Bidirectional synaptic plasticity rapidly modifies hippocampal representations

Goal-specific hippocampal inhibition gates learning

Goal-directed navigation in a new environment requires quickly identifying and exploiting important locations. Identifying new goal locations depends on neural computations that rapidly represent locations and connect location information to key outcomes such as food1. However, the mechanisms to trigger these computations at behaviourally relevant locations are not well understood. Here we show that parvalbumin (PV)-positive interneurons in the mouse hippocampal CA3 have a causal role in identifying and exploiting new food locations such that decreases in inhibitory activity around goals enable reactivation to bind goal locations to food outcomes. PV interneurons in the CA3 substantially reduce firing on approach to and at goal locations while food-deprived mice learn to find food. These inhibitory decreases anticipate reward locations as the mice learn and are more prominent on correct trials. Sparse optogenetic stimulation to prevent goal-related decreases in PV interneuron firing impaired learning of goal locations. Disrupting goal-related decreases in PV interneuron activity impaired the reactivation of new goal locations after receipt of food, a process that associates previous locations to food outcomes such that the mice know where to seek food later. These results reveal that goal-selective and goal-predictive decreases in inhibitory activity enable learning, representations and outcome associations of crucial locations.

Universal statistics of hippocampal place fields across species and dimensionalities

Hippocampal place cells have single, bell-shaped place fields in small environments. Recent experiments, however, reveal that, in large environments, place cells have multiple fields with heterogeneous shapes and sizes. We show that this diversity is explained by a surprisingly simple mathematical model, in which place fields are generated by thresholding a realization of a random Gaussian process. The model captures the statistics of field arrangements and generates new quantitative predictions about the statistics of field shapes and topologies. These predictions are quantitatively verified in bats and rodents, in one, two, and three dimensions, in both small and large environments. These results imply that common mechanisms underlie the diverse statistics observed in different experiments and further suggest that synaptic projections to CA1 are predominantly random.

Eligibility traces as a synaptic substrate for learning

Animals can learn to associate a behavior or a stimulus with a delayed reward, this is essential for survival. A mechanism proposed for bridging this gap are synaptic eligibility traces, which are slowly decaying tags, which can lead to synaptic plasticity if followed by rewards. Recently, experiments have demonstrated the existence of synaptic eligibility traces in diverse neural systems, depending on either neuromodulators or plateau potentials. Evidence for both eligibility trace-dependent potentiation and depression of synaptic efficacies has emerged. We discuss the commonalities and differences of these different results. We show why the existence of both potentiation and depression is important because these opposing forces can lead to a synaptic stopping rule. Without a stopping rule, synapses would saturate at their upper bound thus leading to a loss of selectivity and representational power. We discuss the possible underlying mechanisms of the eligibility traces as well as their functional and theoretical significance.

Mechanisms of experience-dependent place-cell referencing in hippocampal area CA1

Hippocampal CA1 place cells (PCs) encode both space- and goal-referenced information to support a cognitive map. The mechanism of this referencing and the role of experience remain poorly understood. Here we longitudinally recorded PC activity while head-fixed mice performed a spatial learning task on a treadmill. In a familiar environment, the CA1 representation consisted of PCs that were referenced to either specific spatial locations or a reward goal in approximately equal proportions; however, the CA1 representation became predominately goal-referenced upon exposure to a novel environment, as space-referenced PCs adaptively switched reference frames. Intracellular membrane potential recordings revealed that individual CA1 neurons simultaneously received both space- and goal-referenced synaptic inputs, and the ratio of these inputs was correlated with individual PC referencing. Furthermore, behavioral timescale synaptic plasticity shaped PC referencing. Together, these results suggest that experience-dependent adjustment of synaptic input shapes PC referencing to support a flexible cognitive map.

Behavioral timescale synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus creates non-spatial representations during learning and is modulated by entorhinal inputs

Behavioral timescale synaptic plasticity (BTSP) is a form of synaptic potentiation where a single plateau potential in hippocampal neurons forms a place field during spatial learning. We asked whether BTSP can also form non-spatial responses in the hippocampus and what roles the medial and lateral entorhinal cortex (MEC and LEC) play in driving non-spatial BTSP. Two-photon calcium imaging of dorsal CA1 neurons while mice performed an odor-cued working memory task revealed plateau-like events which formed stable odor-specific responses. These BTSP-like events were much more frequent during the first day of task learning, suggesting that BTSP may be important for early learning. Strong single-neuron stimulation through holographic optogenetics induced plateau-like events and subsequent odor-fields, causally linking BTSP with non-spatial representations. MEC chemogenetic inhibition reduced the frequency of plateau-like events, whereas LEC inhibition reduced potentiation and field-induction probability. Calcium imaging of LEC and MEC temporammonic CA1 projections revealed that MEC axons were more strongly activated by odor presentations, while LEC axons were more odor-selective, further confirming the role of MEC in driving plateau-like events and LEC in relaying odor-specific information. Altogether, odor-specific information from LEC and strong odor-timed activity from MEC are crucial for driving BTSP in CA1, which is a synaptic plasticity mechanism for generation of both spatial and non-spatial responses in the hippocampus.

Synaptic plasticity rules driving representational shifting in the hippocampus

Synaptic plasticity is widely thought to support memory storage in the brain, but the rules determining impactful synaptic changes in vivo are not known. We considered the trial-by-trial shifting dynamics of hippocampal place fields (PF) as an indicator of ongoing plasticity during memory formation and familiarization. By implementing different plasticity rules in computational models of spiking place cells and comparing them to experimentally measured PFs from mice navigating familiar and new environments, we found that behavioral timescale synaptic plasticity (BTSP), rather than Hebbian spike-timing-dependent plasticity (STDP), best explains PF shifting dynamics. BTSP-triggering events are rare, but more frequent during new experiences. During exploration, their probability is dynamic-it decays after PF onset, but continually drives a population-level representational drift. Additionally, our results show that BTSP occurs in CA3 but is less frequent and phenomenologically different than in CA1. Overall, our study provides a new framework to understand how synaptic plasticity continuously shapes neuronal representations during learning.

Treadmill exercise ameliorates hippocampal synaptic injury and recognition memory deficits by TREM2 in AD rat model

OBJECTIVE

The impairment of cognitive function has been associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Exercise exerts a positive modulatory effect on cognition by reducing synapse injury. However, limited in vivo evidence is available to validate the neuroprotective effect of TREM2 on synaptic function in this phenomenon. Here, we aim to explore whether physical exercise pretreatment alters Aβ-induced recognition memory impairment in structural synaptic plasticity within the hippocampus in AD rats. METHODS：: In study 1, fifty-two Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were randomly divided into following four groups: control group (C group, n = 13), Alzheimer's disease group (AD group, n = 13), 4 weeks of physical exercise and Alzheimer's disease group (Exe+AD group, n = 13), 4 weeks of physical exercise and blank group (Exercise group, n = 13). Four weeks of treadmill exercise intervention was performed, and AD model were established by intra-cerebroventricular injection (ICV) injection of Aβ1-42 protein. After 3 weeks, we also conducted a novel object test to evaluate recognition memory in the behavior assessment. Golgi staining and transmission electron microscopy were used to evaluate the morphology and synaptic ultrastructure of neurons. Western blotting was used to measure the expression of hippocampal synaptic proteins. Extracellular neurotransmitters in the hippocampus were detected by microdialysis coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography. In study 2, 33 SD rats were randomly divided into three groups: 4 weeks of physical exercise and Alzheimer's disease group (Exe+AD group, n = 11), AAV-Control and physical exercise and Alzheimer's disease group (AAV-Control+Exe+AD group, n = 11), AAV-TREM2 and physical exercise and Alzheimer's disease group (AAV-TREM2 +Exe+AD group, n = 11). Stereotactic intracerebral injection in the bilateral hippocampus was performed to achieve microglial TREM2 down-expression by using adeno-associated virus (AAV) with CD68 promoter. After 4 weeks treadmill exercise and 3 weeks Aβ injection, all rats received behavior test and molecular experiment, which the same with experiment 2.

RESULTS

Novel recognition index in novel object recognition test significantly decreased, and western blot demonstrate that hippocampal TREM2 protein is significantly decreased (P < 0.001). But physical exercise reversed this phenomenon(P < 0.001). In addition, compared with Con group, the neuron from Exe+AD group exhibited a more complex branching pattern (P < 0.05). And impaired synaptic ultrastructure was observed in AD group. Hippocampal synaptic-related protein (SYX, SYP, GAP43, PSD95) and neurotransmitter (DA, Glu, GABA) was also significantly decreased (P < 0.01) in AD group. But the neuroprotection effect can be found in Exe+AD group, which are associated with the inhibition of synaptic injury by activate hippocampal TREM2 (P < 0.05). However, when blockade of hippocampal TREM2 reduced brain protective effect of exercise in AD rat model, including increased the damage of neuronal dendritic complexity, synaptic ultrastructure, and the decrease of hippocampal synapses-related protein, typical neurotransmitter.

CONCLUSION

Treadmill exercise facilitated recognition memory acquisition via TREM2-mediated structural synaptic plasticity of the hippocampus in an AD rat model.

A generalized mathematical framework for the calcium control hypothesis describes weight-dependent synaptic plasticity

The brain modifies synaptic strengths to store new information via long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD). Evidence has mounted that long-term synaptic plasticity is controlled via concentrations of calcium ([Ca2+]) in postsynaptic dendritic spines. Several mathematical models describe this phenomenon, including those of Shouval, Bear, and Cooper (SBC) (Shouval et al., 2002, 2010) and Graupner and Brunel (GB) (Graupner & Brunel, 2012). Here we suggest a generalized version of the SBC and GB models, the fixed point - learning rate (FPLR) framework, where the synaptic [Ca2+] specifies a fixed point toward which the synaptic weight approaches asymptotically at a [Ca2+]-dependent rate. The FPLR framework offers a straightforward phenomenological interpretation of calcium-based plasticity: the calcium concentration tells the synaptic weight where it is going and how quickly it goes there. The FPLR framework can flexibly incorporate various experimental findings, including the existence of multiple regions of [Ca2+] where no plasticity occurs, or plasticity observed experimentally in cerebellar Purkinje cells, where the directionality of calcium-based synaptic changes is reversed relative to cortical and hippocampal neurons. We also suggest a modeling approach that captures the dependency of late-phase plasticity stabilization on protein synthesis. We demonstrate that due to the asymptotic nature of synaptic changes in the FPLR rule, the plastic changes induced by frequency- and spike-timing-dependent plasticity protocols are weight-dependent. Finally, we show how the FPLR framework can explain the weight-dependence observed in behavioral time scale plasticity (BTSP).

A non-Hebbian code for episodic memory

Hebbian plasticity has long dominated neurobiological models of memory formation. Yet, plasticity rules operating on one-shot episodic memory timescales rarely depend on both pre- and postsynaptic spiking, challenging Hebbian theory in this crucial regime. Here, we present an episodic memory model governed by a simpler rule depending only on presynaptic activity. We show that this rule, capitalizing on high-dimensional neural activity with restricted transitions, naturally stores episodes as paths through complex state spaces like those underlying a world model. The resulting memory traces, which we term path vectors, are highly expressive and decodable with an odor-tracking algorithm. We show that path vectors are robust alternatives to Hebbian traces, support one-shot sequential and associative recall, along with policy learning, and shed light on specific hippocampal plasticity rules. Thus, non-Hebbian plasticity is sufficient for flexible memory and learning and well-suited to encode episodes and policies as paths through a world model.

A simple model for Behavioral Time Scale Synaptic Plasticity (BTSP) provides content addressable memory with binary synapses and one-shot learning

Recent experimental studies in the awake brain have identified a rule for synaptic plasticity that is instrumental for the instantaneous creation of memory traces in area CA1 of the mammalian brain: Behavioral Time scale Synaptic Plasticity. This one-shot learning rule differs in five essential aspects from previously considered plasticity mechanisms. We introduce a transparent model for the core function of this learning rule and establish a theory that enables a principled understanding of the system of memory traces that it creates. Theoretical predictions and numerical simulations show that our model is able to create a functionally powerful content-addressable memory without the need for high-resolution synaptic weights. Furthermore, it reproduces the repulsion effect of human memory, whereby traces for similar memory items are pulled apart to enable differential downstream processing. Altogether, our results create a link between synaptic plasticity in area CA1 of the hippocampus and its network function. They also provide a promising approach for implementing content-addressable memory with on-chip learning capability in highly energy-efficient crossbar arrays of memristors.

The calcitron: A simple neuron model that implements many learning rules via the calcium control hypothesis

Theoretical neuroscientists and machine learning researchers have proposed a variety of learning rules to enable artificial neural networks to effectively perform both supervised and unsupervised learning tasks. It is not always clear, however, how these theoretically-derived rules relate to biological mechanisms of plasticity in the brain, or how these different rules might be mechanistically implemented in different contexts and brain regions. This study shows that the calcium control hypothesis, which relates synaptic plasticity in the brain to the calcium concentration ([Ca2+]) in dendritic spines, can produce a diverse array of learning rules. We propose a simple, perceptron-like neuron model, the calcitron, that has four sources of [Ca2+]: local (following the activation of an excitatory synapse and confined to that synapse), heterosynaptic (resulting from the activity of other synapses), postsynaptic spike-dependent, and supervisor-dependent. We demonstrate that by modulating the plasticity thresholds and calcium influx from each calcium source, we can reproduce a wide range of learning and plasticity protocols, such as Hebbian and anti-Hebbian learning, frequency-dependent plasticity, and unsupervised recognition of frequently repeating input patterns. Moreover, by devising simple neural circuits to provide supervisory signals, we show how the calcitron can implement homeostatic plasticity, perceptron learning, and BTSP-inspired one-shot learning. Our study bridges the gap between theoretical learning algorithms and their biological counterparts, not only replicating established learning paradigms but also introducing novel rules.

Dorsal hippocampus represents locations to avoid as well as locations to approach during approach-avoidance conflict

Worrying about perceived threats is a hallmark of multiple psychological disorders including anxiety. This concern about future events is particularly important when an individual is faced with an approach-avoidance conflict. Potential goals to approach are known to be represented in the dorsal hippocampus during theta cycles. Similarly, important information that is distant from the animal's position is represented during hippocampal high-synchrony events (HSEs), which coincide with sharp-wave ripples (SWRs). It is likely that potential future threats may be similarly represented. We examined how threats and rewards were represented within the hippocampus during approach-avoidance conflicts in rats faced with a predator-like robot guarding a food reward. We found decoding of the pseudo-predator's location during HSEs when hesitating in the nest and during theta prior to retreating as the rats approached the pseudo-predator. After the first attack, we observed new place fields appearing at the location of the robot (not the location the rat was when attacked). The anxiolytic diazepam reduced anxiety-like behavior and altered hippocampal local field potentials (LFPs), including reducing SWRs, suggesting that one potential mechanism of diazepam's actions may be through altered representations of imagined threat. These results suggest that hippocampal representation of potential threats could be an important mechanism that underlies worry and a potential target for anxiolytics.

Synaptic basis of feature selectivity in hippocampal neurons

A central question in neuroscience is how synaptic plasticity shapes the feature selectivity of neurons in behaving animals1. Hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons display one of the most striking forms of feature selectivity by forming spatially and contextually selective receptive fields called place fields, which serve as a model for studying the synaptic basis of learning and memory. Various forms of synaptic plasticity have been proposed as cellular substrates for the emergence of place fields. However, despite decades of work, our understanding of how synaptic plasticity underlies place-field formation and memory encoding remains limited, largely due to a shortage of tools and technical challenges associated with the visualization of synaptic plasticity at the single-neuron resolution in awake behaving animals. To address this, we developed an all-optical approach to monitor the spatiotemporal tuning and synaptic weight changes of dendritic spines before and after the induction of a place field in single CA1 pyramidal neurons during spatial navigation. We identified a temporally asymmetric synaptic plasticity kernel resulting from bidirectional modifications of synaptic weights around the induction of a place field. Our work identified compartment-specific differences in the magnitude and temporal expression of synaptic plasticity between basal dendrites and oblique dendrites. Our results provide experimental evidence linking synaptic plasticity to the rapid emergence of spatial selectivity in hippocampal neurons, a critical prerequisite for episodic memory.

A revised view of the role of CaMKII in learning and memory

The Ca2+/calmodulin (CaM)-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) plays a fundamental role in learning and possibly also in memory. However, current mechanistic models require fundamental revision. CaMKII autophosphorylation at Thr286 (pThr286) does not provide the molecular basis for long-term memory, as long believed. Instead, pThr286 mediates the signal processing required for induction of several distinct forms of synaptic plasticity, including Hebbian long-term potentiation and depression and non-Hebbian behavioral timescale synaptic plasticity. We discuss (i) the molecular computations by which CaMKII supports these diverse plasticity mechanisms, (ii) alternative CaMKII mechanisms that may contribute to the maintenance phase of LTP and (iii) the relationship of these mechanisms to behavioral learning and memory.

Mechanisms of memory-supporting neuronal dynamics in hippocampal area CA3

Hippocampal CA3 is central to memory formation and retrieval. Although various network mechanisms have been proposed, direct evidence is lacking. Using intracellular Vm recordings and optogenetic manipulations in behaving mice, we found that CA3 place-field activity is produced by a symmetric form of behavioral timescale synaptic plasticity (BTSP) at recurrent synapses among CA3 pyramidal neurons but not at synapses from the dentate gyrus (DG). Additional manipulations revealed that excitatory input from the entorhinal cortex (EC) but not the DG was required to update place cell activity based on the animal's movement. These data were captured by a computational model that used BTSP and an external updating input to produce attractor dynamics under online learning conditions. Theoretical analyses further highlight the superior memory storage capacity of such networks, especially when dealing with correlated input patterns. This evidence elucidates the cellular and circuit mechanisms of learning and memory formation in the hippocampus.

Shortcutting from self-motion signals reveals a cognitive map in mice

Animals navigate by learning the spatial layout of their environment. We investigated spatial learning of mice in an open maze where food was hidden in one of a hundred holes. Mice leaving from a stable entrance learned to efficiently navigate to the food without the need for landmarks. We developed a quantitative framework to reveal how the mice estimate the food location based on analyses of trajectories and active hole checks. After learning, the computed 'target estimation vector' (TEV) closely approximated the mice's route and its hole check distribution. The TEV required learning both the direction and distance of the start to food vector, and our data suggests that different learning dynamics underlie these estimates. We propose that the TEV can be precisely connected to the properties of hippocampal place cells. Finally, we provide the first demonstration that, after learning the location of two food sites, the mice took a shortcut between the sites, demonstrating that they had generated a cognitive map.

Neural circuits for goal-directed navigation across species

Across species, navigation is crucial for finding both resources and shelter. In vertebrates, the hippocampus supports memory-guided goal-directed navigation, whereas in arthropods the central complex supports similar functions. A growing literature is revealing similarities and differences in the organization and function of these brain regions. We review current knowledge about how each structure supports goal-directed navigation by building internal representations of the position or orientation of an animal in space, and of the location or direction of potential goals. We describe input pathways to each structure - medial and lateral entorhinal cortex in vertebrates, and columnar and tangential neurons in insects - that primarily encode spatial and non-spatial information, respectively. Finally, we highlight similarities and differences in spatial encoding across clades and suggest experimental approaches to compare coding principles and behavioral capabilities across species. Such a comparative approach can provide new insights into the neural basis of spatial navigation and neural computation.

Perpetual step-like restructuring of hippocampal circuit dynamics

Representation of the environment by hippocampal populations is known to drift even within a familiar environment, which could reflect gradual changes in single-cell activity or result from averaging across discrete switches of single neurons. Disambiguating these possibilities is crucial, as they each imply distinct mechanisms. Leveraging change point detection and model comparison, we find that CA1 population vectors decorrelate gradually within a session. In contrast, individual neurons exhibit predominantly step-like emergence and disappearance of place fields or sustained changes in within-field firing. The changes are not restricted to particular parts of the maze or trials and do not require apparent behavioral changes. The same place fields emerge, disappear, and reappear across days, suggesting that the hippocampus reuses pre-existing assemblies, rather than forming new fields de novo. Our results suggest an internally driven perpetual step-like reorganization of the neuronal assemblies.

A dendritic mechanism for balancing synaptic flexibility and stability

Biological and artificial neural networks learn by modifying synaptic weights, but it is unclear how these systems retain previous knowledge and also acquire new information. Here, we show that cortical pyramidal neurons can solve this plasticity-versus-stability dilemma by differentially regulating synaptic plasticity at distinct dendritic compartments. Oblique dendrites of adult mouse layer 5 cortical pyramidal neurons selectively receive monosynaptic thalamic input, integrate linearly, and lack burst-timing synaptic potentiation. In contrast, basal dendrites, which do not receive thalamic input, exhibit conventional NMDA receptor (NMDAR)-mediated supralinear integration and synaptic potentiation. Congruently, spiny synapses on oblique branches show decreased structural plasticity in vivo. The selective decline in NMDAR activity and expression at synapses on oblique dendrites is controlled by a critical period of visual experience. Our results demonstrate a biological mechanism for how single neurons can safeguard a set of inputs from ongoing plasticity by altering synaptic properties at distinct dendritic domains.

The estrous cycle modulates hippocampal spine dynamics, dendritic processing, and spatial coding

Histological evidence suggests that the estrous cycle exerts a powerful effect on CA1 neurons in mammalian hippocampus. Decades have passed since this landmark observation, yet how the estrous cycle shapes dendritic spine dynamics and hippocampal spatial coding in vivo remains a mystery. Here, we used a custom hippocampal microperiscope and two-photon calcium imaging to track CA1 pyramidal neurons in female mice over multiple cycles. Estrous cycle stage had a potent effect on spine dynamics, with heightened density during periods of greater estradiol (proestrus). These morphological changes were accompanied by greater somatodendritic coupling and increased infiltration of back-propagating action potentials into the apical dendrite. Finally, tracking CA1 response properties during navigation revealed enhanced place field stability during proestrus, evident at the single-cell and population level. These results establish the estrous cycle as a driver of large-scale structural and functional plasticity in hippocampal circuits essential for learning and memory.

Learning, Fast and Slow: Single- and Many-Shot Learning in the Hippocampus

The hippocampus is critical for memory and spatial navigation. The ability to map novel environments, as well as more abstract conceptual relationships, is fundamental to the cognitive flexibility that humans and other animals require to survive in a dynamic world. In this review, we survey recent advances in our understanding of how this flexibility is implemented anatomically and functionally by hippocampal circuitry, during both active exploration (online) and rest (offline). We discuss the advantages and limitations of spike timing-dependent plasticity and the more recently discovered behavioral timescale synaptic plasticity in supporting distinct learning modes in the hippocampus. Finally, we suggest complementary roles for these plasticity types in explaining many-shot and single-shot learning in the hippocampus and discuss how these rules could work together to support the learning of cognitive maps.

The plasticity of pyramidal neurons in the behaving brain

Neurons are plastic. That is, they change their activity according to different behavioural conditions. This endows pyramidal neurons with an incredible computational power for the integration and processing of synaptic inputs. Plasticity can be investigated at different levels of investigation within a single neuron, from spines to dendrites, to synaptic input. Although most of our knowledge stems from the in vitro brain slice preparation, plasticity plays a vital role during behaviour by providing a flexible substrate for the execution of appropriate actions in our ever-changing environment. Owing to advances in recording techniques, the plasticity of neurons and the neural networks in which they are embedded is now beginning to be realized in the in vivo intact brain. This review focuses on the structural and functional synaptic plasticity of pyramidal neurons, with a specific focus on the latest developments from in vivo studies. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Long-term potentiation: 50 years on'.

Half a century legacy of long-term potentiation

In 1973, two papers from Bliss and Lømo and from Bliss and Gardner-Medwin reported that high-frequency synaptic stimulation in the dentate gyrus of rabbits resulted in a long-lasting increase in synaptic strength. This form of synaptic plasticity, commonly referred to as long-term potentiation (LTP), was immediately considered as an attractive mechanism accounting for the ability of the brain to store information. In this historical piece looking back over the past 50 years, we discuss how these two landmark contributions directly motivated a colossal research effort and detail some of the resulting milestones that have shaped our evolving understanding of the molecular and cellular underpinnings of LTP. We highlight the main features of LTP, cover key experiments that defined its induction and expression mechanisms, and outline the evidence supporting a potential role of LTP in learning and memory. We also briefly explore some ramifications of LTP on network stability, consider current limitations of LTP as a model of associative memory, and entertain future research orientations.

Variable recruitment of distal tuft dendrites shapes new hippocampal place fields

Hippocampal pyramidal neurons support episodic memory by integrating complementary information streams into new 'place fields'. Distal tuft dendrites are widely thought to initiate place field formation by locally generating prolonged, globally-spreading Ca 2+ spikes known as plateau potentials. However, the hitherto experimental inaccessibility of distal tuft dendrites in the hippocampus has rendered their in vivo function entirely unknown. Here we gained direct optical access to this elusive dendritic compartment. We report that distal tuft dendrites do not serve as the point of origin for place field-forming plateau potentials. Instead, the timing and extent of peri-formation distal tuft recruitment is variable and closely predicts multiple properties of resultant place fields. Therefore, distal tuft dendrites play a more powerful role in hippocampal feature selectivity than simply initiating place field formation. Moreover, place field formation is not accompanied by global Ca 2+ influx as previously thought. In addition to shaping new somatic place fields, distal tuft dendrites possess their own local place fields. Tuft place fields are back-shifted relative to that of their soma and appear to maintain somatic place fields via post-formation plateau potentials. Through direct in vivo observation, we provide a revised dendritic basis for hippocampal feature selectivity during navigational learning.

Cross-strata co-occurrence of ripples with theta-frequency oscillations in the hippocampus of foraging rats

Brain rhythms have been postulated to play central roles in animal cognition. A prominently reported dichotomy of hippocampal rhythms links theta-frequency oscillations (4-12 Hz) and ripples (120-250 Hz) exclusively to preparatory and consummatory behaviours, respectively. However, because of the differential power expression of these two signals across hippocampal strata, such exclusivity requires validation through analyses of simultaneous multi-strata recordings. We assessed co-occurrence of theta-frequency oscillations with ripples in multi-channel recordings of extracellular potentials across hippocampal strata from foraging rats. We detected all ripple events from an identified stratum pyramidale (SP) channel. We then defined theta epochs based on theta oscillations detected from the stratum lacunosum-moleculare (SLM) or the stratum radiatum (SR). We found ∼20% of ripple events (in SP) to co-occur with theta epochs identified from SR/SLM channels, defined here as theta ripples. Strikingly, when theta epochs were instead identified from the SP channel, such co-occurrences were significantly reduced because of a progressive reduction in theta power along the SLM-SR-SP axis. Behaviourally, we found most theta ripples to occur during immobile periods, with comparable theta power during exploratory and immobile theta epochs. Furthermore, the progressive reduction in theta power along the SLM-SR-SP axis was common to exploratory and immobile periods. Finally, we found a strong theta-phase preference of theta ripples within the fourth quadrant [3π/2 - 2π] of the associated theta oscillation. The prevalence of theta ripples expands the potential roles of ripple-frequency oscillations to span the continuum of encoding, retrieval and consolidation, achieved through interactions with theta oscillations. KEY POINTS: The brain manifests oscillations in recorded electrical potentials, with different frequencies of oscillation associated with distinct behavioural states. A prominently reported dichotomy assigns theta-frequency oscillations (4-12 Hz) and ripples (120-250 Hz) recorded in the hippocampus to be exclusively associated with preparatory and consummatory behaviours, respectively. Our multi-strata recordings from the rodent hippocampus coupled with cross-strata analyses provide direct quantitative evidence for the occurrence of ripple events nested within theta oscillations. These results highlight the need for an analysis pipeline that explicitly accounts for the specific strata where individual oscillatory power is high, in analysing simultaneously recorded data from multiple strata. Our observations open avenues for investigations involving cross-strata interactions between theta oscillations and ripples across different behavioural states.

Neuromorphic one-shot learning utilizing a phase-transition material

Design of hardware based on biological principles of neuronal computation and plasticity in the brain is a leading approach to realizing energy- and sample-efficient AI and learning machines. An important factor in selection of the hardware building blocks is the identification of candidate materials with physical properties suitable to emulate the large dynamic ranges and varied timescales of neuronal signaling. Previous work has shown that the all-or-none spiking behavior of neurons can be mimicked by threshold switches utilizing material phase transitions. Here, we demonstrate that devices based on a prototypical metal-insulator-transition material, vanadium dioxide (VO2), can be dynamically controlled to access a continuum of intermediate resistance states. Furthermore, the timescale of their intrinsic relaxation can be configured to match a range of biologically relevant timescales from milliseconds to seconds. We exploit these device properties to emulate three aspects of neuronal analog computation: fast (~1 ms) spiking in a neuronal soma compartment, slow (~100 ms) spiking in a dendritic compartment, and ultraslow (~1 s) biochemical signaling involved in temporal credit assignment for a recently discovered biological mechanism of one-shot learning. Simulations show that an artificial neural network using properties of VO2 devices to control an agent navigating a spatial environment can learn an efficient path to a reward in up to fourfold fewer trials than standard methods. The phase relaxations described in our study may be engineered in a variety of materials and can be controlled by thermal, electrical, or optical stimuli, suggesting further opportunities to emulate biological learning in neuromorphic hardware.

Perpetual step-like restructuring of hippocampal circuit dynamics

Representation of the environment by hippocampal populations is known to drift even within a familiar environment, which could reflect gradual changes in single cell activity or result from averaging across discrete switches of single neurons. Disambiguating these possibilities is crucial, as they each imply distinct mechanisms. Leveraging change point detection and model comparison, we found that CA1 population vectors decorrelated gradually within a session. In contrast, individual neurons exhibited predominantly step-like emergence and disappearance of place fields or sustained change in within-field firing. The changes were not restricted to particular parts of the maze or trials and did not require apparent behavioral changes. The same place fields emerged, disappeared, and reappeared across days, suggesting that the hippocampus reuses pre-existing assemblies, rather than forming new fields de novo. Our results suggest an internally-driven perpetual step-like reorganization of the neuronal assemblies.

Barcoding of episodic memories in the hippocampus of a food-caching bird

The hippocampus is critical for episodic memory. Although hippocampal activity represents place and other behaviorally relevant variables, it is unclear how it encodes numerous memories of specific events in life. To study episodic coding, we leveraged the specialized behavior of chickadees-food-caching birds that form memories at well-defined moments in time whenever they cache food for subsequent retrieval. Our recordings during caching revealed very sparse, transient barcode-like patterns of firing across hippocampal neurons. Each "barcode" uniquely represented a caching event and transiently reactivated during the retrieval of that specific cache. Barcodes co-occurred with the conventional activity of place cells but were uncorrelated even for nearby cache locations that had similar place codes. We propose that animals recall episodic memories by reactivating hippocampal barcodes. Similarly to computer hash codes, these patterns assign unique identifiers to different events and could be a mechanism for rapid formation and storage of many non-interfering memories.

Treadmill exercise pretreatment ameliorated structural synaptic plasticity impairments of medial prefrontal cortex in vascular dementia rat and improved recognition memory

This study aimed to investigate structural synaptic plasticity in the medial prefrontal cortex of rats under treadmill exercise pretreatment or naive conditions in a vascular dementia model, followed by recognition memory performance in a novel object recognition task. In this study, 24 Sprague-Dawley rats were obtained and randomly assigned into 4 groups as follows: control group (Con group, n = 6), vascular dementia (VD group, n = 6), exercise and vascular dementia group (Exe + VD group, n = 6), and exercise group (Exe group, n = 6). Initially, 4 weeks of treadmill exercise intervention was administered to the rats in the Exe + VD and Exe groups. Then, to establish the vascular dementia model, the rats both in the VD and Exe + VD groups were subjected to bilateral common carotids arteries surgery. One week later, open-field task and novel recognition memory task were adopted to evaluate anxiety-like behavior and recognition memory in each group. Then, immunofluorescence and Golgi staining were used to evaluate neuronal number and spine density in the rat medial prefrontal cortex. Transmission electron microscopy was used to observe the synaptic ultrastructure. Finally, microdialysis coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography was used to assess the levels of 5-HT and dopamine in the medial prefrontal cortex. The behavior results showed that 4 weeks of treadmill exercise pretreatment significantly alleviated recognition memory impairment and anxiety-like behavior in VD rats (P < 0.01), while the rats in VD group exhibited impaired recognition memory and anxiety-like behavior when compared with the Con group (P < 0.001). Additionally, NeuN immunostaining results revealed a significant decrease of NeuN-marked neuron in the VD group compared to Con group (P < 0.01), but a significantly increase in this molecular marker was found in the Exe + VD group compared to the Con group (P < 0.01). Golgi staining results showed that the medial prefrontal cortex neurons in the VD group displayed fewer dendritic spines than those in the Con group (P < 0.01), and there were more spines on the dendrites of medial prefrontal cortex cells in Exe + VD rats than in VD rats (P < 0.01). Transmission electron microscopy further revealed that there was a significant reduction of synapses intensity in the medial prefrontal cortex of rats in the VD group when compared with the Con group(P < 0.01), but physical exercise was found to significantly increased synapses intensity in the VD model (P < 0.01). Lastly, the levels of dopamine and 5-HT in the medial prefrontal cortex of rats in the VD group was significantly lower compared to the Con group (P < 0.01), and treadmill exercise was shown to significantly increased the levels of dopamine and 5-HT in the VD rats (P < 0.05). Treadmill exercise pretreatment ameliorated structural synaptic plasticity impairments of medial prefrontal cortex in VD rat and improved recognition memory.

Dorsal hippocampus represents locations to avoid as well as locations to approach during approach-avoidance conflict

Worrying about perceived threats is a hallmark of multiple psychological disorders including anxiety. This concern about future events is particularly important when an individual is faced with an approach-avoidance conflict. Potential goals to approach are known to be represented in the dorsal hippocampus during theta sweeps. Similarly, important non-local information is represented during hippocampal high synchrony events (HSEs), which are correlated with sharp-wave ripples (SWRs). It is likely that potential future threats may be similarly represented. We examined how threats and rewards were represented within the hippocampus during approach-avoidance conflicts in rats faced with a predator-like robot guarding a food reward. We found representations of the pseudo-predator during HSEs when hesitating in the nest, and during theta prior to retreating as the rats approached the pseudo-predator. After the first attack, we observed new place fields appearing at the location of the robot (not the location the rat was when attacked). The anxiolytic diazepam reduced anxiety-like behavior and altered hippocampal local field potentials, including reducing SWRs, suggesting that one potential mechanism of diazepam's actions may be through altered representations of imagined threat. These results suggest that hippocampal representation of potential threats could be an important mechanism that underlies worry and a potential target for anxiolytics.

An operating principle of the cerebral cortex, and a cellular mechanism for attentional trial-and-error pattern learning and useful classification extraction

A feature of the brains of intelligent animals is the ability to learn to respond to an ensemble of active neuronal inputs with a behaviorally appropriate ensemble of active neuronal outputs. Previously, a hypothesis was proposed on how this mechanism is implemented at the cellular level within the neocortical pyramidal neuron: the apical tuft or perisomatic inputs initiate "guess" neuron firings, while the basal dendrites identify input patterns based on excited synaptic clusters, with the cluster excitation strength adjusted based on reward feedback. This simple mechanism allows neurons to learn to classify their inputs in a surprisingly intelligent manner. Here, we revise and extend this hypothesis. We modify synaptic plasticity rules to align with behavioral time scale synaptic plasticity (BTSP) observed in hippocampal area CA1, making the framework more biophysically and behaviorally plausible. The neurons for the guess firings are selected in a voluntary manner via feedback connections to apical tufts in the neocortical layer 1, leading to dendritic Ca2+ spikes with burst firing, which are postulated to be neural correlates of attentional, aware processing. Once learned, the neuronal input classification is executed without voluntary or conscious control, enabling hierarchical incremental learning of classifications that is effective in our inherently classifiable world. In addition to voluntary, we propose that pyramidal neuron burst firing can be involuntary, also initiated via apical tuft inputs, drawing attention toward important cues such as novelty and noxious stimuli. We classify the excitations of neocortical pyramidal neurons into four categories based on their excitation pathway: attentional versus automatic and voluntary/acquired versus involuntary. Additionally, we hypothesize that dendrites within pyramidal neuron minicolumn bundles are coupled via depolarization cross-induction, enabling minicolumn functions such as the creation of powerful hierarchical "hyperneurons" and the internal representation of the external world. We suggest building blocks to extend the microcircuit theory to network-level processing, which, interestingly, yields variants resembling the artificial neural networks currently in use. On a more speculative note, we conjecture that principles of intelligence in universes governed by certain types of physical laws might resemble ours.

Retrograde endocannabinoid signaling at inhibitory synapses in vivo

Endocannabinoid (eCB)-mediated suppression of inhibitory synapses has been hypothesized, but this has not yet been demonstrated to occur in vivo because of the difficulty in tracking eCB dynamics and synaptic plasticity during behavior. In mice navigating a linear track, we observed location-specific eCB signaling in hippocampal CA1 place cells, and this was detected both in the postsynaptic membrane and the presynaptic inhibitory axons. All-optical in vivo investigation of synaptic responses revealed that postsynaptic depolarization was followed by a suppression of inhibitory synaptic potentials. Furthermore, interneuron-specific cannabinoid receptor deletion altered place cell tuning. Therefore, rapid, postsynaptic, activity-dependent eCB signaling modulates inhibitory synapses on a timescale of seconds during behavior.

A biochemical description of postsynaptic plasticity-with timescales ranging from milliseconds to seconds

Synaptic plasticity [long-term potentiation/depression (LTP/D)], is a cellular mechanism underlying learning. Two distinct types of early LTP/D (E-LTP/D), acting on very different time scales, have been observed experimentally-spike timing dependent plasticity (STDP), on time scales of tens of ms; and behavioral time scale synaptic plasticity (BTSP), on time scales of seconds. BTSP is a candidate for a mechanism underlying rapid learning of spatial location by place cells. Here, a computational model of the induction of E-LTP/D at a spine head of a synapse of a hippocampal pyramidal neuron is developed. The single-compartment model represents two interacting biochemical pathways for the activation (phosphorylation) of the kinase (CaMKII) with a phosphatase, with ion inflow through channels (NMDAR, CaV1,Na). The biochemical reactions are represented by a deterministic system of differential equations, with a detailed description of the activation of CaMKII that includes the opening of the compact state of CaMKII. This single model captures realistic responses (temporal profiles with the differing timescales) of STDP and BTSP and their asymmetries. The simulations distinguish several mechanisms underlying STDP vs. BTSP, including i) the flow of [Formula: see text] through NMDAR vs. CaV1 channels, and ii) the origin of several time scales in the activation of CaMKII. The model also realizes a priming mechanism for E-LTP that is induced by [Formula: see text] flow through CaV1.3 channels. Once in the spine head, this small additional [Formula: see text] opens the compact state of CaMKII, placing CaMKII ready for subsequent induction of LTP.

Latent representations in hippocampal network model co-evolve with behavioral exploration of task structure

To successfully learn real-life behavioral tasks, animals must pair actions or decisions to the task's complex structure, which can depend on abstract combinations of sensory stimuli and internal logic. The hippocampus is known to develop representations of this complex structure, forming a so-called "cognitive map". However, the precise biophysical mechanisms driving the emergence of task-relevant maps at the population level remain unclear. We propose a model in which plateau-based learning at the single cell level, combined with reinforcement learning in an agent, leads to latent representational structures codependently evolving with behavior in a task-specific manner. In agreement with recent experimental data, we show that the model successfully develops latent structures essential for task-solving (cue-dependent "splitters") while excluding irrelevant ones. Finally, our model makes testable predictions concerning the co-dependent interactions between split representations and split behavioral policy during their evolution.

Direct cortical inputs to hippocampal area CA1 transmit complementary signals for goal-directed navigation

The subregions of the entorhinal cortex (EC) are conventionally thought to compute dichotomous representations for spatial processing, with the medial EC (MEC) providing a global spatial map and the lateral EC (LEC) encoding specific sensory details of experience. Yet, little is known about the specific types of information EC transmits downstream to the hippocampus. Here, we exploit in vivo sub-cellular imaging to record from EC axons in CA1 while mice perform navigational tasks in virtual reality (VR). We uncover distinct yet overlapping representations of task, location, and context in both MEC and LEC axons. MEC transmitted highly location- and context-specific codes; LEC inputs were biased by ongoing navigational goals. However, during tasks with reliable reward locations, the animals' position could be accurately decoded from either subregion. Our results revise the prevailing dogma about EC information processing, revealing novel ways spatial and non-spatial information is routed and combined upstream of the hippocampus.

Silences, spikes and bursts: Three-part knot of the neural code

When a neuron breaks silence, it can emit action potentials in a number of patterns. Some responses are so sudden and intense that electrophysiologists felt the need to single them out, labelling action potentials emitted at a particularly high frequency with a metonym - bursts. Is there more to bursts than a figure of speech? After all, sudden bouts of high-frequency firing are expected to occur whenever inputs surge. The burst coding hypothesis advances that the neural code has three syllables: silences, spikes and bursts. We review evidence supporting this ternary code in terms of devoted mechanisms for burst generation, synaptic transmission and synaptic plasticity. We also review the learning and attention theories for which such a triad is beneficial.

A manifold neural population code for space in hippocampal coactivity dynamics independent of place fields

Hippocampus place cell discharge is temporally unreliable across seconds and days, and place fields are multimodal, suggesting an "ensemble cofiring" spatial coding hypothesis with manifold dynamics that does not require reliable spatial tuning, in contrast to hypotheses based on place field (spatial tuning) stability. We imaged mouse CA1 (cornu ammonis 1) ensembles in two environments across three weeks to evaluate these coding hypotheses. While place fields "remap," being more distinct between than within environments, coactivity relationships generally change less. Decoding location and environment from 1-s ensemble location-specific activity is effective and improves with experience. Decoding environment from cell-pair coactivity relationships is also effective and improves with experience, even after removing place tuning. Discriminating environments from 1-s ensemble coactivity relies crucially on the cells with the most anti-coactive cell-pair relationships because activity is internally organized on a low-dimensional manifold of non-linear coactivity relationships that intermittently reregisters to environments according to the anti-cofiring subpopulation activity.

A thalamic-hippocampal CA1 signal for contextual fear memory suppression, extinction, and discrimination

The adaptive regulation of fear memories is a crucial neural function that prevents inappropriate fear expression. Fear memories can be acquired through contextual fear conditioning (CFC) which relies on the hippocampus. The thalamic nucleus reuniens (NR) is necessary to extinguish contextual fear and innervates hippocampal CA1. However, the role of the NR-CA1 pathway in contextual fear is unknown. We developed a head-restrained virtual reality CFC paradigm, and demonstrate that mice can acquire and extinguish context-dependent fear responses. We found that inhibiting the NR-CA1 pathway following CFC lengthens the duration of fearful freezing epochs, increases  fear generalization, and delays fear extinction. Using in vivo imaging, we recorded NR-axons innervating CA1 and found that NR-axons become tuned to fearful freezing following CFC. We conclude that the NR-CA1 pathway actively suppresses fear by disrupting contextual fear memory retrieval in CA1 during fearful freezing behavior, a process that also reduces fear generalization and accelerates extinction.

BTSP, not STDP, Drives Shifts in Hippocampal Representations During Familiarization

Synaptic plasticity is widely thought to support memory storage in the brain, but the rules determining impactful synaptic changes in-vivo are not known. We considered the trial-by-trial shifting dynamics of hippocampal place fields (PFs) as an indicator of ongoing plasticity during memory formation. By implementing different plasticity rules in computational models of spiking place cells and comparing to experimentally measured PFs from mice navigating familiar and novel environments, we found that Behavioral-Timescale-Synaptic-Plasticity (BTSP), rather than Hebbian Spike-Timing-Dependent-Plasticity, is the principal mechanism governing PF shifting dynamics. BTSP-triggering events are rare, but more frequent during novel experiences. During exploration, their probability is dynamic: it decays after PF onset, but continually drives a population-level representational drift. Finally, our results show that BTSP occurs in CA3 but is less frequent and phenomenologically different than in CA1. Overall, our study provides a new framework to understand how synaptic plasticity shapes neuronal representations during learning.

Nonlinear slow-timescale mechanisms in synaptic plasticity

Learning and memory rely on synapses changing their strengths in response to neural activity. However, there is a substantial gap between the timescales of neural electrical dynamics (1-100 ms) and organism behaviour during learning (seconds-minutes). What mechanisms bridge this timescale gap? What are the implications for theories of brain learning? Here I first cover experimental evidence for slow-timescale factors in plasticity induction. Then I review possible underlying cellular and synaptic mechanisms, and insights from recent computational models that incorporate such slow-timescale variables. I conclude that future progress in understanding brain learning across timescales will require both experimental and computational modelling studies that map out the nonlinearities implemented by both fast and slow plasticity mechanisms at synapses, and crucially, their joint interactions.

Electrical, Electromagnetic, Ultrasound Wave Therapies, and Electronic Implants for Neuronal Rejuvenation, Neuroprotection, Axonal Regeneration, and IOP Reduction

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) of mammals and nervous systems of lower organisms possess significant regenerative potential. In contrast, although neural plasticity can provide some compensation, the central nervous system (CNS) neurons and nerves of adult mammals generally fail to regenerate after an injury or damage. However, use of diverse electrical, electromagnetic and sonographic energy waves are illuminating novel ways to stimulate neuronal differentiation, proliferation, neurite growth, and axonal elongation/regeneration leading to various levels of functional recovery in animals and humans afflicted with disorders of the CNS, PNS, retina, and optic nerve. Tools such as acupuncture, electroacupuncture, electroshock therapy, electrical stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation, red light therapy, and low-intensity pulsed ultrasound therapy are demonstrating efficacy in treating many different maladies. These include wound healing, partial recovery from motor dysfunctions, recovery from ischemic/reperfusion insults and CNS and ocular remyelination, retinal ganglion cell (RGC) rejuvenation, and RGC axonal regeneration. Neural rejuvenation and axonal growth/regeneration processes involve activation or intensifying of the intrinsic bioelectric waves (action potentials) that exist in every neuronal circuit of the body. In addition, reparative factors released at the nerve terminals and via neuronal dendrites (transmitter substances), extracellular vesicles containing microRNAs and neurotrophins, and intercellular communication occurring via nanotubes aid in reestablishing lost or damaged connections between the traumatized tissues and the PNS and CNS. Many other beneficial effects of the aforementioned treatment paradigms are mediated via gene expression alterations such as downregulation of inflammatory and death-signal genes and upregulation of neuroprotective and cytoprotective genes. These varied techniques and technologies will be described and discussed covering cell-based and animal model-based studies. Data from clinical applications and linkage to human ocular diseases will also be discussed where relevant translational research has been reported.

Synaptic memory and CaMKII

Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) and long-term potentiation (LTP) were discovered within a decade of each other and have been inextricably intertwined ever since. However, like many marriages, it has had its up and downs. Based on the unique biochemical properties of CaMKII, it was proposed as a memory molecule before any physiological linkage was made to LTP. However, as reviewed here, the convincing linkage of CaMKII to synaptic physiology and behavior took many decades. New technologies were critical in this journey, including in vitro brain slices, mouse genetics, single-cell molecular genetics, pharmacological reagents, protein structure, and two-photon microscopy, as were new investigators attracted by the exciting challenge. This review tracks this journey and assesses the state of this marriage 40 years on. The collective literature impels us to propose a relatively simple model for synaptic memory involving the following steps that drive the process: 1) Ca2+ entry through N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors activates CaMKII. 2) CaMKII undergoes autophosphorylation resulting in constitutive, Ca2+-independent activity and exposure of a binding site for the NMDA receptor subunit GluN2B. 3) Active CaMKII translocates to the postsynaptic density (PSD) and binds to the cytoplasmic C-tail of GluN2B. 4) The CaMKII-GluN2B complex initiates a structural rearrangement of the PSD that may involve liquid-liquid phase separation. 5) This rearrangement involves the PSD-95 scaffolding protein, α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptors (AMPARs), and their transmembrane AMPAR-regulatory protein (TARP) auxiliary subunits, resulting in an accumulation of AMPARs in the PSD that underlies synaptic potentiation. 6) The stability of the modified PSD is maintained by the stability of the CaMKII-GluN2B complex. 7) By a process of subunit exchange or interholoenzyme phosphorylation CaMKII maintains synaptic potentiation in the face of CaMKII protein turnover. There are many other important proteins that participate in enlargement of the synaptic spine or modulation of the steps that drive and maintain the potentiation. In this review we critically discuss the data underlying each of the steps. As will become clear, some of these steps are more firmly grounded than others, and we provide suggestions as to how the evidence supporting these steps can be strengthened or, based on the new data, be replaced. Although the journey has been a long one, the prospect of having a detailed cellular and molecular understanding of learning and memory is at hand.

A critical role for CaMKII in behavioral timescale synaptic plasticity in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons

Behavioral timescale synaptic plasticity (BTSP) is a type of non-Hebbian synaptic plasticity reported to underlie place field formation. Despite this important function, the molecular mechanisms underlying BTSP are poorly understood. The α-calcium-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (αCaMKII) is activated by synaptic transmission-mediated calcium influx, and its subsequent phosphorylation is central to synaptic plasticity. Because the activity of αCaMKII is known to outlast the event triggering phosphorylation, we hypothesized that it could mediate the extended timescale of BTSP. To examine the role of αCaMKII in BTSP, we performed whole-cell in vivo and in vitro recordings in CA1 pyramidal neurons from mice engineered with a point mutation at the autophosphorylation site (T286A) causing accelerated signaling kinetics. Here, we demonstrate a profound deficit in synaptic plasticity, strongly suggesting that αCaMKII signaling is required for BTSP. This study elucidates part of the molecular mechanism of BTSP and provides insight into the function of αCaMKII in place cell formation and ultimately learning and memory.

Offline memory replay in recurrent neuronal networks emerges from constraints on online dynamics

During spatial exploration, neural circuits in the hippocampus store memories of sequences of sensory events encountered in the environment. When sensory information is absent during 'offline' resting periods, brief neuronal population bursts can 'replay' sequences of activity that resemble bouts of sensory experience. These sequences can occur in either forward or reverse order, and can even include spatial trajectories that have not been experienced, but are consistent with the topology of the environment. The neural circuit mechanisms underlying this variable and flexible sequence generation are unknown. Here we demonstrate in a recurrent spiking network model of hippocampal area CA3 that experimental constraints on network dynamics such as population sparsity, stimulus selectivity, rhythmicity and spike rate adaptation, as well as associative synaptic connectivity, enable additional emergent properties, including variable offline memory replay. In an online stimulus-driven state, we observed the emergence of neuronal sequences that swept from representations of past to future stimuli on the timescale of the theta rhythm. In an offline state driven only by noise, the network generated both forward and reverse neuronal sequences, and recapitulated the experimental observation that offline memory replay events tend to include salient locations like the site of a reward. These results demonstrate that biological constraints on the dynamics of recurrent neural circuits are sufficient to enable memories of sensory events stored in the strengths of synaptic connections to be flexibly read out during rest and sleep, which is thought to be important for memory consolidation and planning of future behaviour. KEY POINTS: A recurrent spiking network model of hippocampal area CA3 was optimized to recapitulate experimentally observed network dynamics during simulated spatial exploration. During simulated offline rest, the network exhibited the emergent property of generating flexible forward, reverse and mixed direction memory replay events. Network perturbations and analysis of model diversity and degeneracy identified associative synaptic connectivity and key features of network dynamics as important for offline sequence generation. Network simulations demonstrate that population over-representation of salient positions like the site of reward results in biased memory replay.

From single-neuron dynamics to higher-order circuit motifs in control and pathological brain networks

The convergence of advanced single-cell in vivo functional imaging techniques, computational modelling tools and graph-based network analytics has heralded new opportunities to study single-cell dynamics across large-scale networks, providing novel insights into principles of brain communication and pointing towards potential new strategies for treating neurological disorders. A major recent finding has been the identification of unusually richly connected hub cells that have capacity to synchronize networks and may also be critical in network dysfunction. While hub neurons are traditionally defined by measures that consider solely the number and strength of connections, novel higher-order graph analytics now enables the mining of massive networks for repeating subgraph patterns called motifs. As an illustration of the power offered by higher-order analysis of neuronal networks, we highlight how recent methodological advances uncovered a new functional cell type, the superhub, that is predicted to play a major role in regulating network dynamics. Finally, we discuss open questions that will be critical for assessing the importance of higher-order cellular-scale network analytics in understanding brain function in health and disease.

Rapid memory encoding in a recurrent network model with behavioral time scale synaptic plasticity

Episodic memories are formed after a single exposure to novel stimuli. The plasticity mechanisms underlying such fast learning still remain largely unknown. Recently, it was shown that cells in area CA1 of the hippocampus of mice could form or shift their place fields after a single traversal of a virtual linear track. In-vivo intracellular recordings in CA1 cells revealed that previously silent inputs from CA3 could be switched on when they occurred within a few seconds of a dendritic plateau potential (PP) in the post-synaptic cell, a phenomenon dubbed Behavioral Time-scale Plasticity (BTSP). A recently developed computational framework for BTSP in which the dynamics of synaptic traces related to the pre-synaptic activity and post-synaptic PP are explicitly modelled, can account for experimental findings. Here we show that this model of plasticity can be further simplified to a 1D map which describes changes to the synaptic weights after a single trial. We use a temporally symmetric version of this map to study the storage of a large number of spatial memories in a recurrent network, such as CA3. Specifically, the simplicity of the map allows us to calculate the correlation of the synaptic weight matrix with any given past environment analytically. We show that the calculated memory trace can be used to predict the emergence and stability of bump attractors in a high dimensional neural network model endowed with BTSP.

Barcoding of episodic memories in the hippocampus of a food-caching bird

Episodic memory, or memory of experienced events, is a critical function of the hippocampus1-3. It is therefore important to understand how hippocampal activity represents specific events in an animal's life. We addressed this question in chickadees - specialist food-caching birds that hide food at scattered locations and use memory to find their caches later in time4,5. We performed high-density neural recordings in the hippocampus of chickadees as they cached and retrieved seeds in a laboratory arena. We found that each caching event was represented by a burst of firing in a unique set of hippocampal neurons. These 'barcode-like' patterns of activity were sparse (<10% of neurons active), uncorrelated even for immediately adjacent caches, and different even for separate caches at the same location. The barcode representing a specific caching event was transiently reactivated whenever a bird later interacted with the same cache - for example, to retrieve food. Barcodes co-occurred with conventional place cell activity6,7, as well as location-independent responses to cached seeds. We propose that barcodes are signatures of episodic memories evoked during memory recall. These patterns assign a unique identifier to each event and may be a mechanism for rapid formation and storage of many non-interfering memories.

Learning to predict future locations with internally generated theta sequences

Representing past, present and future locations is key for spatial navigation. Indeed, within each cycle of the theta oscillation, the population of hippocampal place cells appears to represent trajectories starting behind the current position of the animal and sweeping ahead of it. In particular, we reported recently that the position represented by CA1 place cells at a given theta phase corresponds to the location where animals were or will be located at a fixed time interval into the past or future assuming the animal ran at its typical, not the current, speed through that part of the environment. This coding scheme leads to longer theta trajectories, larger place fields and shallower phase precession in areas where animals typically run faster. Here we present a mechanistic computational model that accounts for these experimental observations. The model consists of a continuous attractor network with short-term synaptic facilitation and depression that internally generates theta sequences that advance at a fixed pace. Spatial locations are then mapped onto the active units via modified Hebbian plasticity. As a result, neighboring units become associated with spatial locations further apart where animals run faster, reproducing our earlier experimental results. The model also accounts for the higher density of place fields generally observed where animals slow down, such as around rewards. Furthermore, our modeling results reveal that an artifact of the decoding analysis might be partly responsible for the observation that theta trajectories start behind the animal's current position. Overall, our results shed light on how the hippocampal code might arise from the interplay between behavior, sensory input and predefined network dynamics.

Voltage imaging reveals that hippocampal interneurons tune memory-encoding pyramidal sequences

Hippocampal spiking sequences encode and link behavioral information across time. How inhibition sculpts these sequences remains unknown. We performed longitudinal voltage imaging of CA1 parvalbumin- and somatostatin-expressing interneurons in mice during an odor-cued working memory task, before and after training. During this task, pyramidal odor-specific sequences encode the cue throughout a delay period. In contrast, most interneurons encoded odor delivery, but not odor identity, nor delay time. Population inhibition was stable across days, with constant field turnover, though some cells retained odor-responses for days. At odor onset, a brief, synchronous burst of parvalbumin cells was followed by widespread membrane hyperpolarization and then rebound theta-paced spiking, synchronized across cells. Two-photon calcium imaging revealed that most pyramidal cells were suppressed throughout the odor. Positive pyramidal odor-responses coincided with interneuronal rebound spiking; otherwise, they had weak odor-selectivity. Therefore, inhibition increases the signal-to-noise ratio of cue representations, which is crucial for entraining downstream targets.

A local circuit-basis for spatial navigation and memory processes in hippocampal area CA1

The hippocampus is a multi-stage neural circuit that is critical for memory formation. Its distinct anatomy has long inspired theories that rely on local interactions between neurons within each subregion in order to perform serial operations important for memory encoding and storage. These local computations have received less attention in CA1 area, the primary output node of the hippocampus, where excitatory neurons are thought to be only very sparsely interconnected. However, recent findings have demonstrated the power of local circuitry in CA1, with evidence for strong functional interactions among excitatory neurons, regulation by diverse inhibitory microcircuits, and novel plasticity rules that can profoundly reshape the hippocampal ensemble code. Here we review how these properties expand the dynamical repertoire of CA1 beyond the confines of feedforward processing, and what implications they have for hippocampo-cortical functions in memory formation.