Macrophage membrane functionalized biomimetic nanoparticles for targeted anti-atherosclerosis applications

Current targeting strategies and advanced nanoplatforms for atherosclerosis therapy

Atherosclerosis is one of the major causes of death worldwide, and it is closely related to many cardiovascular diseases, such as stroke, myocardial infraction and angina. Although traditional surgical and pharmacological interventions can effectively retard or slow down the progression of atherosclerosis, it is very difficult to prevent or even reverse this disease. In recent years, with the rapid development of nanotechnology, various nanoagents have been designed and applied to different diseases including atherosclerosis. The unique atherosclerotic microenvironment with signature biological components allows nanoplatforms to distinguish atherosclerotic lesions from normal tissue and to approach plaques specifically. Based on the process of atherosclerotic plaque formation, this review summarises the nanodrug delivery strategies for atherosclerotic therapy, trying to provide help for researchers to understand the existing atherosclerosis management approaches as well as challenges and to reasonably design anti-atherosclerotic nanoplatforms.

Recent progress in biomimetic nanomedicines based on versatile targeting strategy for atherosclerosis therapy

Atherosclerosis (AS) is considered to be one of the major causes of cardiovascular disease. Its pathological microenvironment is characterised by increased production of reactive oxygen species, lipid oxides, and excessive inflammatory factors, which accumulate at the monolayer endothelial cells in the vascular wall to form AS plaques. Therefore, intervention in the pathological microenvironment would be beneficial in delaying AS. Researchers have designed biomimetic nanomedicines with excellent biocompatibility and the ability to avoid being cleared by the immune system through different therapeutic strategies to achieve better therapeutic effects for the characteristics of AS. Biomimetic nanomedicines can further enhance delivery efficiency and improve treatment efficacy due to their good biocompatibility and ability to evade clearance by the immune system. Biomimetic nanomedicines based on therapeutic strategies such as neutralising inflammatory factors, ROS scavengers, lipid clearance and integration of diagnosis and treatment are versatile approaches for effective treatment of AS. The review firstly summarises the targeting therapeutic strategy of biomimetic nanomedicine for AS in recent 5 years. Biomimetic nanomedicines using cell membranes, proteins, and extracellular vesicles as carriers have been developed for AS.

Macrophage Membrane-Encapsulated Dopamine-Modified Poly Cyclodextrin Multifunctional Biomimetic Nanoparticles for Atherosclerosis Therapy

Atherosclerotic plaques exhibit high cholesterol deposition and oxidative stress resulting from high reactive oxygen species (ROS). These are the major components in plaques and the main pro-inflammatory factor. Therefore, it is crucial to develop an effective therapeutic strategy that can simultaneously address the multiple pro-inflammatory factors via removing cholesterol and inhibiting the overaccumulated ROS. In this study, we constructed macrophage membrane-encapsulated biomimetic nanoparticles (MM@DA-pCD@MTX), which not only alleviate cholesterol deposition at the plaque lesion via reverse cholesterol transport but also scavenge the overaccumulated ROS. β-Cyclodextrin (β-CD) and the loaded methotrexate (MTX) act synergistically to induce cholesterol efflux for inhibiting the formation of foam cells. Among them, MTX up-regulated the expression of ABCA1, CYP27A1, and SR-B1. β-CD increased the solubility of cholesterol crystals. In addition, the ROS scavenging property of dopamine (DA) was perfectly preserved in MM@DA-pCD@MTX, which could scavenge the overaccumulated ROS to alleviate the oxidative stress at the plaque lesion. Last but not least, MM-functionalized "homing" targeting of atherosclerotic plaques not only enables the targeted drug delivery but also prolongs in vivo circulation time and drug half-life. In summary, MM@DA-pCD@MTX emerges as a potent, multifunctional therapeutic platform for AS treatment, offering a high degree of biosafety and efficacy in addressing the complex pathophysiology of atherosclerosis.

Strategies and Recent Advances on Improving Efficient Antitumor of Lenvatinib Based on Nanoparticle Delivery System

Lenvatinib (LVN) is a potentially effective multiple-targeted receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor approved for treating hepatocellular carcinoma, metastatic renal cell carcinoma and thyroid cancer. Nonetheless, poor pharmacokinetic properties including poor water solubility and rapid metabolic, complex tumor microenvironment, and drug resistance have impeded its satisfactory therapeutic efficacy. This article comprehensively reviews the uses of nanotechnology in LVN to improve antitumor effects. With the characteristic of high modifiability and loading capacity of the nano-drug delivery system, an active targeting approach, controllable drug release, and biomimetic strategies have been devised to deliver LVN to target tumors in sequence, compensating for the lack of passive targeting. The existing applications and advances of LVN in improving therapeutic efficacy include improving longer-term efficiency, achieving higher efficiency, combination therapy, tracking and diagnosing application and reducing toxicity. Therefore, using multiple strategies combined with photothermal, photodynamic, and immunoregulatory therapies potentially overcomes multi-drug resistance, regulates unfavorable tumor microenvironment, and yields higher synergistic antitumor effects. In brief, the nano-LVN delivery system has brought light to the war against cancer while at the same time improving the antitumor effect. More intelligent and multifunctional nanoparticles should be investigated and further converted into clinical applications in the future.

M1/M2 macrophage-targeted nanotechnology and PROTAC for the treatment of atherosclerosis

Macrophages play key roles in atherosclerosis progression, and an imbalance in M1/M2 macrophages leads to unstable plaques; therefore, M1/M2 macrophage polarization-targeted treatments may serve as a new approach in the treatment of atherosclerosis. At present, there is little research on M1/M2 macrophage polarization-targeted nanotechnology. Proteolysis-targeting chimera (PROTAC) technology, a targeted protein degradation technology, mediates the degradation of target proteins and has been widely promoted in preclinical and clinical applications as a novel therapeutic modality. This review summarizes the recent studies on M1/M2 macrophage polarization-targeted nanotechnology, focusing on the mechanism and advantages of PROTACs in M1/M2 macrophage polarization as a new approach for the treatment of atherosclerosis.

Liver Fibrosis Amelioration by Macrophage-Biomimetic Polydopamine Nanoparticles via Synergistically Alleviating Inflammation and Scavenging ROS

The progression of liver fibrosis is determined by the interaction of damaged hepatocytes, active hepatic stellate cells, and macrophages, contributing to the development of oxidative stress and inflammatory environments within the liver. Unfortunately, the current pharmacological treatment for liver fibrosis is limited by its inability to regulate inflammation and oxidative stress concurrently. In this study, we developed a cell membrane biomaterial for the treatment of liver fibrosis, which we designated as PM. PM is a biomimetic nanomaterial constructed by encapsulating polydopamine (PDA) with a macrophage membrane (MM). It is hypothesized that PM nanoparticles (NPs) can successfully target the site of inflammation, simultaneously inhibit inflammation, and scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS). In vitro experiments demonstrated that PM NPs exhibited strong antioxidant properties and the ability to neutralize pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β). Moreover, the capacity of PM NPs to safeguard cells from oxidative stress and their anti-inflammatory efficacy in an inflammatory model were validated in subsequent cellular experiments. Additionally, PM NPs exhibited a high biocompatibility. In a mouse model of hepatic fibrosis, PM NPs were observed to aggregate efficiently in the fibrotic liver, displaying excellent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Notably, PM NPs exhibited superior targeting, anti-inflammatory, and ROS scavenging abilities in inflamed tissues compared to MM, PDA, or erythrocyte membrane-encapsulated PDA. Under the synergistic effect of anti-inflammation and antioxidant, PM NPs produced significant therapeutic effects on liver fibrosis in mice. In conclusion, the synergistic alleviation of inflammation and ROS scavenging by this specially designed nanomaterial, PM NPs, provides valuable insights for the treatment of liver fibrosis and other inflammatory- or oxidative stress-related diseases.

Cell-derived biomimetic nanoparticles for the targeted therapy of ALI/ARDS

Acute lung injury (ALI) and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) are common clinical critical diseases with high morbidity and mortality. Especially since the COVID-19 outbreak, the mortality rates of critically ill patients with ARDS can be as high as 60%. Therefore, this problem has become a matter of concern to respiratory critical care. To date, the main clinical measures for ALI/ARDS are mechanical ventilation and drug therapy. Although ventilation treatment reduces mortality, it increases the risk of hyperxemia, and drug treatment lacks safe and effective delivery methods. Therefore, novel therapeutic strategies for ALI/ARDS are urgently needed. Developments in nanotechnology have allowed the construction of a safe, efficient, precise, and controllable drug delivery system. However, problems still encounter in the treatment of ALI/ARDS, such as the toxicity, poor targeting ability, and immunogenicity of nanomaterials. Cell-derived biomimetic nanodelivery drug systems have the advantages of low toxicity, long circulation, high targeting, and high bioavailability and show great therapeutic promises for ALI/ARDS owing to their acquired cellular biological features and some functions. This paper reviews ALI/ARDS treatments based on cell membrane biomimetic technology and extracellular vesicle biomimetic technology, aiming to achieve a significant breakthrough in ALI/ARDS treatments.

Nanoparticle-based therapeutic strategies for mitochondrial dysfunction in cardiovascular disease

Although cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the leading cause of global mortality, there is a lack of therapies that target and revert underlying pathological processes. Mitochondrial dysfunction is involved in the pathophysiology of CVD, and thus is a potential target for therapeutic development. To target the mitochondria and improve therapeutic efficacy, nanoparticle-based delivery systems have been proposed as promising strategies for the delivery of therapeutic agents to the mitochondria. This review will first discuss how mitochondrial dysfunction is related to the progression of several CVD and then delineate recent progress in mitochondrial targeting using nanoparticle-based delivery systems including peptide-based nanosystems, polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes, and lipid nanoparticles. In addition, we summarize the advantages of these nanocarriers and remaining challenges in targeting the mitochondria as a therapeutic strategy for CVD treatment.

Engineering Efferocytosis-Mimicking Nanovesicles to Regulate Joint Anti-Inflammation and Peripheral Immunosuppression for Rheumatoid Arthritis Therapy

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disorder characterized by chronic inflammation of the synovial joints and the dysfunction of regulatory T cells (Tregs) in the peripheral blood. Therefore, an optimal treatment strategy should aim to eliminate the inflammatory response in the joints and simultaneously restore the immune tolerance of Tregs in peripheral blood. Accordingly, we developed an efferocytosis-mimicking nanovesicle that contains three functional factors for immunomodulating of efferocytosis, including "find me" and "eat me" signals for professional (macrophage) or non-professional phagocytes (T lymphocyte), and "apoptotic metabolite" for metabolite digestion. We showed that efferocytosis-mimicking nanovesicles targeted the inflamed joints and spleen of mice with collagen-induced arthritis, further recruiting and selectively binding to macrophages and T lymphocytes to induce M2 macrophage polarization and Treg differentiation and T helper cell 17 (Th17) recession. Under systemic administration, the efferocytosis-mimicking nanovesicles effectively maintained the pro-inflammatory M1/anti-inflammatory M2 macrophage balance in joints and the Treg/Th17 imbalance in peripheral blood to prevent RA progression. This study demonstrates the potential of efferocytosis-mimicking nanovesicles for RA immunotherapy.

Application and advances of biomimetic membrane materials in central nervous system disorders

Central nervous system (CNS) diseases encompass spinal cord injuries, brain tumors, neurodegenerative diseases, and ischemic strokes. Recently, there has been a growing global recognition of CNS disorders as a leading cause of disability and death in humans and the second most common cause of death worldwide. The global burdens and treatment challenges posed by CNS disorders are particularly significant in the context of a rapidly expanding global population and aging demographics. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) presents a challenge for effective drug delivery in CNS disorders, as conventional drugs often have limited penetration into the brain. Advances in biomimetic membrane nanomaterials technology have shown promise in enhancing drug delivery for various CNS disorders, leveraging properties such as natural biological surfaces, high biocompatibility and biosafety. This review discusses recent developments in biomimetic membrane materials, summarizes the types and preparation methods of these materials, analyzes their applications in treating CNS injuries, and provides insights into the future prospects and limitations of biomimetic membrane materials.

Macrophage membrane-coated nanoparticles for the treatment of infectious diseases

Infectious diseases severely threaten human health, and traditional treatment techniques face multiple limitations. As an important component of immune cells, macrophages display unique biological properties, such as biocompatibility, immunocompatibility, targeting specificity, and immunoregulatory activity, and play a critical role in protecting the body against infections. The macrophage membrane-coated nanoparticles not only maintain the functions of the inner nanoparticles but also inherit the characteristics of macrophages, making them excellent tools for improving drug delivery and therapeutic implications in infectious diseases (IDs). In this review, we describe the characteristics and functions of macrophage membrane-coated nanoparticles and their advantages and challenges in ID therapy. We first summarize the pathological features of IDs, providing insight into how to fight them. Next, we focus on the classification, characteristics, and preparation of macrophage membrane-coated nanoparticles. Finally, we comprehensively describe the progress of macrophage membrane-coated nanoparticles in combating IDs, including drug delivery, inhibition and killing of pathogens, and immune modulation. At the end of this review, a look forward to the challenges of this aspect is presented.

NF-κB-Signaling-Targeted Immunomodulatory Nanoparticle with Photothermal and Quorum-Sensing Inhibition Effects for Efficient Healing of Biofilm-Infected Wounds

The development of therapeutics with high antimicrobial activity and immunomodulatory effects is urgently needed for the treatment of infected wounds due to the increasing danger posed by recalcitrant-infected wounds. In this study, we developed light-controlled antibacterial, photothermal, and immunomodulatory biomimetic N/hPDA@M nanoparticles (NPs). This nanoplatform was developed by loading flavonoid naringenin onto hollow mesoporous polydopamine NPs in a π-π-stacked configuration and encasing them with macrophage membranes. First, our N/hPDA@M NPs efficiently neutralized inflammatory factors present within the wound microenvironment by the integration of macrophage membranes. Afterward, the N/hPDA@M NPs effectively dismantled bacterial biofilms through a combination of the photothermal properties of PDA and the quorum sensing inhibitory effects of naringenin. It is worth noting that N/hPDA@M NPs near-infrared-enhanced release of naringenin exhibited specificity toward the NF-κB-signaling pathway, effectively mitigating the inflammatory response. This innovative design not only conferred remarkable antibacterial properties upon the N/hPDA@M NPs but also endowed them with the capacity to modulate inflammatory responses, curbing excessive inflammation and steering macrophage polarization toward the M2 phenotype. As a result, this multifaceted approach significantly contributes to expediting the healing process of infected skin wounds.

The Prospect of Biomimetic Immune Cell Membrane-Coated Nanomedicines for Treatment of Serious Bacterial Infections and Sepsis

Invasive bacterial infections and sepsis are persistent global health concerns, complicated further by the escalating threat of antibiotic resistance. Over the past 40 years, collaborative endeavors to improve the diagnosis and critical care of septic patients have improved outcomes, yet grappling with the intricate immune dysfunction underlying the septic condition remains a formidable challenge. Anti-inflammatory interventions that exhibited promise in murine models failed to manifest consistent survival benefits in clinical studies through recent decades. Novel therapeutic approaches that target bacterial virulence factors, for example with monoclonal antibodies, aim to thwart pathogen-driven damage and restore an advantage to the immune system. A pioneering technology addressing this challenge is biomimetic nanoparticles-a therapeutic platform featuring nanoscale particles enveloped in natural cell membranes. Borne from the quest for a durable drug delivery system, the original red blood cell-coated nanoparticles showcased a broad capacity to absorb bacterial and environmental toxins from serum. Tailoring the membrane coating to immune cell sources imparts unique characteristics to the nanoparticles suitable for broader application in infectious disease. Their capacity to bind both inflammatory signals and virulence factors assembles the most promising sepsis therapies into a singular, pathogen-agnostic therapeutic. This review explores the ongoing work on immune cell-coated nanoparticle therapeutics for infection and sepsis. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Invasive bacterial infections and sepsis are a major global health problem made worse by expanding antibiotic resistance, meaning better treatment options are urgently needed. Biomimetic cell-membrane-coated nanoparticles are an innovative therapeutic platform that deploys a multifaceted mechanism to action to neutralize microbial virulence factors, capture endotoxins, and bind excessive host proinflammatory cytokines, seeking to reduce host tissue injury, aid in microbial clearance, and improve patient outcomes.

Advances in Nanoparticles in the Prevention and Treatment of Myocardial Infarction

Myocardial infarction (MI) is one of the most prevalent types of cardiovascular disease. During MI, myocardial cells become ischemic and necrotic due to inadequate blood perfusion, leading to irreversible damage to the heart. Despite the development of therapeutic strategies for the prevention and treatment of MI, their effects are still unsatisfactory. Nanoparticles represent a new strategy for the pre-treatment and treatment of MI, and novel multifunctional nanoparticles with preventive and therapeutic capabilities hold promise for the prevention and treatment of this disease. This review summarizes the common types and properties of nanoparticles, and focuses on the research progress of nanoparticles for the prevention and treatment of MI.

Seeking Cells, Targeting Bacteria: A Cascade-Targeting Bacteria-Responsive Nanosystem for Combating Intracellular Bacterial Infections

Intracellular bacteria pose a great challenge to antimicrobial therapy due to various physiological barriers at both cellular and bacterial levels, which impede drug penetration and intracellular targeting, thereby fostering antibiotic resistance and yielding suboptimal treatment outcomes. Herein, a cascade-target bacterial-responsive drug delivery nanosystem, MM@SPE NPs, comprising a macrophage membrane (MM) shell and a core of SPE NPs. SPE NPs consist of phenylboronic acid-grafted dendritic mesoporous silica nanoparticles (SP NPs) encapsulated with epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), a non-antibiotic antibacterial component, via pH-sensitive boronic ester bonds are introduced. Upon administration, MM@SPE NPs actively home in on infected macrophages due to the homologous targeting properties of the MM shell, which is subsequently disrupted during cellular endocytosis. Within the cellular environment, SPE NPs expose and spontaneously accumulate around intracellular bacteria through their bacteria-targeting phenylboronic acid groups. The acidic bacterial microenvironment further triggers the breakage of boronic ester bonds between SP NPs and EGCG, allowing the bacterial-responsive release of EGCG for localized intracellular antibacterial effects. The efficacy of MM@SPE NPs in precisely eliminating intracellular bacteria is validated in two rat models of intracellular bacterial infections. This cascade-targeting responsive system offers new solutions for treating intracellular bacterial infections while minimizing the risk of drug resistance.

Recent advances of mechanosensitive genes in vascular endothelial cells for the formation and treatment of atherosclerosis

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and its complications are a high-incidence disease worldwide. Numerous studies have shown that blood flow shear has a huge impact on the function of vascular endothelial cells, and it plays an important role in gene regulation of pro-inflammatory, pro-thrombotic, pro-oxidative stress, and cell permeability. Many important endothelial cell mechanosensitive genes have been discovered, including KLK10, CCN gene family, NRP2, YAP, TAZ, HIF-1α, NF-κB, FOS, JUN, TFEB, KLF2/KLF4, NRF2, and ID1. Some of them have been intensively studied, whereas the relevant regulatory mechanism of other genes remains unclear. Focusing on these mechanosensitive genes will provide new strategies for therapeutic intervention in atherosclerotic vascular disease. Thus, this article reviews the mechanosensitive genes affecting vascular endothelial cells, including classical pathways and some newly screened genes, and summarizes the latest research progress on their roles in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis to reveal effective therapeutic targets of drugs and provide new insights for anti-atherosclerosis.

Progress of nanomaterials in the treatment of thrombus

Thrombus has long been the major contributor of death and disability because it can cause adverse effects to varying degrees on the body, resulting in vascular blockage, embolism, heart valve deformation, widespread bleeding, etc. However, clinically, conventional thrombolytic drug treatments have hemorrhagic complication risks and easy to miss the best time of treatment window. Thus, it is an urgent need to investigate newly alternative treatment strategies that can reduce adverse effects and improve treatment effectiveness. Drugs based on nanomaterials act as a new biomedical strategy and promising tools, and have already been investigated for both diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in thrombus therapy. Recent studies have some encouraging progress. In the present review, we primarily concern with the latest developments in the areas of nanomedicines targeting thrombosis therapy. We present the thrombus' formation, characteristics, and biomarkers for diagnosis, overview recent emerging nanomedicine strategies for thrombus therapy, and focus on the future design directions, challenges, and prospects in the nanomedicine application in thrombus therapy.

Advances in Atherosclerosis Theranostics Harnessing Iron Oxide-Based Nanoparticles

Atherosclerosis, a multifaceted chronic inflammatory disease, has a profound impact on cardiovascular health. However, the critical limitations of atherosclerosis management include the delayed detection of advanced stages, the intricate assessment of plaque stability, and the absence of efficacious therapeutic strategies. Nanotheranostic based on nanotechnology offers a novel paradigm for addressing these challenges by amalgamating advanced imaging capabilities with targeted therapeutic interventions. Meanwhile, iron oxide nanoparticles have emerged as compelling candidates for theranostic applications in atherosclerosis due to their magnetic resonance imaging capability and biosafety. This review delineates the current state and prospects of iron oxide nanoparticle-based nanotheranostics in the realm of atherosclerosis, including pivotal aspects of atherosclerosis development, the pertinent targeting strategies involved in disease pathogenesis, and the diagnostic and therapeutic roles of iron oxide nanoparticles. Furthermore, this review provides a comprehensive overview of theranostic nanomedicine approaches employing iron oxide nanoparticles, encompassing chemical therapy, physical stimulation therapy, and biological therapy. Finally, this review proposes and discusses the challenges and prospects associated with translating these innovative strategies into clinically viable anti-atherosclerosis interventions. In conclusion, this review offers new insights into the future of atherosclerosis theranostic, showcasing the remarkable potential of iron oxide-based nanoparticles as versatile tools in the battle against atherosclerosis.

Application of PLGA in Tumor Immunotherapy

Biodegradable polymers have been extensively researched in the field of biomedicine. Polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA), a biodegradable polymer material, has been widely used in drug delivery systems and has shown great potential in various medical fields, including vaccines, tissue engineering such as bone regeneration and wound healing, and 3D printing. Cancer, a group of diseases with high mortality rates worldwide, has recently garnered significant attention in the field of immune therapy research. In recent years, there has been growing interest in the delivery function of PLGA in tumor immunotherapy. In tumor immunotherapy, PLGA can serve as a carrier to load antigens on its surface, thereby enhancing the immune system's ability to attack tumor cells. Additionally, PLGA can be used to formulate tumor vaccines and immunoadjuvants, thereby enhancing the efficacy of tumor immunotherapy. PLGA nanoparticles (NPs) can also enhance the effectiveness of tumor immunotherapy by regulating the activity and differentiation of immune cells, and by improving the expression and presentation of tumor antigens. Furthermore, due to the diverse physical properties and surface modifications of PLGA, it has a wider range of potential applications in tumor immunotherapy through the loading of various types of drugs or other innovative substances. We aim to highlight the recent advances and challenges of plga in the field of oncology therapy to stimulate further research and development of innovative PLGA-based approaches, and more effective and personalized cancer therapies.

A Macrophage Membrane-Functionalized, Reactive Oxygen Species-Activatable Nanoprodrug to Alleviate Inflammation and Improve the Lipid Metabolism for Atherosclerosis Management

Atherosclerosis (AS) management typically relies on therapeutic drug interventions, but these strategies typically have drawbacks, including poor site specificity, high systemic intake, and undesired side effects. The field of cell membrane camouflaged biomimetic nanomedicine offers the potential to address these challenges thanks to its ability to mimic the natural properties of cell membranes that enable enhanced biocompatibility, prolonged blood circulation, targeted drug delivery, and evasion of immune recognition, ultimately leading to improved therapeutic outcomes and reduced side effects. In this study, a novel biomimetic approach is developed to construct the M1 macrophage membrane-coated nanoprodrug (MM@CD-PBA-RVT) for AS management. The advanced MM@CD-PBA-RVT nanotherapeutics are proved to be effective in inhibiting macrophage phagocytosis and facilitating the cargo delivery to the activated endothelial cells of AS lesion both in vitro and in vivo. Over the 30-day period of nanotherapy, MM@CD-PBA-RVT is capable of significantly inhibiting the progression of AS, while also maintaining a favorable safety profile. In conclusion, the biomimetic MM@CD-PBA-RVT shows promise as feasible drug delivery systems for safe and effective anti-AS applications.

Catalytic Nanoparticles in Biomedical Applications: Exploiting Advanced Nanozymes for Therapeutics and Diagnostics

Catalytic nanoparticles (CNPs) as heterogeneous catalyst reveals superior activity due to their physio-chemical features, such as high surface-to-volume ratio and unique optical, electric, and magnetic properties. The CNPs, based on their physio-chemical nature, can either increase the reactive oxygen species (ROS) level for tumor and antibacterial therapy or eliminate the ROS for cytoprotection, anti-inflammation, and anti-aging. In addition, the catalytic activity of nanozymes can specifically trigger a specific reaction accompanied by the optical feature change, presenting the feasibility of biosensor and bioimaging applications. Undoubtedly, CNPs play a pivotal role in pushing the evolution of technologies in medical and clinical fields, and advanced strategies and nanomaterials rely on the input of chemical experts to develop. Herein, a systematic and comprehensive review of the challenges and recent development of CNPs for biomedical applications is presented from the viewpoint of advanced nanomaterial with unique catalytic activity and additional functions. Furthermore, the biosafety issue of applying biodegradable and non-biodegradable nanozymes and future perspectives are critically discussed to guide a promising direction in developing span-new nanozymes and more intelligent strategies for overcoming the current clinical limitations.

Targeted delivery of MerTK protein via cell membrane engineered nanoparticle enhances efferocytosis and attenuates atherosclerosis in diabetic ApoE-/- Mice

BACKGROUND

Clearance of apoptotic cells by efferocytosis is crucial for prevention of atherosclerosis progress, and impaired efferocytosis contributes to the aggravated atherosclerosis.

RESULTS

In this study, we found that diabetic ApoE-/- mice showed aggravated atherosclerosis as hyperglycemia damaged the efferocytosis capacity at least partially due to decreased expression of Mer tyrosine kinase (MerTK) on macrophages. To locally restore MerTK in the macrophages in the plaque, hybrid membrane nanovesicles (HMNVs) were thus developed. Briefly, cell membrane from MerTK overexpressing RAW264.7 cell and transferrin receptor (TfR) overexpressing HEK293T cell were mixed with DOPE polymers to produce nanovesicles designated as HMNVs. HMNVs could fuse with the recipient cell membrane and thus increased MerTK in diabetic macrophages, which in turn restored the efferocytosis capacity. Upon intravenous administration into diabetic ApoE-/- mice, superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SMN) decorated HMNVs accumulated at the aorta site significantly under magnetic navigation, where the recipient macrophages cleared the apoptotic cells efficiently and thus decreased the inflammation.

CONCLUSIONS

 Our study indicates that MerTK decrease in macrophages contributes to the aggravated atherosclerosis in diabetic ApoE-/- mice and regional restoration of MerTK in macrophages of the plaque via HMNVs could be a promising therapeutic approach.

Biomechanics-mediated endocytosis in atherosclerosis

Biomechanical forces, including vascular shear stress, cyclic stretching, and extracellular matrix stiffness, which influence mechanosensitive channels in the plasma membrane, determine cell function in atherosclerosis. Being highly associated with the formation of atherosclerotic plaques, endocytosis is the key point in molecule and macromolecule trafficking, which plays an important role in lipid transportation. The process of endocytosis relies on the mobility and tension of the plasma membrane, which is sensitive to biomechanical forces. Several studies have advanced the signal transduction between endocytosis and biomechanics to elaborate the developmental role of atherosclerosis. Meanwhile, increased plaque growth also results in changes in the structure, composition and morphology of the coronary artery that contribute to the alteration of arterial biomechanics. These cross-links of biomechanics and endocytosis in atherosclerotic plaques play an important role in cell function, such as cell phenotype switching, foam cell formation, and lipoprotein transportation. We propose that biomechanical force activates the endocytosis of vascular cells and plays an important role in the development of atherosclerosis.

Biomimetic nanodrug targets inflammation and suppresses YAP/TAZ to ameliorate atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis, a chronic inflammatory disease, is the primary cause of myocardial infarction and ischemic stroke. Recent studies have demonstrated that dysregulation of yes-associated protein (YAP) and transcriptional coactivator with PDZ-binding domain (TAZ) contributes to plaque development, making YAP/TAZ potential therapeutic targets. However, systemic modulation of YAP/TAZ expression or activities risks serious off-target effects, limiting clinical applicability. To address the challenge, this study develops monocyte membrane-coated nanoparticles (MoNP) as a targeted delivery system for activated and inflamed endothelium lining the plaque surface. The MoNP system is used to deliver verteporfin (VP), aimed at inhibiting YAP/TAZ specifically within arterial regions prone to atherosclerosis. The results reveal that MoNP significantly enhance payload delivery to inflamed endothelial cells (EC) while avoiding phagocytic cells. When administered in mice, MoNP predominantly accumulate in intima of the atheroprone artery. MoNP-mediated delivery of VP substantially reduces YAP/TAZ expression, thereby suppressing inflammatory gene expression and macrophage infiltration in cultured EC and mouse arteries exposed to atherogenic stimuli. Importantly, this targeted VP nanodrug effectively decreases plaque development in mice without causing noticeable histopathological changes in major organs. Collectively, these findings demonstrate a lesion-targeted and pathway-specific biomimetic nanodrug, potentially leading to safer and more effective treatments for atherosclerosis.

Neutrophil and endothelial cell membranes coassembled roflumilast nanoparticles attenuate myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury

Aim: This study aimed to develop biomimetic nanoparticles (NPs) of roflumilast (ROF) for attenuating myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (MI/R) injury. Materials & methods: We synthesized biomimetic ROF NPs and assembled ROF NPs in neutrophil and endothelial cell membranes (NE/ROF NPs). The physical properties of NE/ROF NPs were characterized and biological functions of NE/ROF NPs were tested in vitro. Targeting characteristics, therapeutic efficacy and safety of NE/ROF NPs were examined in mice model of MI/R. Results: NE/ROF NPs exhibited significant anti-inflammatory and antiadhesion effects. Meanwhile, they was effective in reducing MI/R injury in mice. Furthermore, NE/ROF NPs exhibited stronger targeting capabilities and demonstrated good safety. Conclusion: NE/ROF NPs may be a versatile biomimetic drug-delivery system for attenuating MI/R injury.

VCAM-1-targeted nanoparticles to diagnose, monitor and treat atherosclerosis

Vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) was identified over 2 decades ago as an endothelial adhesion receptor involved in leukocyte recruitment and cell-based immune responses. In atherosclerosis, a chronic inflammatory disease of the blood vessels that is the leading cause of death in the USA, endothelial VCAM-1 is robustly expressed beginning in the early stages of the disease. The interactions of circulating immune cells with VCAM-1 on the activated endothelial cell surface promote the uptake of monocytes and the progression of atherosclerotic lesions in susceptible vessels. Herein, we review the role of VCAM-1 in atherosclerosis and the use of VCAM-1 binding peptides, antibodies and aptamers as targeting agents for nanoplatforms for early detection and treatment of atherosclerotic disease.

Recent advancements in nanotechnology based drug delivery for the management of cardiovascular disease

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) constitute a predominant cause of both global mortality and morbidity. To address the challenges in the early diagnosis and management of CVDs, there is growing interest in the field of nanotechnology and nanomaterials to develop innovative diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. This review focuses on the recent advancements in nanotechnology-based diagnostic techniques, including cardiac immunoassays (CIA), cardiac circulating biomarkers, cardiac exosomal biomarkers, and molecular Imaging (MOI). Moreover, the article delves into the exciting developments in nanoparticles (NPs), biomimetic NPs, nanofibers, nanogels, and nanopatchs for cardiovascular applications. And discuss how these nanoscale technologies can improve the precision, sensitivity, and speed of CVD diagnosis and management. While highlighting their vast potential, we also address the limitations and challenges that must be overcome to harness these innovations successfully. Furthermore, this review focuses on the emerging opportunities for personalized and effective cardiovascular care through the integration of nanotechnology, ultimately aiming to reduce the global burden of CVDs.

CXCR4-Expressing Mesenchymal Stem Cells Derived Nanovesicles for Rheumatoid Arthritis Treatment

Cell membrane camouflage technology, which a demonstrated value for the bionic replication of natural cell membrane properties, is an active area of ongoing research readily applicable to nanomedicine. How to realize immune evasion, slow down the clearance from the body, and improve targeting are still worth great efforts for this technology. Herein, novel cell membrane-mimicked nanovesicles from genetically engineered mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are presented as a potential anti-inflammatory platform for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) management. Utilizing the synthetic biology approach, the biomimetic nanoparticles are constructed by fusing C-X-C motif chemokine receptor4 (CXCR4)-anchored MSC membranes onto drug-loaded polymeric cores (MCPNs), which make them ideal decoys of stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1)-targeted arthritis. These resulting nanocomplexes function to escape from the immune system and enhance accumulation in the established inflamed joints via the CXCR4/SDF-1 chemotactic signal axis, thereby achieving an affinity to activated macrophages and synovial fibroblasts. It is further demonstrated that the MCPNs can significantly suppress synovial inflammation and relieve pathological conditions with favorable safety properties in collagen-induced arthritis mice. These findings indicate the clinical value of MCPNs as biomimetic nanodrugs for RA therapy and related diseases.

Engineered Macrophage Membrane-Coated Nanoparticles with Enhanced CCR2 Expression Promote Spinal Cord Injury Repair by Suppressing Neuroinflammation and Neuronal death

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a severe neurological disorder characterized by significant disability and limited treatment options. Mitigating the secondary inflammatory response following the initial injury is the primary focus of current research in the treatment of SCI. CCL2 (C─C motif chemokine ligand 2) serves as the primary regulator responsible for inflammatory chemotaxis of the majority of peripheral immune cells, blocking the CCL2-CCR2 (C─C chemokine receptor type 2) axis has shown considerable therapeutic potential for inflammatory diseases, including SCI. In this study, it presents a multifunctional biomimetic nanoplatform (CCR2-MM@PLGA/Cur) specifically designed to target the CCL2-CCR2 axis, which consisted of an engineered macrophage membrane (MM) coating with enhanced CCR2 expression and a PLGA (poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid)) nanoparticle that encapsulated therapeutic drugs. CCR2 overexpression on MM not only enhanced drug-targeted delivery to the injury site, but also attenuated macrophage infiltration, microglia pro-inflammatory polarization, and neuronal apoptosis by trapping CCL2. Consequently, it facilitated neural regeneration and motor function recovery in SCI mice, enabling a comprehensive treatment approach for SCI. The feasibility and efficacy of this platform are confirmed through a series of in vitro and in vivo assays, offering new insights and potential avenues for further exploration in the treatment of SCI.

Nanotechnology's frontier in combatting infectious and inflammatory diseases: prevention and treatment

Inflammation-associated diseases encompass a range of infectious diseases and non-infectious inflammatory diseases, which continuously pose one of the most serious threats to human health, attributed to factors such as the emergence of new pathogens, increasing drug resistance, changes in living environments and lifestyles, and the aging population. Despite rapid advancements in mechanistic research and drug development for these diseases, current treatments often have limited efficacy and notable side effects, necessitating the development of more effective and targeted anti-inflammatory therapies. In recent years, the rapid development of nanotechnology has provided crucial technological support for the prevention, treatment, and detection of inflammation-associated diseases. Various types of nanoparticles (NPs) play significant roles, serving as vaccine vehicles to enhance immunogenicity and as drug carriers to improve targeting and bioavailability. NPs can also directly combat pathogens and inflammation. In addition, nanotechnology has facilitated the development of biosensors for pathogen detection and imaging techniques for inflammatory diseases. This review categorizes and characterizes different types of NPs, summarizes their applications in the prevention, treatment, and detection of infectious and inflammatory diseases. It also discusses the challenges associated with clinical translation in this field and explores the latest developments and prospects. In conclusion, nanotechnology opens up new possibilities for the comprehensive management of infectious and inflammatory diseases.

Cell membrane-coated biomimetic nanomedicines: productive cancer theranostic tools

As the second-leading cause of human death, cancer has drawn attention in the area of biomedical research and therapy from all around the world. Certainly, the development of nanotechnology has made it possible for nanoparticles (NPs) to be used as a carrier for delivery systems in the treatment of tumors. This is a biomimetic approach established to craft remedial strategies comprising NPs cloaked with membrane obtained from various natural cells like blood cells, bacterial cells, cancer cells, etc. Here we conduct an in-depth exploration of cell membrane-coated NPs (CMNPs) and their extensive array of applications including drug delivery, vaccination, phototherapy, immunotherapy, MRI imaging, PET imaging, multimodal imaging, gene therapy and a combination of photothermal and chemotherapy. This review article provides a thorough summary of the most recent developments in the use of CMNPs for the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. It critically assesses the state of research while recognizing significant accomplishments and innovations. Additionally, it indicates ongoing problems in clinical translation and associated queries that warrant deeper research. By doing so, this study encourages creative thinking for future projects in the field of tumor therapy using CMNPs while also educating academics on the present status of CMNP research.

A macrophage cell membrane-coated cascade-targeting photothermal nanosystem for combating intracellular bacterial infections

Current antibacterial interventions encounter formidable challenges when confronting intracellular bacteria, attributable to their clustering within phagocytes, particularly macrophages, evading host immunity and resisting antibiotics. Herein, we have developed an intelligent cell membrane-based nanosystem, denoted as MM@DAu NPs, which seamlessly integrates cascade-targeting capabilities with controllable antibacterial functions for the precise elimination of intracellular bacteria. MM@DAu NPs feature a core comprising D-alanine-functionalized gold nanoparticles (DAu NPs) enveloped by a macrophage cell membrane (MM) coating. Upon administration, MM@DAu NPs harness the intrinsic homologous targeting ability of their macrophage membrane to infiltrate bacteria-infected macrophages. Upon internalization within these host cells, exposed DAu NPs from MM@DAu NPs selectively bind to intracellular bacteria through the bacteria-targeting agent, D-alanine present on DAu NPs. This intricate process establishes a cascade mechanism that efficiently targets intracellular bacteria. Upon exposure to near-infrared irradiation, the accumulated DAu NPs surrounding intracellular bacteria induce local hyperthermia, enabling precise clearance of intracellular bacteria. Further validation in animal models infected with the typical intracellular bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus, substantiates the exceptional cascade-targeting efficacy and photothermal antibacterial potential of MM@DAu NPs in vivo. Therefore, this integrated cell membrane-based cascade-targeting photothermal nanosystem offers a promising approach for conquering persistent intracellular infections without drug resistance risks. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Intracellular bacterial infections lead to treatment failures and relapses because intracellular bacteria could cluster within phagocytes, especially macrophages, evading the host immune system and resisting antibiotics. Herein, we have developed an intelligent cell membrane-based nanosystem MM@DAu NPs, which is designed to precisely eliminate intracellular bacteria through a controllable cascade-targeting photothermal antibacterial approach. MM@DAu NPs combine D-alanine-functionalized gold nanoparticles with a macrophage cell membrane coating. Upon administration, MM@DAu NPs harness the homologous targeting ability of macrophage membrane to infiltrate bacteria-infected macrophages. Upon internalization, exposed DAu NPs from MM@DAu NPs selectively bind to intracellular bacteria through the bacteria-targeting agent, enabling precise clearance of intracellular bacteria through local hyperthermia. This integrated cell membrane-based cascade-targeting photothermal nanosystem offers a promising avenue for conquering persistent intracellular infections without drug resistance risks.

Oral Nanomedicine: Challenges and Opportunities

Compared to injection administration, oral administration is free of discomfort, wound infection, and complications and has a higher compliance rate for patients with diverse diseases. However, oral administration reduces the bioavailability of medicines, especially biologics (e.g., peptides, proteins, and antibodies), due to harsh gastrointestinal biological barriers. In this context, the development and prosperity of nanotechnology have helped improve the bioactivity and oral availability of oral medicines. On this basis, first, the biological barriers to oral administration are discussed, and then oral nanomedicine based on organic and inorganic nanomaterials and their biomedical applications in diverse diseases are reviewed. Finally, the challenges and potential opportunities in the future development of oral nanomedicine, which may provide a vital reference for the eventual clinical transformation and standardized production of oral nanomedicine, are put forward.

M2 Macrophage Membrane-Camouflaged Fe3 O4 -Cy7 Nanoparticles with Reduced Immunogenicity for Targeted NIR/MR Imaging of Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis （AS） is the primary reason behind cardiovascular diseases, leading to approximately one-third of global deaths. Developing a novel multi-model probe to detect AS is urgently required. Macrophages are the primary cells from which AS genesis occurs. Utilizing natural macrophage membranes coated on the surface of nanoparticles is an efficient delivery method to target plaque sites. Herein, Fe3 O4 -Cy7 nanoparticles (Fe3 O4 -Cy7 NPs), functionalized using an M2 macrophage membrane and a liposome extruder for Near-infrared fluorescence and Magnetic resonance imaging, are synthesized. These macrophage membrane-coated nanoparticles (Fe3 O4 @M2 NPs) enhance the recognition and uptake using active macrophages. Moreover, they inhibit uptake using inactive macrophages and human coronary artery endothelial cells. The macrophage membrane-coated nanoparticles (Fe3 O4 @M0 NPs, Fe3 O4 @M1 NPs, Fe3 O4 @M2 NPs) can target specific sites depending on the macrophage membrane type and are related to C-C chemofactor receptor type 2 protein content. Moreover, Fe3 O4 @M2 NPs demonstrate excellent biosafety in vivo after injection, showing a significantly higher Fe concentration in the blood than Fe3 O4 -Cy7 NPs. Therefore, Fe3 O4 @M2 NPs effectively retain the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles and depict reduced immunological response in blood circulation. These NPs mainly reveal enhanced targeting imaging capability for atherosclerotic plaque lesions.

Maintaining sidedness and fluidity in cell membrane coatings supported on nano-particulate and planar surfaces

Supported cell membrane coatings meet many requirements set to bioactive nanocarriers and materials, provided sidedness and fluidity of the natural membrane are maintained upon coating. However, the properties of a support-surface responsible for maintaining correct sidedness and fluidity are unknown. Here, we briefly review the properties of natural membranes and membrane-isolation methods, with focus on the asymmetric distribution of functional groups in natural membranes (sidedness) and the ability of molecules to float across a membrane to form functional domains (fluidity). This review concludes that hydrophilic sugar-residues of glycoproteins in the outer-leaflet of cell membranes direct the more hydrophobic inner-leaflet towards a support-surface to create a correctly-sided membrane coating, regardless of electrostatic double-layer interactions. On positively-charged support-surfaces however, strong, electrostatic double-layer attraction of negatively-charged membranes can impede homogeneous coating. In correctly-sided membrane coatings, fluidity is maintained regardless of whether the surface carries a positive or negative charge. However, membranes are frozen on positively-charged, highly-curved, small nanoparticles and localized nanoscopic structures on a support-surface. This leaves an unsupported membrane coating in between nanostructures on planar support-surfaces that is in dual-sided contact with its aqueous environment, yielding enhanced fluidity in membrane coatings on nanostructured, planar support-surfaces as compared with smooth ones.

Biomimetic Nanocarriers of Pro-Resolving Lipid Mediators for Resolution of Inflammation in Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis (ATH) is a systemic disease characterized by a chronic inflammatory process and lipid deposition in the arterial walls. The chronic inflammation within ATH lesions results, at least in part, from the failed resolution of inflammation. This process is controlled actively by specialized pro-resolving lipid mediators (SPMs), namely lipoxins, resolvins, protectins, and maresins. Herein, biomimetic nanocarriers are produced comprising a cocktail of SPMs-loaded lipid nanoemulsions (LN) covered with macrophage membranes (Bio-LN/SPMs). Bio-LN/SPMs retain on their surface the macrophage receptors involved in cellular interactions and the "marker of self" CD47, which impede their recognition and uptake by other macrophages. The binding of Bio-LN/SPMs to the surface of endothelial cells (EC) and smooth muscle cells (SMC) is facilitated by the receptors on the macrophage membranes and partly by SPMs receptors. In addition, Bio-LN/SPMs prove functional by reducing monocyte adhesion and transmigration to/through activated EC and by stimulating macrophage phagocytic activity. After intravenous administration, Bio-LN/SPMs accumulate in the aorta of ApoE-deficient mice at the level of atherosclerotic lesions. Also, the safety assessment testing reveals no side effects or immunotoxicity of Bio-LN/SPMs. Thus, the newly developed Bio-LN/SPMs represent a reliable targeted nanomedicine for the resolution of inflammation in atherosclerosis.

Novel application of nanomedicine for the treatment of acute lung injury: a literature review

Nanoparticles have attracted extensive attention due to their high degree of cell targeting, biocompatibility, controllable biological activity, and outstanding pharmacokinetics. Changing the size, morphology, and surface chemical groups of nanoparticles can increase the biological distribution of agents to achieve precise tissue targeting and optimize therapeutic effects. Examples of their use include nanoparticles designed for increasing antigen-specific immune responses, developing vaccines, and treating inflammatory diseases. Nanoparticles show the potential to become a new generation of therapeutic agents for regulating inflammation. Recently, many nanomaterials with targeted properties have been developed to treat acute lung injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome (ALI/ARDS). In this review, we provide a brief explanation of the pathological mechanism underlying ALI/ARDS and a systematic overview of the latest technology and research progress in nanomedicine treatments of ALI, including improved nanocarriers, nanozymes, and nanovaccines for the targeted treatment of lung injury. Ultimately, these nanomedicines will be used for the clinical treatment of ALI/ARDS.

Nanotechnology translation in vascular diseases: From design to the bench

Atherosclerosis is a systemic pathophysiological condition contributing to the development of majority of polyvascular diseases. Nanomedicine is a novel and rapidly developing science. Due to their small size, nanoparticles are freely transported in vasculature, and have been widely employed as tools in analytical imaging techniques. Furthermore, the application of nanoparticles also allows target intervention, such as drug delivery and tissue engineering regenerative methods, in the management of major vascular diseases. Therefore, by summarizing the physical and chemical characteristics of common nanoparticles used in diagnosis and treatment of vascular diseases, we discuss the details of these applications from cellular, molecular, and in vivo perspectives in this review. Furthermore, we also summarize the status and challenges of the application of nanoparticles in clinical translation. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Cardiovascular Disease Implantable Materials and Surgical Technologies > Nanomaterials and Implants Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies.

Quercetin-loaded PLGA nanoparticles coating with macrophage membranes for targeted delivery in acute liver injury

Quercetin (QU), a natural flavonoid with potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, holds promise in treating acute liver injury (ALI). Nonetheless, its limited solubility hampers its efficacy, and its systemic distribution lacks targeting, leading to off-target effects. To address these challenges, we developed macrophage membrane-coated quercetin-loaded PLGA nanoparticles (MVs-QU-NPs) for active ALI targeting. The resulting MVs-QU-NPs exhibited a spherical morphology with a clear core-shell structure. The average size and zeta potential were assessed as 141.70 ± 0.89 nm and -31.83 ± 0.76 mV, respectively. Further studies revealed sustained drug release characteristics from MVs-QU-NPs over a continuous period of 24 h. Moreover, these MVs-QU-NPs demonstrated excellent biocompatibility when tested on normal liver cells. The results of biodistribution analysis in ALI mice displayed the remarkable ALI-targeting ability of MVs-DiD-NPs, with the highest fluorescence intensity observed in liver tissue. This biomimetic approach combining macrophage membranes with nanoparticle delivery, holds great potential for targeted ALI treatment.

Biomimetic nanoparticles in ischemic stroke therapy

Abstract

Ischemic stroke is one of the most severe neurological disorders with limited therapeutic strategies. The utilization of nanoparticle drug delivery systems is a burgeoning field and has been widely investigated. Among these, biomimetic drug delivery systems composed of biogenic membrane components and synthetic nanoparticles have been extensively highlighted in recent years. Biomimetic membrane camouflage presents an effective strategy to prolong circulation, reduce immunogenicity and enhance targeting. For one thing, biomimetic nanoparticles reserve the physical and chemical properties of intrinsic nanoparticle. For another, the biological functions of original source cells are completely inherited. Compared to conventional surface modification methods, this approach is more convenient and biocompatible. In this review, membrane-based nanoparticles derived from different donor cells were exemplified. The prospect of future biomimetic nanoparticles in ischemic stroke therapy was discussed.

Graphic abstract

Multifunctional cell membranes-based nano-carriers for targeted therapies: a review of recent trends and future perspective

Nanotechnology has ignited a transformative revolution in disease detection, prevention, management, and treatment. Central to this paradigm shift is the innovative realm of cell membrane-based nanocarriers, a burgeoning class of biomimetic nanoparticles (NPs) that redefine the boundaries of biomedical applications. These remarkable nanocarriers, designed through a top-down approach, harness the intrinsic properties of cell-derived materials as their fundamental building blocks. Through shrouding themselves in natural cell membranes, these nanocarriers extend their circulation longevity and empower themselves to intricately navigate and modulate the multifaceted microenvironments associated with various diseases. This comprehensive review provides a panoramic view of recent breakthroughs in biomimetic nanomaterials, emphasizing their diverse applications in cancer treatment, cardiovascular therapy, viral infections, COVID-19 management, and autoimmune diseases. In this exposition, we deliver a concise yet illuminating overview of the distinctive properties underpinning biomimetic nanomaterials, elucidating their pivotal role in biomedical innovation. We subsequently delve into the exceptional advantages these nanomaterials offer, shedding light on the unique attributes that position them at the forefront of cutting-edge research. Moreover, we briefly explore the intricate synthesis processes employed in creating these biomimetic nanocarriers, shedding light on the methodologies that drive their development.

Nanomedicine for Diagnosis and Treatment of Atherosclerosis

With the changing disease spectrum, atherosclerosis has become increasingly prevalent worldwide and the associated diseases have emerged as the leading cause of death. Due to their fascinating physical, chemical, and biological characteristics, nanomaterials are regarded as a promising tool to tackle enormous challenges in medicine. The emerging discipline of nanomedicine has filled a huge application gap in the atherosclerotic field, ushering a new generation of diagnosis and treatment strategies. Herein, based on the essential pathogenic contributors of atherogenesis, as well as the distinct composition/structural characteristics, synthesis strategies, and surface design of nanoplatforms, the three major application branches (nanodiagnosis, nanotherapy, and nanotheranostic) of nanomedicine in atherosclerosis are elaborated. Then, state-of-art studies containing a sequence of representative and significant achievements are summarized in detail with an emphasis on the intrinsic interaction/relationship between nanomedicines and atherosclerosis. Particularly, attention is paid to the biosafety of nanomedicines, which aims to pave the way for future clinical translation of this burgeoning field. Finally, this comprehensive review is concluded by proposing unresolved key scientific issues and sharing the vision and expectation for the future, fully elucidating the closed loop from atherogenesis to the application paradigm of nanomedicines for advancing the early achievement of clinical applications.

Advances of nanomedicine in treatment of atherosclerosis and thrombosis

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory vascular disease. Myocardial ischemia originated from AS is the main cause of cardiovascular diseases, one of the major factors contributing to the global disease burden. AS is typically quiescent until occurrence of plaque rupture and thrombosis, leading to acute coronary syndrome and sudden death. Currently, clinical diagnostic techniques suffer from major pitfalls including lack of accuracy and specificity, which makes it rather difficult for drugs to directly target plaques to achieve therapeutic effect. Therefore, how to accurately diagnose and effectively intervene vulnerable AS plaques to achieve accurate delivery of drugs has become an urgent and evolving clinical problem. With the rapid development of nanomedicine and nanomaterials, nanotechnology has shown unique advantages in monitoring vulnerable plaques and thrombus and improving drug efficacy. Recent studies have shown that application of nanoparticle drug delivery system can booster the safety and effectiveness of drug therapy, and molecular imaging technology and nanomedicine also exhibit high clinical application potentials in disease diagnosis. Therefore, nanotechnology provides another promising avenue for diagnosis and treatment of AS and thrombosis, and has shown excellent performance in the development of targeted drug therapy and biomaterials. In this review, the research progress, challenges and prospects of nanotechnology in AS and thrombosis are discussed, expecting to provide new ideas for the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of AS and thrombosis.

Nanobiotechnology-based strategies in alleviation of chemotherapy-mediated cardiotoxicity

The cardiovascular diseases have been among the most common malignancies and the first leading cause of death, even higher than cancer. The cardiovascular diseases can be developed as a result of cardiac dysfunction and damages to heart tissue. Exposure to toxic agents and chemicals that induce cardiac dysfunction has been of interest in recent years. The chemotherapy drugs are commonly used for cancer therapy and in these patients, cardiovascular diseases have been widely observed that is due to negative impact of chemotherapy drugs on the heart. These drugs increase oxidative damage and inflammation, and mediate apoptosis and cardiac dysfunction. Hence, nanotechnological approaches have been emerged as new strategies in attenuation of chemotherapy-mediated cardiotoxicity. The first advantage of nanoparticles can be explored in targeted and selective delivery of drugs to reduce their accumulation in heart tissue. Nanostructures can deliver bioactive and therapeutic compounds in reducing cardiotoxicity and alleviation toxic impacts of chemotherapy drugs. The functionalization of nanostructures increases their selectivity against tumor cells and reduces accumulation of drugs in heart tissue. The bioplatforms such as chitosan and alginate nanostructures can also deliver chemotherapy drugs and reduce their cardiotoxicity. The function of nanostructures is versatile in reduction of cardiotoxicity by chemotherapy drugs and new kind of platforms is hydrogels that can mediate sustained release of drug to reduce its toxic impacts on heart tissue. The various kinds of nanoplatforms have been developed for alleviation of cardiotoxicity and their future clinical application depends on their biocompatibility. High concentration level of chitosan nanoparticles can stimulate cardiotoxicity. Therefore, if nanotechnology is going to be deployed for drug delivery and reducing cardiotoxicity, the first pre-requirement is to lack toxicity on normal cells and have high biocompatibility.

Macrophage-Biomimetic Nanoplatform-Based Therapy for Inflammation-Associated Diseases

Inflammation-associated diseases are very common clinically with a high incidence; however, there is still a lack of effective treatments. Cell-biomimetic nanoplatforms have led to many breakthroughs in the field of biomedicine, significantly improving the efficiency of drug delivery and its therapeutic implications especially for inflammation-associated diseases. Macrophages are an important component of immune cells and play a critical role in the occurrence and progression of inflammation-associated diseases while simultaneously maintaining homeostasis and modulating immune responses. Therefore, macrophage-biomimetic nanoplatforms not only inherit the functions of macrophages including the inflammation tropism effect for targeted delivery of drugs and the neutralization effect of pro-inflammatory cytokines and toxins via membrane surface receptors or proteins, but also maintain the functions of the inner nanoparticles. Macrophage-biomimetic nanoplatforms are shown to have remarkable therapeutic efficacy and excellent application potential in inflammation-associated diseases. In this review, inflammation-associated diseases, the physiological functions of macrophages, and the classification and construction of macrophage-biomimetic nanoplatforms are first introduced. Next, the latest applications of different macrophage-biomimetic nanoplatforms for the treatment of inflammation-associated diseases are summarized. Finally, challenges and opportunities for future biomedical applications are discussed. It is hoped that the review will provide new ideas for the further development of macrophage-biomimetic nanoplatforms.

Colchicine delivered by a novel nanoparticle platform alleviates atherosclerosis by targeted inhibition of NF-κB/NLRP3 pathways in inflammatory endothelial cells

Atherosclerosis, a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by arterial plaque formation, is one of the most prominent causes of cardiovascular diseases. However, the current treatments often do not adequately compromise the chronic inflammation-mediated plaque accumulation and the disease progression. Therefore, a new and effective strategy that blocks atherosclerosis-associated inflammation is urgently needed to further reduce the risk. Colchicine, a potent anti-inflammatory medication, has shown great potential in the treatment of atherosclerosis, but its adverse effects have hampered its clinical application. Herein, we developed a novel delivery nanosystem encapsulated with colchicine (VHPK-PLGA@COL), which exhibited improved biosafety and sustained drug release along with the gradual degradation of PLGA and PEG as confirmed both in vitro and in vivo. Surface modification of the nanoparticles with the VHPK peptide ensured its capability to specifically target inflammatory endothelial cells and alleviate atherosclerotic plaque accumulation. In the ApoE - / - atherosclerotic mouse model, both colchicine and VHPK-PLGA@COL treatment significantly decreased the plaque area and enhanced plaque stability by blocking the NF-κB/NLRP3 pathways, while VHPK-PLGA@COL exhibited enhanced therapeutic effects due to its unique ability to target inflammatory endothelial cells without obvious long-term safety concerns. In summary, VHPK-PLGA@COL has the potential to overcome the key translational barriers of colchicine and open new avenues to repurpose this drug for anti-atherosclerotic therapy.

Advancements in Macrophage-Targeted Drug Delivery for Effective Disease Management

Macrophages play a crucial role in tissue homeostasis and the innate immune system. They perform essential functions such as presenting antigens, regulating cytokines, and responding to inflammation. However, in diseases like cancer, cardiovascular disorders, and autoimmune conditions, macrophages undergo aberrant polarization, which disrupts tissue regulation and impairs their normal behavior. To address these challenges, there has been growing interest in developing customized targeted drug delivery systems specifically designed for macrophage-related functions in different anatomical locations. Nanomedicine, utilizing nanoscale drug systems, offers numerous advantages including improved stability, enhanced pharmacokinetics, controlled release kinetics, and precise temporal drug delivery. These advantages hold significant promise in achieving heightened therapeutic efficacy, specificity, and reduced side effects in drug delivery and treatment approaches. This review aims to explore the roles of macrophages in major diseases and present an overview of current strategies employed in targeted drug delivery to macrophages. Additionally, this article critically evaluates the design of macrophage-targeted delivery systems, highlighting limitations and discussing prospects in this rapidly evolving field. By assessing the strengths and weaknesses of existing approaches, we can identify areas for improvement and refinement in macrophage-targeted drug delivery.

Advances of nanoparticle-mediated diagnostic and theranostic strategies for atherosclerosis

Atherosclerotic plaque remains the primary cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Accurate assessment of the degree of atherosclerotic plaque is critical for predicting the risk of atherosclerotic plaque and monitoring the results after intervention. Compared with traditional technology, the imaging technologies of nanoparticles have distinct advantages and great development prospects in the identification and characterization of vulnerable atherosclerotic plaque. Here, we systematically summarize the latest advances of targeted nanoparticle approaches in the diagnosis of atherosclerotic plaque, including multimodal imaging, fluorescence imaging, photoacoustic imaging, exosome diagnosis, and highlighted the theranostic progress as a new therapeutic strategy. Finally, we discuss the major challenges that need to be addressed for future development and clinical transformation.

Biomimetic nanoparticles loaded lutein functionalized by macrophage membrane for targeted amelioration pressure overload-induced cardiac fibrosis

Lutein is a strong antioxidant with anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative and cardioprotective effects and could be a promising candidate for the treatment of hypertensive heart disease (HHD), but is not clinically appealing because of its low oral bioavailability and main distribution in the eyes. To address this, a biomimetic drug delivery system-MMLNPs was established by coating macrophage membranes (MMs) onto lutein-loaded poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (LNPs). This study characterized the physical properties of biomimetic nanoparticles and examined the targeting capability, therapeutic effects and mechanism, and biosecurity of administering them for cardiac fibrosis therapy in the transverse aortic constriction (TAC) model and in vitro. Transmission electron microscope mapping and dynamic light scattering analysis proved that MMLNPs were spherical nanoparticles camouflaged by a layer of cell membrane and had negative zeta potential. Confocal laser scanning microscopy and flow cytometry analysis showed that MMs on the biomimetic nanoparticles hindered the phagocytosis of macrophages and facilitated the targeting of activated endothelial cells. Ex vivo fluorescence imaging experiments demonstrated the targeting of biomimetic nanoparticles to the injured heart. EdU assay indicated that MMLNPs have the same potential to inhibit angiotensin (Ang) II-induced cardiac fibroblast proliferation as free lutein. Furthermore, echocardiography showed that MMLNPs improved cardiac function and structure, and Masson staining and western blotting showed that MMLNPs ameliorated cardiac fibrosis. We found MMLNPs inhibited the interleukin (IL)-11/ERK signaling pathway which was up-regulated in the TAC model compared to the sham-operated mouse. Biochemical testing and hematoxylin and eosin staining proved that the long-term use of MMLNPs lacked biological toxicity. Collectively, MMLNPs might be a promising nanodrug delivery approach to attenuate pressure overload (PO)-induced cardiac fibrosis.

Biomimetic nanomedicines for precise atherosclerosis theranostics

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a leading cause of the life-threatening cardiovascular disease (CVD), creating an urgent need for efficient, biocompatible therapeutics for diagnosis and treatment. Biomimetic nanomedicines (bNMs) are moving closer to fulfilling this need, pushing back the frontier of nano-based drug delivery systems design. This review seeks to outline how these nanomedicines (NMs) might work to diagnose and treat atherosclerosis, to trace the trajectory of their development to date and in the coming years, and to provide a foundation for further discussion about atherosclerotic theranostics.