retardation, anaemia and poor cognitive function in children. While schistosomiasis has been eradicated from Japan and significantly reduced in parts of China and Egypt, transmission in many other regions remains ongoing due to the wide-spread distribution of the intermediate snail host, poor sanitation, lack of health education and decreasing compliance to mass drug administration. Integrated control has significantly reduced the burden of disease in China but considerable financial capital is needed if similar results are to be duplicated elsewhere. Human vaccination is in various stages of development, and once found, will become an integral part of future control. This comprehensive review examines the epidemiology, pathology, diagnosis, clinical management, prevention and control of the disease.

Schistosomiasis in areas of low endemicity: a new era in diagnosis

Parasitological detection of Schistosoma is the cornerstone of schistosomiasis diagnosis in areas of transmission worldwide. However, a steep decrease of sensitivity in low-endemicity areas (LEAs) compromises estimation of schistosomiasis. Despite the restricted utilization of molecular and immunodiagnostic techniques, recent improvements and advances have been contributing to change this scenario, especially in LEAs. Nonetheless, the main issue in a new era of diagnosis overcomes technical advances per se and relates to the loss of 'gold standards' in schistosomiasis diagnosis in LEAs. Here, we review and discuss the current role of molecular and immunodiagnostic methods in schistosomiasis management.

A novel procedure for precise quantification of Schistosoma japonicum eggs in bovine feces

Schistosomiasis japonica is a zoonosis with a number of mammalian species acting as reservoir hosts, including water buffaloes which can contribute up to 75% to human transmission in the People's Republic of China. Determining prevalence and intensity of Schistosoma japonicum in mammalian hosts is important for calculating transmission rates and determining environmental contamination. A new procedure, the formalin–ethyl acetate sedimentation-digestion (FEA–SD) technique, for increased visualization of S. japonicum eggs in bovine feces, is described that is an effective technique for identifying and quantifying S. japonicum eggs in fecal samples from naturally infected Chinese water buffaloes and from carabao (water buffalo) in the Philippines. The procedure involves filtration, sedimentation, potassium hydroxide digestion and centrifugation steps prior to microscopy. Bulk debris, including the dense cellulosic material present in bovine feces, often obscures schistosome eggs with the result that prevalence and infection intensity based on direct visualization cannot be made accurately. This technique removes nearly 70% of debris from the fecal samples and renders the remaining debris translucent. It allows improved microscopic visualization of S. japonicum eggs and provides an accurate quantitative method for the estimation of infection in bovines and other ruminant reservoir hosts. We show that the FEA-SD technique could be of considerable value if applied as a surveillance tool for animal reservoirs of S. japonicum, particularly in areas with low to high infection intensity, or where, following control efforts, there is suspected elimination of schistosomiasis japonica.

Schistosomiasis japonica, a chronic human parasitic disease in the People's Republic of China, the Philippines and areas of Indonesia, is a zoonosis with over 40 different mammals, including a number of ruminants, that can act as reservoir hosts for the infection. Precise identification of the major infection reservoirs is important for the control of Schistosoma japonicum as their targeted treatment can prevent environmental contamination and transmission of the parasite, thus reducing the risk to humans. Current copro-parasitological techniques are generally unsatisfactory for identifying and quantifying S. japonicum eggs in ruminant feces due to the large volume of cellulosic debris present. The new approach we describe here, the FEA–SD technique, removes much of this material by sieving and centrifugation with ethyl actate and renders any remaining debris transparent by use of a potassium hydroxide (KOH) digestion, providing much improved visualization of eggs, enabling the collection of more accurate data on S. japonicum infection in ruminants. This new tool will be of particular value for monitoring schistosome prevalence and intensity in animal reservoirs in areas of the People's Republic of China that are heading toward schistosomiasis elimination.

Field evaluation of a PCR test for Schistosoma japonicum egg detection in low-prevalence regions of China

Sensitive Schistosoma japonicum detection methods are needed to progress from schistosomiasis control to elimination. The sensitivity of the Kato-Katz thick smear and miracidium hatching tests decrease with infection intensity and serological tests cannot always identify current infections. We evaluated a fecal polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay to detect S. japonicum infection in 106 humans and 8 bovines in China. PCR was highly sensitive, detecting S. japonicum DNA at 0.5 eggs/g of stool. Comparing PCR examination of a single stool sample to the miracidium hatching test using three consecutive stool samples, more humans were hatching test positive (20%) than PCR positive (15%). However, two individuals were PCR positive in a village where no infections were detected by coprological methods. The sensitivity of PCR makes it a promising tool for schistosomiasis diagnostics and screening, although egg shedding variability and stool sample size present challenges for any detection method in low-transmission areas.

High prevalence of Schistosoma japonicum infection in Carabao from Samar Province, the Philippines: implications for transmission and control

Schistosoma japonicum is endemic in the Philippines, China and Indonesia, and infects more than 40 mammalian host species, all of which can act as reservoirs of infection. In China, water buffaloes have been shown to be major reservoirs of human infection. However, in the Philippines, carabao have not been considered important reservoir hosts for S. japonicum due to the low prevalence and infection intensities reported, the only exception being a qPCR-based study indicating 51% of carabao were S. japonicum-positive. However, the low prevalence found for the same animals when using conventional copro-parasitological techniques means that there is still confusion about the role of carabao in the transmission of schistosomiasis japonicum. To address this inconsistency, and to shed light on the potential role of carabao in the transmission of S. japonicum in the Philippines, we undertook a pilot survey, collecting fecal samples from animals in Western Samar Province and we used a combination of molecular and copro-parasitological techniques to determine the prevalence and intensity of S. japonicum. We found a high prevalence of S. japonicum in the carabao using a validated real-time PCR (qPCR) and a copro-parasitological tool, the formalin-ethyl acetate sedimentation (FEA-SD) technique. A much lower prevalence of S. japonicum was recorded for the same fecal samples using conventional PCR, the Kato-Katz technique and miracidial hatching. These results suggest that, due to their low diagnostic sensitivity, traditional copro-parasitological techniques underestimate infection in carabao. The use of FEA-SD and qPCR provides a more accurate diagnosis. Based on these findings, the role of bovines in the transmission of S. japonicum appears to be more important in the Philippines than previously recognized, and this may have significant implications for the future control of schistosomiasis there, particularly as, in contrast with previous surveys, we found an unprecedented high prevalence of S. japonicum in humans.

Schistosomiasis japonica is endemic in China, the Philippines and parts of Indonesia. Extensive research efforts have shown that water buffaloes are major reservoir hosts for transmission of Schistosoma japonicum in China. In contrast, comparatively fewer studies have been undertaken on the reservoir hosts for schistosomiasis japonica in the Philippines, although several reports have indicated that water buffaloes (carabao) are unimportant in transmission. Here, we undertook a pilot survey, using a new diagnostic tool (formalin-ethyl acetate sedimentation; FEASD), combined with real-time PCR (qPCR) for the detection of S. japonicum eggs in fecal samples, and report high prevalence of S. japonicum in carabao from Samar province. This study suggests that water buffaloes in the Philippines, as in China, are major reservoir hosts for the transmission of schistosomiasis. Future integrated control, including interventions targeting bovines, would likely reduce the prevalence of infection in humans.

Utilization of ELISA using thioredoxin peroxidase-1 and tandem repeat proteins for diagnosis of Schistosoma japonicum infection among water buffaloes

Background

The presence of animal reservoirs in Schistosoma japonicum infection has been a major obstacle in the control of schistosomiasis. Previous studies have proven that the inclusion of control measures on animal reservoir hosts for schistosomiasis contributed to the decrease of human cases. Animal surveillance should therefore be included to strengthen and improve the capabilities of current serological tests.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Thioredoxin peroxidase-1 (SjTPx-1) and four tandem repeat proteins (Sj1TR, Sj2TR, Sj4TR, Sj7TR) were initially evaluated against human sera. The previous test showed high sensitivity and specificity for antibody detection against SjTPx-1 and Sj7TR. In this study, the immunodiagnostic potential of these recombinant proteins was evaluated using enzyme-linked immunoassay on 50 water buffalo serum samples collected in Cagayan, the Philippines as compared with the soluble egg antigen (SEA). For specificity, 3 goat serum samples positive with Fasciola hepatica were used and among the antigens used, only SEA showed cross-reaction. Stool PCR targeting the S. japonicum 82 bp mitochondrial NAD 1 gene was done to confirm the true positives and served as the standard test. Twenty three samples were positive for stool PCR. SjTPx-1 and Sj1TR gave the highest sensitivity among the recombinant proteins tested for water buffalo samples with 82.61% and 78.26% respectively which were higher than that of SEA (69.57%).

Conclusions/Significance

These results prove that SjTPx-1 works both for humans and water buffaloes making it a good candidate antigen for zoonotic diagnosis. Sj1TR showed good results for water buffaloes and therefore can also be used as a possible candidate for detecting animal schistosome infection.

Schistosomiasis remains to be a public health problem in 76 endemic countries in spite of control efforts that have been done. Among the major causative agents of schistosomiasis, only Schistosoma japonicum is known to be zoonotic. However, the role of animal reservoir hosts has not been given much importance which might be the main hindrance in the possible elimination of the disease. In addition, animal surveillance is not part of the current schistosomiasis control program in most of the endemic countries. This study reports the use of recombinant proteins in ELISA for detecting the infection in water buffaloes. These antigens were previously used against humans and showed that SjTPx-1 and Sj7TR can be a good diagnostic antigen. Using the stool PCR as the standard test, SjTPx-1 and Sj1TR were shown to work on the water buffaloes better than the conventional SEA. These antigens can both be useful in the development of intensified animal surveillance for schistosomiasis.