A happier and less sinister past, a more hedonistic and less fatalistic present and a more structured future: time perspective and well-being

Affect and satisfaction time dependency: An experience sampling study

The aim of this study was to test the time dependency between affect and satisfaction on a momentary level. Ninety-eight students participated in the study, using the experience sampling method. Affect and satisfaction scales were administered five times a day for 7 days via handheld devices, sampling the whole awake period with ratings approximately 3-4 h apart. The aim of this study was to examine the cross-correlation between affect and satisfaction at the intra-individual level and to test their temporal consistency via lagged cross-correlations. On average, satisfaction was robustly associated with positive affect (PA; mean correlation 0.50) and negative affect (NA; mean correlation -0.38). The correlation of satisfaction with affect factors showed a consistent temporal dependency. Lag (i.e., the shift of one time series with respect to another) significantly affected the magnitude of the correlation coefficients of satisfaction with PA and NA (explaining almost half of the correlation variance). A significant affect-satisfaction cross-correlation can be found when no lag is present. The introduction of a lag reduces the affect-satisfaction cross-correlation to virtually zero. Research suggests that affect and satisfaction overlap at the momentary level, and the results of this study imply that they are also time-dependent. These findings corroborate the idea that momentary satisfaction judgments are partially based on available emotional information, both in terms of intensity and temporal consistency.

How time orientation matters for happiness: The nonmonotonic relations featured with a middle valley

Most previous studies have shown that focusing on the future predicts higher subjective well-being (SWB), but some have reported contradictory results. Due to mixed findings on the relationship between time orientation (TO) and SWB, the present study attempted to clarify and reinterpret this relationship from a nonmonotonic perspective by analyzing two large-scale datasets from the European Social Survey (Study 1; 31 countries, total N = 88,873) and tested the cross-cultural generalizability of our findings in a Chinese sample (Study 2; N = 797). The results confirmed a nonmonotonic relationship between TO and SWB and first revealed a "Middle Valley Effect." This effect demonstrated a decreased SWB at the midpoint of the TO scale, indicating that maintaining a dominant TO, whether present or future, rather than being torn between the two, could improve SWB. This nonmonotonic relationship resolves previous inconsistent findings and suggests that an appropriate clear TO can benefit SWB.

The 18-item Swedish version of Ryff's psychological wellbeing scale: psychometric properties based on classical test theory and item response theory

Background

Psychological wellbeing is conceptualized as the full engagement and optimal performance in existential challenges of life. Our understanding of psychological wellbeing is important for us humans to survive, adapt, and thrive during the challenges of the 21st century. Hence, the measurement of psychological wellbeing is one cornerstone for the identification and treatment of both mental illness and health promotion. In this context, Ryff operationalized psychological wellbeing as a six-dimensional model of human characteristics: self-acceptance, positive relations with others, environmental mastery, personal growth, autonomy, and purpose in life. Ryff's Psychological Wellbeing Scale has been developed and translated into different versions. Here, we examine and describe the psychometric properties of the 18-item Swedish version of Ryff's Psychological Wellbeing Scale using both Classical Test Theory (CTT) and Item Response Theory (IRT).

Methods

The data used in the present study was earlier published elsewhere and consists of 768 participants (279 women and 489 men). In addition to the 18-item version of the scale, participants answered the Temporal Satisfaction with Life Scale, the Positive Affect Negative Affect Schedule, and the Background and Health Questionnaire. We examined, the 18-item version's factor structure using different models and its relationship with subjective wellbeing, sociodemographic factors (e.g., education level, gender, age), lifestyle habits (i.e., smoking, frequency of doing exercise, and exercise intensity), and health issues (i.e., pain and sleeping problems). We also analyzed measurement invariance with regard to gender. Moreover, as an addition to the existing literature, we analyzed the properties of the 18 items using Graded Response Model (GRM).

Results

Although the original six-factor structure showed a good fit, both CTT and IRT indicated that a five-factor model, without the purpose in life subscale, provided a better fit. The results supported the internal consistency and concurrent validity of the 18-item Swedish version. Moreover, invariance testing showed similar measurement precision by the scale across gender. Finally, we found several items, especially the purpose in life's item "I live life one day at a time and do not really think about the future," that might need revision or modification in order to improve measurement.

Conclusion

A five-factor solution is a valid and reliable measure for the assessment of psychological wellbeing in the general Swedish population. With some modifications, the scale might achieve enough accuracy to measure the more appropriate and correct six-dimensional theoretical framework as detailed by Ryff. Fortunately, Ryff's original version contains 20 items per subscale and should therefore act as a perfect pool of items in this endeavor.

Effects of COVID-19 event intensity on college students' health lifestyles: time perspective mediating model and its gender difference

The pandemic of COVID-19 had not only led to healthy-damage behaviors, but also raised people's attention to health and generated health-promoting behaviors. However, little is known about the mechanism underlying how the perception of COVID-19 intensity affects health behaviors. The present study investigated the mediating effect of DBTP between event intensity and health behaviors and the moderating role of gender in this relation. Nine hundred and twenty-four Chinese college students (348 males and 576 females) completed a battery of self-report questionnaires, including COVID-19 Event Intensity Scale, Chinese version of Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI) and Healthy Lifestyle Scale. Moderated mediation analysis was performed using conditional process analysis. The results showed that COVID-19 intensity had a positive predictive effect on college students' health behaviors. DBTP played a partial mediating role in the relationship between COVID-19 intensity and health behaviors for male and not female. In female group, COVID-19 intensity and DBTP was significantly linked with health behaviour; however, COVID-19 intensity and DBTP were not significantly linked. The findings indicated that COVID-19 intensity perceived by college students could increase their health behaviors, and intervention focus on BTP may contribute to health behaviors only in male. Practical implications were discussed in this academic research.

The mediating role of thinking styles in the relationship between adolescent time perspective and subjective well-being

INTRODUCTION

The mechanism behind how time perspective (TP) relates to subjective well-being is not fully understood and thinking styles might be potential mediators. However, our understanding of the relationship between thinking styles and subjective well-being is currently limited to adult studies. This study aims to extend the literature by examining the mediating role of thinking styles in the relationship between TP and subjective well-being in an adolescent sample.

METHODS

One hundred forty-nine male and one hundred and fourteen female secondary school students (13-18 years old) in Hong Kong responded to the Thinking Styles Inventory-Revised II (TSI-R2), the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI), the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), and the Temporal Satisfaction with Life Scale (TSWLS) in two waves separated by 2 months in 2017.

RESULTS

After controlling for gender and TP, internal and external styles positively predicted positive affect and future life satisfaction after 2 months. Adaptive Type I hierarchical style positively predicted both positive and negative affect after 2 months, which supports the two-dimensional structure of affect. Unexpectedly, maladaptive Type II styles did not predict subjective well-being. Longitudinal mediation using cross-lagged panel model showed that thinking styles mediated three relationships between TP and subjective well-being. The internal style mediated the relationship between Past-Negative TP, positive affect, and future life satisfaction, while the external style mediated the relationship between Future TP and future life satisfaction.

CONCLUSIONS

Thinking styles predicted adolescent subjective well-being and acted as mediators in the relationship between TPs and subjective well-being.

Leaving Past Adversities Behind: Gratitude Intervention Compensates for the Undesirable Effects of Past Time Perspectives on Negative Affect

Both gratitude and savoring the moment are considered to be well-established "well-being boosters" (WBBs). Each of them has a salient temporal reference: Gratitude is past-related, whereas savoring the moment refers to the present. The temporal match-mismatch model posits that time perspectives (TPs) moderate the effects of WBBs on well-being if they refer to the same temporal frame (e.g., gratitude and Past-Positive). Our study tested whether TPs moderate the effects of two positive interventions on positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA). The participants (N = 174 individuals, 73% women) completed measures of TPs, PA, and NA, followed by a brief intervention of gratitude (N = 86) or savoring (N = 88). Subsequently, they completed the PA/NA measures again. Both interventions significantly decreased NA but did not foster PA. The magnitude of the shift in NA in the gratitude condition depended on the levels of past TPs: Individuals high in Past-Negative and low in Past-Positive displayed greater baseline NA than their counterparts; however, the difference was leveled after the gratitude intervention. No interaction effects between the present TPs and the savoring intervention were observed. The results suggest that practicing gratitude may diminish the undesirable consequences of negative views of the past.

The Association between Balanced Time Perspective, Personality Traits, Subjective Well-Being, and Distress during the COVID-19 Pandemic

The present study examines whether time perspectives (i.e., Past Negative, Past Positive, Present Hedonistic, Present Fatalistic and Future), Deviation from the Balanced Time Perspective (DBTP), and personality traits (i.e., extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience) are good candidates to explain subjective well-being and psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic. Using an online survey, we recruited 1483 participants during the Italian mandatory lockdown. Multiple regressions analysis showed that time perspectives strongly predicted subjective well-being, depression, and stress. Participants highly oriented on Past Positive and Future had higher subjective well-being, while participants highly oriented on Past Negative and Present Fatalistic had lower subjective well-being. Regarding DBTP, participants who greatly deviated from the optimal temporal balance reported lower well-being and were more distressed. Regarding the impact of personality traits, extraversion and neuroticism were the factors that better explained subjective well-being, level of stress, and depression, whereas higher levels of openness were associated with lower levels of depression. Finally, DBTP was a significant moderator in the relationships of extraversion and neuroticism with subjective well-being. Implications for time-perspective theory and practical contributions of the study are discussed.

The modified German subjective vitality scale (SVS-GM): Psychometric properties and application in daily life

Subjective vitality describes the positive feeling of experiencing physical and mental energy, which can lead to purposive actions, but no German instruments exist with action-oriented verbiage: This work supports the development and modification of already existing German Subjective Vitality Scales and provides further evidence for its psychometric properties. In a first step (N = 56) two modified (action-oriented) short-forms were developed. An extension of time perspectives (past, present, future) should also enrich the scale by enhancing the accuracy of self-reports. Study 1 (N = 183) then examined the psychometric properties for each time perspective. Study 2 (N = 27) was a 6-day diary study to identify the reliability of within- and between-person differences in vitality over time and working days with responses recorded three times per day. The exploratory factor analysis from study 1 revealed a three-factor solution with three items each. Test-retest reliability was moderate for the past and future time perspective and less stable for state subjective vitality. The modified German Subjective Vitality Scale (SVS-GM) showed divergent validity with fatigue, negative affect, and optimism, and convergent but distinguishable validity with life satisfaction, positive affect, and perceived self-efficacy. High reliability for daily vitality measures (with lower vitality rates in the morning) was found in study 2, but no substantial variation was found between working days and days off. The SVS-GM shows good psychometric properties in different settings and provides researchers with a 3-item (for cross-sectional or longitudinal studies) and 1-item (for short screenings) version to measure subjective vitality in German-speaking populations.

The role of time perspective and acculturative stress on adaptive and maladaptive stress coping strategies of Puerto Ricans living in the island of Puerto Rico and the state of Connecticut in mainland United States

We assessed the role of Time Perspective (TP) and acculturative stress on adaptive and maladaptive coping strategies, across healthy and treatment-seeking Puerto Ricans living in the island of Puerto Rico (PR), as well as at the state of Connecticut in mainland United States (US). Participants were comprised of 197 adults from the island of PR, as well as 138 adults from Connecticut. TP was measured through five categories assessed by the Zimbardo TP Inventory (Past Positive, Past Negative, Present Fatalistic, Present Hedonistic, and Future), the Deviation from a Balanced Time Perspective-revisited (DBTPr) coefficient, and the Deviation from the Negative Time Perspective (DNTP) coefficient. Acculturative stress was measured with the Acculturative Distress Scale. Adaptive and maladaptive stress-coping were measured through the Brief COPE Inventory. DNTP predicted adaptive coping, whereas acculturative stress, Present Hedonistic, and DBTPr predicted maladaptive coping. Puerto Ricans living in Connecticut engaged more often in maladaptive coping than those in PR. Acculturative stress partially mediated the influence of DBTPr on maladaptive coping. DNTP mediated the influence of state on adaptive coping. DBTPr and acculturative stress totally mediated the influence of state on maladaptive coping. These findings suggest that assessing TP, levels of acculturative stress, and coping strategies could assist in tailoring evidence-based interventions to the specific needs of Puerto Rican populations. Doing so could be effective in promoting a Balanced Time Perspective, reducing acculturative stress, increasing adaptive coping, and improving mental as well as physical health, on Puerto Ricans living in PR or mainland US.

The Positive Side of Maximization: Linking Maximization Tendency With Meaning in Life Through Time Perspectives

The negative influence of maximization on well-being, that is, the maximization paradox, has received increased attention. However, few studies have shown the link between maximization tendency and meaning in life, which is one type of well-being, and no empirical literature has examined the mechanisms between them. We conducted an online survey in China to test the relationship between maximization tendency and meaning in life. Participants (N=2,987) were invited to report their maximization, time perspective, meaning in life, and other control variables and demographic variables. Multi-mediation path analysis was adopted in the data analysis. The results revealed that maximization was positively associated with meaning in life, which confirmed the positive aspect of the maximization tendency. Further analyses indicated that the time perspectives of past-positive and future mediated the positive relationship between maximization and meaning in life. In contrast, a present-fatalistic time perspective was a suppressor in the positive relationship. Our findings suggest that the maximization tendency has a positive aspect rather than the overall maximization paradox. An important means of elevating meaning in life is to encourage the time perspective of past-positive and future-oriented and reduce the present-fatalistic time perspective.

Does Attentional Style Moderate the Relationship between Time Perspective and Social Network Addiction? A Cross-Sectional Study on a Sample of Social Networking Sites Users

The present study investigates the role of attentional style as a moderator variable between temporal perspective and social network addiction, since little is known about users' cognitive variables involved in this kind of addictive behavior. To achieve this goal, a sample of 186 volunteers and anonymous social networking sites users (M = 34%; F = 66%; M_age = 22.54 years; SD = 3.94; range: 18 ÷ 45 years) participated in a cross-sectional study. All participants filled out self-report instruments measuring temporal perspective, internal vs. external attentional style, and social network addiction. The results align with the previous literature and show that present fatalistic and past negative time orientations are associated with social network addiction, whereas the future is a negative precursor. Moreover, a four-step hierarchical regression analysis showed that internal attentional style is a significant moderator of the relationship between high levels of temporal perspective and a high level of social network addiction. This result suggests that social network-addicted users are oriented toward internal stimuli such as their intrusive thoughts or feelings and that social network addiction is similar to obsessive compulsive disorders, depression, or anxiety. Despite its limitations, the present study could contribute to the efforts of clinicians, psychiatrists, psychologists, teachers, and all those who seek to combat social network addiction in developing treatment programs to reduce its harmful effects.

A Time to Sleep Well and Be Contented: Time Perspective, Sleep Quality, and Life Satisfaction

A major aim of the present study was to examine the relationship between time perspective, i.e., habitual ways of relating to the past, present, and future, and sleep quality. A second aim was to test a model by which the expected negative relationship between deviation from a balanced time perspective (DBTP), a measure taking temporal biases across all three time frames into account, and life satisfaction was mediated by poor sleep quality. To these ends, a sample of young adults (N = 386) completed a version of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (S-ZTPI), Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). A measure of chronotype was in addition included for control purposes. Bivariate analyses revealed that the S-ZTPI subscales Past Negative, Future Negative and Present Fatalistic were associated with poorer sleep quality (higher PSQI scores), with significant associations in the opposite direction for Past Positive and Future Positive. However, DBTP was the strongest predictor of (poorer) sleep quality, suggesting that time perspective biases have an additive effect on sleep quality. Regression analyses with PSQI as the dependent variable and all six ZTPI subscales as the predictors indicated that time perspective accounted for about 20% of the variance in sleep quality (17% beyond chronotype), with Past Negative, Past Positive, and Future Negative as the unique predictors. The results additionally confirmed a strong relationship between DBTP and life satisfaction. Finally, data were consistent with the hypothesis that the association of DBTP and life satisfaction is mediated, in part, by sleep quality. Taken together, the results confirmed a substantial link between time perspective sleep-related problems, factors that may have a negative impact on life satisfaction.

On the Structure of Affect

Abstract. The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson et al., 1988 ) is a popular self-report questionnaire that is administered all over the world. Though originally developed to measure two independent factors, different models have been proposed in the literature. Comparisons among alternative models as well as analyses concerning their robustness in cross-national research have left an inconclusive picture. Therefore, the present study evaluates the dimensionality of the PANAS and differences between English and translated versions of the PANAS using a meta-analytic structural equation modeling approach. Correlation matrices from 57 independent samples ( N = 54,043) were pooled across subsamples. For both English and non-English samples, a correlated two-factor model including correlated uniquenesses provided the best fit. However, measurement invariance analyses indicated differences in factor loadings between subsamples. Thus, cross-national application of the PANAS might only be justified if measurement equivalence was explicitly tested for the countries at hand.

What Are the Optimal Levels of Time Perspectives? Deviation from the Balanced Time Perspective-Revisited (DBTP-r)

Balanced time perspective (BTP) describes a tendency to focus on past, present and future time horizons that fosters well-being and positive life outcomes. Deviation from the balanced time perspective is a widespread method to measure the balance, but it makes assumptions regarding levels of time perspectives constituting BTP. In the present research we aimed to test the assumptions regarding levels of time perspectives constituting BTP by testing associations between time perspectives and domains of well-being in four independent samples (N = 1150). The results showed that higher well-being was fostered by greater past positive (PP) and future (F) and lower past negative (PN) and present fatalistic (PF) time perspectives in a linear manner. As for the present hedonistic (PH) perspective, the results were inconsistent indicating that this time orientation can be unrelated to well-being or related in an inverse U-shape manner. In the light of our results the optimal values for the deviation from the balanced time perspective, as measured with the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory, should be revisited and changed into PN 1, PP 5, PF 1, PH 3.4, F 5, with careful consideration whether or not to incorporate PH into the formula for the deviation from the balanced time perspective at all. We also showed that the deviation from the balanced time perspective using the above values better predicts well-being than the one using previously assumed levels.

Social Network Size and Subjective Well-Being: The Mediating Role of Future Time Perspective Among Community-Dwelling Retirees

An accumulating body of literature has confirmed the effect of social networks on the subjective well-being (SWB). However, the relevant mechanism for the relationship between them requires further exploration. This research examined the association between social network size and SWB and the mediating role of future time perspective (FTP) among Chinese retirees. We modeled the relationship between social network size, FTP, and SWB by two sub-studies. SWB was indicated by life satisfaction, positive affect, negative affect, and meaning in life. FTP comprised two dimensions: focusing on opportunity in future and focusing on limitation of time. Study 1 used the number of Spring Festival greeters, and Study 2 used the size of networks based on common actions (discussion, mutual helping, and social participation) as indicators of network size to examine the association and mediating effect among 1097 and 335 community-dwelling retirees, respectively. Both studies revealed that social network size was positively associated with SWB; FTP-opportunity but not FTP-limitation mediated above associations, when possible confounding variables were controlled for. Findings confirm relevance of social networks in the SWB of retirees, and provide a new insight into the role of FTP as an explanatory mechanism.

Impact of time perspectives on texting intervention to reduce HIV/STI transmission among female sex workers in Tijuana and Ciudad Juarez, Mexico

Text messages may sustain post-counseling gains in behavioral improvements and reduce HIV/STI incidence. However, their effectiveness may depend on the messages' time perspective and characteristics of the individual. We evaluated the impact of time perspective on a text messaging intervention designed to maintain improvements in safer sex practices among drug-using and non-drug-using female sex workers (FSWs) in Tijuana (n = 141) and Cd. Juarez (n = 129), Mexico. FSWs received the efficacious Mujer Segura intervention, and were randomized to receive safer sex maintenance text messages with either a short-term or future-oriented time perspective. The outcome was HIV/STI incidence rate over 6-month follow-up. In Tijuana, combined HIV/STI incidence density was lower among FSWs in the FUTURE group (31.67 per 100 py) compared to women in the SHORT-TERM group (62.40 per 100 py). Conversely, in Cd. Juarez, HIV/STI incidence density was lower (although non-significant) among FSWs in the SHORT-TERM group (19.80 per 100 py) compared to those in the FUTURE group (35.05 per 100 py). These findings suggest that future-oriented text messages may sustain post-counseling improvements in sexual risk behavior among FSWs, but findings may vary by FSWs' characteristics (e.g., drug use), and by region and context.

A dark past, a restrained present, and an apocalyptic future: time perspective, personality, and life satisfaction among anorexia nervosa patients

BACKGROUND

Despite reporting low levels of well-being, anorexia nervosa patients express temperament traits (e.g., extraversion and persistence) necessary for high levels of life satisfaction. Nevertheless, among individuals without eating disorders, a balanced organization of the flow of time, influences life satisfaction beyond temperamental dispositions. A balanced time perspective is defined as: high past positive, low past negative, high present hedonistic, low present fatalistic, and high future. We investigated differences in time perspective dimensions, personality traits, and life satisfaction between anorexia nervosa patients and matched controls. We also investigated if the personality traits and the outlook on time associated to positive levels of life satisfaction among controls also predicted anorexia patients' life satisfaction. Additionally, we investigated if time perspective dimensions predicted life satisfaction beyond personality traits among both patients and controls.

METHOD

A total of 88 anorexia nervosa patients from a clinic in the West of Sweden and 111 gender-age matched controls from a university in the West of Sweden participated in the Study. All participants responded to the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory, the Ten Item Personality Inventory, and the Temporal Satisfaction with Life Scale.

RESULTS

A t-test showed that patients scored higher in the past negative, the present fatalistic, and the future dimensions, lower in the past positive and the present hedonistic dimensions, higher in conscientiousness, extraversion, and agreeableness, and lower in life satisfaction. Regression analyses showed that life satisfaction was predicted by openness to experience and emotional stability for controls and by emotional stability among patients. When time dimensions were entered in the regression, emotional stability and the past negative and past positive time dimensions predicted life satisfaction among controls, but only the past positive and present hedonistic time dimensions predicted life satisfaction among patients.

CONCLUSION

Anorexia patients were less satisfied with life despite being more conscientious, social, and agreeable than controls. Moreover, compared to controls, patients had an unbalanced time perspective: a dark view of the past (i.e., high past negative), a restrained present (i.e., low present hedonistic) and an apocalyptic view of the future (i.e., high present fatalistic). It is plausible to suggest that, therapeutic interventions should focus on empowering patients to cultivate a sentimental and positive view of the past (i.e., high past positive) and the desire to experience pleasure without concern for future consequences (i.e., high present hedonistic) so that they can make self-directed and flexible choices for their own well-being. Such interventions might have effects on life satisfaction beyond the patients' temperamental disposition.

Moderating effect of age on the association between future time perspective and preventive coping

The present study aimed to investigate the moderating effect of age on the relationship between future time perspective (FTP) and future-oriented coping. A total of 1,915 participants aged 9-84 years completed measures of FTP and future-oriented coping. Moderation analyses were conducted to examine whether age played a role in the association between FTP and future-oriented coping (proactive and preventive). Results showed that proactive and preventive coping were negatively correlated with age, and age moderated the association between FTP and preventive coping but not proactive coping. Furthermore, the strength of the positive association between FTP and preventive coping was strongest among the older participants, moderate among the middle-aged participants, and weakest among the younger participants. These results suggest that the association between FTP and preventive coping varies across the lifespan.

Time Perspectives Predict Mood States and Satisfaction with Life over and above Personality

The present study aimed to test the incremental validity of Time Perspective (TP) scales in predicting satisfaction with life and mood, over and above the Big Five personality traits. It also investigated whether the new TP construct of Future Negative perspective contributed to prediction of these outcomes. Participants (N = 265) completed four measures: Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS), UWIST Mood Adjective Checklist (UMACL), a modified Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI), and NEO-Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI). Results confirmed the incremental validity of TP, although Big Five dimensions were independently predictive of life satisfaction and certain mood scales. Past Negative TP was the strongest single predictor of life satisfaction. However, Future Negative TP was be the strongest mood predictor from the TP universe, after controlling for the Big Five and remaining TP dimensions. Findings suggest that TP is an important aspect of personality for understanding individual differences in well-being.

Developmental trajectory of time perspective: From children to older adults

Time perspective is a fundamental dimension of the psychological time construct, with a pervasive and powerful influence on human behavior. However, the developmental trajectory of time perspective across a human lifespan remains unclear. The current study aimed to portray the developmental trajectory of all dimensions of time perspectives from children to older adults in a large sample. A total of 1,901 individuals (aged 9-84 years) completed measures of time perspective. They were then divided into five age groups: children, teenagers, young adults, middle-aged adults, and older adults. Results suggested that each time perspective showed a unique developmental pattern across the lifespan. Moreover, perceived economic situation and education were related to some dimensions of time perspective.

Time perspective and well-being: Swedish survey questionnaires and data

The data pertains 448 Swedes’ responses to questionnaires on time perspective (Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory), temporal life satisfaction (Temporal Satisfaction with Life Scale), affect (Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule), and psychological well-being (Ryff׳s Scales of Psychological Well-Being—short version). The data was collected among university students and individuals at a training facility (see U. Sailer, P. Rosenberg, A.A. Nima, A. Gamble, T. Gärling, T. Archer, D. Garcia, 2014; [1]). Since there were no differences in any of the other background variables, but exercise frequency, all subsequent analyses were conducted on the 448 participants as one single sample. In this article we include the Swedish versions of the questionnaires used to operationalize the time perspective and well-being variables. The data is available, SPSS file, as Supplementary material in this article. We used the Expectation-Maximization Algorithm to input missing values. Little׳s Chi-Square test for Missing Completely at Random showed a χ²=67.25 (df=53, p=.09) for men and χ²=77.65 (df=72, p=.31) for women. These values suggested that the Expectation-Maximization Algorithm was suitable to use on this data for missing data imputation.

Evaluating Perceived Probability of Threat-Relevant Outcomes and Temporal Orientation in Flying Phobia

Probability bias regarding threat-relevant outcomes has been demonstrated across anxiety disorders but has not been investigated in flying phobia. Individual temporal orientation (time perspective) may be hypothesised to influence estimates of negative outcomes occurring. The present study investigated whether probability bias could be demonstrated in flying phobia and whether probability estimates of negative flying events was predicted by time perspective. Sixty flying phobic and fifty-five non-flying-phobic adults were recruited to complete an online questionnaire. Participants completed the Flight Anxiety Scale, Probability Scale (measuring perceived probability of flying-negative events, general-negative and general positive events) and the Past-Negative, Future and Present-Hedonistic subscales of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (variables argued to predict mental travel forward and backward in time). The flying phobic group estimated the probability of flying negative and general negative events occurring as significantly higher than non-flying phobics. Past-Negative scores (positively) and Present-Hedonistic scores (negatively) predicted probability estimates of flying negative events. The Future Orientation subscale did not significantly predict probability estimates. This study is the first to demonstrate probability bias for threat-relevant outcomes in flying phobia. Results suggest that time perspective may influence perceived probability of threat-relevant outcomes but the nature of this relationship remains to be determined.

Questions of time and affect: a person's affectivity profile, time perspective, and well-being

Background. A “balanced” time perspective has been suggested to have a positive influence on well-being: a sentimental and positive view of the past (high Past Positive), a less pessimistic attitude toward the past (low Past Negative), the desire of experiencing pleasure with slight concern for future consequences (high Present Hedonistic), a less fatalistic and hopeless view of the future (low Present Fatalistic), and the ability to find reward in achieving specific long-term goals (high Future). We used the affective profiles model (i.e., combinations of individuals’ experience of high/low positive/negative affectivity) to investigate differences between individuals in time perspective dimensions and to investigate if the influence of time perspective dimensions on well-being was moderated by the individual’s type of profile.

Method. Participants (N = 720) answered to the Positive Affect Negative Affect Schedule, the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory and two measures of well-being: the Temporal Satisfaction with Life Scale and Ryff’s Scales of Psychological Well-Being-short version. A Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) was conducted to identify differences in time perspective dimensions and well-being among individuals with distinct affective profiles. Four structural equation models (SEM) were used to investigate which time perspective dimensions predicted well-being for individuals in each profile.

Results. Comparisons between individuals at the extreme of the affective profiles model suggested that individuals with a self-fulfilling profile (high positive/low negative affect) were characterized by a “balanced” time perspective and higher well-being compared to individuals with a self-destructive profile (low positive/high negative affect). However, a different pattern emerged when individuals who differed in one affect dimension but matched in the other were compared to each other. For instance, decreases in the past negative time perspective dimension lead to high positive affect when negative affect is high (i.e., self-destructive vs. high affective) but to low negative affect when positive affect was high (i.e., high affective vs. self-fulfilling). The moderation analyses showed, for example, that for individuals with a self-destructive profile, psychological well-being was significantly predicted by the past negative, present fatalistic and future time perspectives. Among individuals with a high affective or a self-fulfilling profile, psychological well-being was significantly predicted by the present fatalistic dimension.

Conclusions. The interactions found here go beyond the postulation of a “balanced” time perspective being the only way to promote well-being. Instead, we present a more person-centered approach to achieve higher levels of emotional, cognitive, and psychological well-being.

Perspectives on Games, Computers, and Mental Health: Questions about Paradoxes, Evidences, and Challenges

In the field of mental health, games and computerized games present questions about paradoxes, evidences, and challenges. This perspective article offers perspectives and personal opinion about these questions, evidences, and challenges with an objective of presenting several ideas and issues in this rapidly developing field. First, games raise some questions in the sense of the paradox between a game and an issue, as well as the paradox of using an amusing game to treat a serious pathology. Second, games also present evidence in the sense that they involve relationships with others, as well as learning, communication, language, emotional regulation, and hedonism. Third, games present challenges, such as the risk of abuse, the critical temporal period that may be limited to childhood, their important influence on sociocognitive learning and the establishment of social norms, and the risk of misuse of games.

A time to be stressed? Time perspectives and cortisol dynamics among healthy adults

Perceptions of past, present, and future events may be related to stress pathophysiology. We assessed whether Time Perspective (TP) is associated with cortisol dynamics among healthy adults (N=61, Ages=18-35, M=22.9, SD=4.1) exposed to the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST). TP was measured according to two profiles: maladaptive Deviation from Balanced TP (DBTP) and adaptive Deviation from Negative TP (DNTP). Eight salivary cortisol samples were analyzed using area under the curve with respect to ground (AUCg) and to increase (AUCi). Statistic analyses involved partial correlations controlling for depressive symptoms. Results for both sexes showed that higher DBTP scores were associated with lower cortisol AUCg scores, while higher DNTP scores were associated with higher cortisol AUCg scores. These novel findings suggest that maladaptive TP profiles influence hypocortisolism, whereas adaptive TP profiles influence hypercortisolism. Thus, TP profiles may impact conditions characterized by altered cortisol concentrations.