Identifying protected areas in biodiversity hotspots at risk from climate and human-induced compound events for conserving threatened species

Anthropogenic pressure in areas of biodiversity importance erodes the integrity of the ecosystems they harbour, making features of biodiversity less buffered against extreme climatic events. We define the combination of these disturbances as compound events. We assessed compound event risk in protected areas (PAs) applying a spatial framework guided by criteria and quantitative thresholds associated with exposure to cyclones, drought, and intense human pressure. This assessment was used in a relational matrix to classify PAs with different risk of compound event occurrence. We identified PAs of higher conservation concern by quantifying the extent of human pressure in their surrounding landscape while harbouring large numbers of threatened vertebrate species. Of the 39,694 PAs assessed, very high risk of compound events was determined for 6965 PAs (17.5 %) related to cyclones and human pressure (mainly island hotspots), 6367 PAs (16 %) related to droughts and human pressure (island and continental hotspots), and 2031 PAs (5 %) to cyclones, drought and human pressure (mainly in island hotspots). From the subset of 2031 PAs assessed at very high risk, we identified 239 PAs of higher conservation concern distributed predominantly in the Caribbean Islands, Japan, North America Coastal Plain, Philippines, and Southwest Australia. Our work highlights PAs in the biodiversity hotspots where high risk of compound event occurrence poses a greater threat to species. We encourage researchers to adapt and apply this framework across other globally significant sites for conserving biodiversity to identify high risk-prone areas, and prevent further biodiversity decline.

An urgent call-to-action to protect the nonhuman primates and Indigenous Peoples of the Brazilian Amazon

Primates are facing an impending extinction crisis. Here, we examine the set of conservation challenges faced by the 100 primate species that inhabit the Brazilian Amazon, the largest remaining area of primary tropical rainforest in the world. The vast majority (86%) of Brazil's Amazonian primate species have declining populations. Primate population decline in Amazonia has been driven principally by deforestation related to the production of forest-risk commodities including soy and cattle ranching, the illegal logging and setting of fires, dam building, road and rail construction, hunting, mining, and the confiscation and conversion of Indigenous Peoples' traditional lands. In a spatial analysis of the Brazilian Amazon, we found that 75% of Indigenous Peoples' lands (IPLs) remained forested compared with 64% of Conservation Units (CUs) and 56% of other lands (OLs). In addition, primate species richness was significantly higher on IPLs than on CUs and OLs. Thus, safeguarding Indigenous Peoples' land rights, systems of knowledge, and human rights is one of the most effective ways to protect Amazonian primates and the conservation value of the ecosystems they inhabit. Intense public and political pressure is required and a global call-to-action is needed to encourage all Amazonian countries, especially Brazil, as well as citizens of consumer nations, to actively commit to changing business as usual, living more sustainably, and doing all they can to protect the Amazon. We end with a set of actions one can take to promote primate conservation in the Brazilian Amazon.

Human-modified landscapes driving the global primate extinction crisis

The world's primates have been severely impacted in diverse and profound ways by anthropogenic pressures. Here, we evaluate the impact of various infrastructures and human-modified landscapes on spatial patterns of primate species richness, at both global and regional scales. We overlaid the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) range maps of 520 primate species and applied a global 100 km2 grid. We used structural equation modeling and simultaneous autoregressive models to evaluate direct and indirect effects of six human-altered landscapes variables (i.e., human footprint [HFP], croplands [CROP], road density [ROAD], pasture lands [PAST], protected areas [PAs], and Indigenous Peoples' lands [IPLs]) on global primate species richness, threatened and non-threatened species, as well as on species with decreasing and non-decreasing populations. Two-thirds of all primate species are classified as threatened (i.e., Critically Endangered, Endangered, and Vulnerable), with ~86% experiencing population declines, and ~84% impacted by domestic or international trade. We found that the expansion of PAST, HFP, CROP, and road infrastructure had the most direct negative effects on primate richness. In contrast, forested habitat within IPLs and PAs was positively associated in safeguarding primate species diversity globally, with an even stronger effect at the regional level. Our results show that IPLs and PAs play a critical role in primate species conservation, helping to prevent their extinction; in contrast, HFP growth and expansion has a dramatically negative effect on primate species worldwide. Our findings support predictions that the continued negative impact of anthropogenic pressures on natural habitats may lead to a significant decline in global primate species richness, and likely, species extirpations. We advocate for stronger national and international policy frameworks promoting alternative/sustainable livelihoods and reducing persistent anthropogenic pressures to help mitigate the extinction risk of the world's primate species.

Threat Analysis of Forest Fragmentation and Degradation for Peruvian Primates

Peru has 55 primate taxa (including all species and subspecies), a third of which are threatened. The major drivers of habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation are grazing, forestry, agriculture and transport infrastructure. Other activities such as hunting exacerbate these threats. We assessed the threats from degradation and fragmentation facing Peruvian primates to aid in the design and implementation of mitigation strategies. Through GIS-based mapping, statistical modeling and specialist assessments, we evaluated all primate taxa using the IUCN Conservation Measures Partnership Unified Classifications of Direct Threats across five categories (direct threats to primates, threats to habitat, causes of fragmentation, factors exacerbating fragmentation and threats to primates and habitats as a consequence of fragmentation), highlighting which were most common and most severe. Our results showed that all primate taxa were affected by degradation and fragmentation in Peru. The most common and severe direct threat was hunting, whereas housing and urban development, smallholder crop farming, smallholder grazing and large-scale logging were the most common and severe threats across the other categories. The families Cebidae and Atelidae face the highest overall threat. Our analysis showed that the current IUCN listing of Leontocebus leucogenys [LC] underestimates the true threat level this species faces and that Lagothrix lagothricha tschudii [DD] should be listed under one of the threat categories. In Peru, the need for mitigating the threat of habitat fragmentation is clear. To ensure the survival of Peru’s diverse primate taxa, forest connectivity needs to be maintained or recovered through the protection and restoration of key areas considering their biological and social needs.

Insights into the primate trade into the European Union and the United Kingdom

Illegal and/or unsustainable trade is a major obstacle to effective primate conservation. The wildlife trade in the European Union (EU) and the United Kingdom (UK) is significant, but for many species, such as primates, the trade is poorly understood and sparsely reported. All EU countries are Party to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES); all primates are listed on Appendix I or II of CITES and are included on Annex A or B of Regulation (EC) No 338/97. We here combine data from several databases (CITES, UN Comtrade, TRAFFIC WiTIS) and seizure reports, to provide a narrative of the trade in primates into and within Europe. The legal import of live primates (2002-2021) amounted to 218,000-238,000 individuals (valued at US$ 869 million), with France, the UK, and Spain as the main importers and Mauritius, Vietnam, and China as the main exporters. Over 21,000 primate parts (trophies, skulls, bodies) were imported mainly from African countries, and UN Comtrade data suggests that ~ 600 tonnes of primate meat was imported mainly from Asia. The vast majority of live primates are either captive-born or captive-bred, and this proportion has increased over time. Reports of the illegal primate trade are far from complete, but the illegal trade of specific species or primate meat can have negative impacts of wild populations of already imperiled species. Stronger policies and more effective enforcement in consumer countries, such as the EU, would also aid in, and garner support for, better protecting primates in primate range states.

Habitat restoration is the greatest challenge for population recovery of Hainan gibbons (Nomascus hainanus)

Hainan gibbons are among the world's most critically endangered primates, with a remaining population of only 35 individuals distributed across 5 social groups in the Bawangling Branch of the Hainan Tropical Rainforest National Park, China. Habitat conversion and forest fragmentation over the past 40 years have reduced their geographical distribution by 95%. In the absence of a quantitative assessment of the availability of remaining suitable habitat, it is unclear whether this species can survive to the end of this century. We used behavioral observations, ArcGIS, remote sensing, stereo optical imagery, and MaxEnt modeling to identify patterns of Hainan gibbon range use and compare changes in the distribution of suitable forest types and areas of forest fragmentation over the past 20 years (2000-2020). The results indicate that the combined range of the 5 extant Hainan gibbon groups totaled 14.89 km² . The home range of the smallest group (Group E, 3 individuals) was 1.51 km² , which likely represents the minimum home range size for this species. The remaining area of highly suitable and moderately suitable habitat totals 26.9 km² . However, habitat connectivity across the gibbon range is very low (less than 0.5), limiting the ability of Hainan gibbons to move between forest patches. The results of this study indicate that the availability of suitable habitat in Bawangling is insufficient to allow for future Hainan gibbon population growth. Therefore, immediate action must be taken to restore, reforest, and establish ecological corridors to reconnect areas of suitable habitat for these critically endangered gibbons.

Global importance of Indigenous Peoples, their lands, and knowledge systems for saving the world's primates from extinction

Primates, represented by 521 species, are distributed across 91 countries primarily in the Neotropic, Afrotropic, and Indo-Malayan realms. Primates inhabit a wide range of habitats and play critical roles in sustaining healthy ecosystems that benefit human and nonhuman communities. Approximately 68% of primate species are threatened with extinction because of global pressures to convert their habitats for agricultural production and the extraction of natural resources. Here, we review the scientific literature and conduct a spatial analysis to assess the significance of Indigenous Peoples' lands in safeguarding primate biodiversity. We found that Indigenous Peoples' lands account for 30% of the primate range, and 71% of primate species inhabit these lands. As their range on these lands increases, primate species are less likely to be classified as threatened or have declining populations. Safeguarding Indigenous Peoples' lands, languages, and cultures represents our greatest chance to prevent the extinction of the world's primates.

Best practices are never best: Evaluating primate conservation education programs (PCEPs) with a decolonial perspective

Who do we aim to educate with primate conservation education programs (PCEPs)? In a commentary published in a recent AJP, Annette Lanjouw suggested that many efforts to "educate" habitat-country communities can be neocolonial in their approaches. Forest destruction and habitat loss are a result of global consumption and expansion. We therefore need to approach conservation education from many angles including local stakeholders, policy makers, government officials, and the humans living in industrialized nations who are major consumers of the items that shrink primate habitats. In this review, we investigate PCEPs to determine if the conservation education goals, education methods, and assessment processes are proceeding within a neocolonial context. We reviewed the last 20 years of primate conservation literature and looked for publications that were focused on education programs. We found that in 50 of 52 publications published between 2001 and 2021, the education programs take place in habitat-country local communities. We also reviewed primate field researcher and field site websites, and in most cases, education programs were also focused on educating local communities living near or in nonhuman primate habitats. Exceptions were student clubs, zoo programs, and a high school outreach program. Many PCEP providers presented a list of "lessons learned" and we compiled their wisdom in combination with our experience to provide a framework for moving forward. We conclude that as conservation primatologists, we must think beyond our field sites to create opportunities for educational outreach. We can reach global consumers by linking to zoos, television/motion picture, print media, social media, and working with schools on curricula. Primatologists can engage our undergraduates to establish clubs and create meaningful assignments that reach beyond the classroom. We encourage primatologists from the Global North to consider their positionality and the history of conservation exclusion in their attempts to conserve primates.

Dietary Change and Global Sustainable Development Goals

Food production for human consumption is a leading cause of environmental damage in the world and yet over two billion people suffer from malnutrition. Several studies have presented evidence that changes in dietary patterns across the world can lead to win-win outcomes for environmental and social sustainability and can complement ongoing technological and policy efforts to improve the efficiency of agricultural production. However, the existing evidence have been compiled in “silos” by a large range of researchers across several disciplines using different indicators. The aim of this quantitative review is to bring together the existing knowledge on heterogeneity of current dietary patterns across the world and how a transition toward healthy diets in different countries can aid in progress toward multiple global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). We first summarize the nutritional quality, economic cost, and environmental footprint of current diets of over 150 countries using multiple indicators. Next, we review which shifts in dietary patterns across different world regions can help toward achievement of SDG2 (Zero hunger), SDG3 (Good health and wellbeing), SDG 6 (Clean water and sanitation), SDG13 (Climate action), SDG14 (Life below water), and SDG15 (Life on land). Finally, we briefly discuss how to enable the shift toward sustainable dietary patterns and identify the research and data gaps that need to be filled through future efforts. Our analysis reveals that dietary change is necessary in all countries as each one has unique priorities and action items. For regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, increased intake of nutrient dense foods is needed to address deficiency of essential nutrients like folate, potassium, and vitamin A. For North America and Europe, shifting toward more plant-based diets would be healthier and simultaneously reduce the per capita environmental footprints. The results can be useful for policymakers in designing country-specific strategies for adoption of sustainable dietary behaviors and for food industry to ensure the supply of sustainable food items customized with regions' need.

Principal Drivers and Conservation Solutions to the Impending Primate Extinction Crisis: Introduction to the Special Issue

Nonhuman primates are facing an impending extinction crisis with over 65% of species listed as Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered, and 93% characterized by declining populations. Primary drivers of primate population decline include deforestation, principally for industrial agriculture and the production of food and nonfood commodities, much of which is exported to wealthy consumer nations, unsustainable bushmeat hunting, the illegal pet trade, the capture of primates for body parts, expanding road and rail networks, mining, dam building, oil and gas exploration, and the threat of emerging diseases. Over the next several decades, human population increase, agricultural expansion, and climate change are expected to contribute significantly to the loss of additional suitable habitat and a reduction in the viability of local primate populations. If we are to avoid this impending extinction crisis, primate researchers must prioritize projects designed to mitigate the effects of habitat change on ecosystems health and biodiversity, and play a greater role in conservation and environmental policy by educating global citizens and political leaders. In addition, the international community will need to work with governments in primate habitat countries to expand the number of protected areas that contain primate species (94 primate species have < 10% of their range in protected areas). In this special issue of the International Journal of Primatology, we bring together researchers from a wide range of disciplines to examine the current and future threats to primate population persistence, and present local, country, and regional solutions to protect primate species.

Range-wide indicators of African great ape density distribution

Species distributions are influenced by processes occurring at multiple spatial scales. It is therefore insufficient to model species distribution at a single geographic scale, as this does not provide the necessary understanding of determining factors. Instead, multiple approaches are needed, each differing in spatial extent, grain, and research objective. Here, we present the first attempt to model continent-wide great ape density distribution. We used site-level estimates of African great ape abundance to (1) identify socioeconomic and environmental factors that drive densities at the continental scale, and (2) predict range-wide great ape density. We collated great ape abundance estimates from 156 sites and defined 134 pseudo-absence sites to represent additional absence locations. The latter were based on locations of unsuitable environmental conditions for great apes, and on existing literature. We compiled seven socioeconomic and environmental covariate layers and fitted a generalized linear model to investigate their influence on great ape abundance. We used an Akaike-weighted average of full and subset models to predict the range-wide density distribution of African great apes for the year 2015. Great ape densities were lowest where there were high Human Footprint and Gross Domestic Product values; the highest predicted densities were in Central Africa, and the lowest in West Africa. Only 10.7% of the total predicted population was found in the International Union for Conservation of Nature Category I and II protected areas. For 16 out of 20 countries, our estimated abundances were largely in line with those from previous studies. For four countries, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia, and South Sudan, the estimated populations were excessively high. We propose further improvements to the model to overcome survey and predictor data limitations, which would enable a temporally dynamic approach for monitoring great apes across their range based on key indicators.

Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) adapt their nesting behavior after large-scale forest clearance and community decline

Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) build nests at night for sleeping and occasionally during daytime for resting. Over the course of seven years, forest fragments in Bulindi, Uganda, were reduced in size by about 80% when landowners converted forest to agricultural land. However, unlike other studies on nesting behavior in response to habitat disturbance, chimpanzees at Bulindi had no opportunity to retreat into nearby undisturbed forest. To understand behavioral adaptations to forest clearance, we compared Bulindi chimpanzees' nesting characteristics before and after this period of major deforestation. After deforestation, chimpanzees built nests at lower heights in shorter trees, and reused a larger proportion of their nests. Additionally, average nest group size increased after deforestation, even though community size declined by approximately 20% over the same period. The substantial decrease in available forest habitat may have caused the chimpanzees to aggregate for nesting. However, more cohesive nesting may also have been influenced by dietary shifts (increased reliance on agricultural crops) and a need for enhanced safety with increased human encroachment. Conversely, the chimpanzees selected similar tree species for nesting after deforestation, apparently reflecting a strong preference for particular species, nested less often in exotic species, and built integrated nests (constructed using multiple trees) at a similar frequency as before fragment clearance. Chimpanzees living in unprotected habitat in Uganda, as at Bulindi, face mounting anthropogenic pressures that threaten their survival. Nevertheless, our study shows that chimpanzees can adjust their nesting behavior flexibly in response to rapid, extensive habitat change. While behavioral flexibility may enable them to cope with deforestation, at least to a certain point, the long-term survival of chimpanzees in fast-changing human-modified landscapes requires intensive conservation efforts.

Investment in science can mitigate the negative impacts of land use on declining primate populations

Changes in land use and the conversion of natural forests to agricultural fields and cattle pastures are threatening the survival of many species of wild animals, including nonhuman primates. Given its almost 1.4 billion people, China faces a difficult challenge in balancing economic development, human well-being, environmental protection, and animal conservation. We examined the effects of poverty, anthropogenic land use (cropland and pasture/grazing), human population growth, government investment in science and public attention to primates during the period from the 1980s to 2015 on primate population persistence in China. We analyzed these data using generalized mixed-effects models, structural equation models (SEM) and random forests (a machine learning technique). We found that 16 of 21 (76%) primate species in China, for which data are available, have experienced a population decline over the past 35 years. Factors contributing most to primate population decline included human poverty and the conversion of natural habitat to cropland. In contrast, the five species of primates that were characterized by recent population increases were the subjects of substantial government research funding and their remaining distribution occurs principally in protected areas (PAs). We argue that increased funding for research, the establishment and expansion of PAs, a national policy focused on reducing poverty, and educational programs designed to inform and encourage local people to participate in scientific investigation and wildlife protection, can mitigate the negative impacts of historical patterns of land conversion on primate population survival in China.

Mitochondrial DNA control region sequencing of the critically endangered Hainan gibbon (Nomascus hainanus) reveals two female origins and extremely low genetic diversity

The Hainan gibbon (Nomascus hainanus) is endemic to China and is the world's rarest ape. The remaining wild population totals only 33 individuals. In the current study, we sequenced the Mitochondrial DNA control region of 12 wild Hainan gibbons representing three social groups of the five remaining groups. By conducting population genetic analyses, we found that the proportion of four nucleotides (T, C, A and G) were 29.0%, 27.2%, 31.9% and 11.9%, respectively. Hypervariable segments of the mtDNA D-loop region (1005 bp in length), indicated five variable sites (a point mutation), with only two haplotypes present among the 12 samples. We observed that the genetic diversity of Hainan gibbons is lower than that reported in any other wild primate population, and that the two haplotypes detected, represent two ancestral lineages. These findings have important implications for proposing effective conservation strategies to protect this Critically Endangered ape species.

Advocacy and Activism as Essential Tools in Primate Conservation

Primates are facing a global extinction crisis driven by an expanding human population, environmental degradation, the conversion of tropical forests into monocultures for industrial agriculture and cattle ranching, unsustainable resource extraction, hunting, climate change, and the threat of emerging zoonotic diseases. And, although many primate scientists have dedicated their careers to conservation, 65% of primate species are listed as Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered, and >75% are experiencing a population decline. Projections indicate that by the end of the century, an additional 75% of the area currently occupied by wild primates will be lost to agriculture. Clearly, we are losing the battle and must change business-as-usual if we are to protect wild primates and their habitats. This article is a call to action. Primate societies and their membership need to expand their engagement in scientific advocacy and scientific activism designed to educate, inspire, organize, and mobilize global citizens to join together, lobby business leaders and politicians in both primate habitat countries and in consumer nations, boycott forest-risk products, participate in demonstrations and letter writing campaigns, and use social media to effect transformational change. We are the experts, and the more we and our professional organizations drive the public policy debate on wildlife conservation and environmental justice, the more successful we will be in protecting the world's primates from extinction. The time to act is now!

Human Activity and Forest Degradation Threaten Populations of the Nigeria–Cameroon Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes ellioti) in Western Cameroon

Increased human activities such as commodity-led deforestation, extension of agriculture, urbanization, and wildfires are major drivers of forest loss worldwide. In Cameroon, these activities cause a loss of suitable primate habitat and could ultimately threaten the survival of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). We derived independent estimates of the population size of the Endangered Nigeria–Cameroon chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes ellioti) in Kom-Wum Forest Reserve, Cameroon, and surrounding unprotected forest areas through 1) direct observations, 2) camera trapping, 3) distance sampling, 4) marked nest counts, and 5) standing crop nest counts. In addition, we georeferenced signs of chimpanzee and human activity along line transects. We used a generalized linear mixed model to predict the occurrence of chimpanzees in response to edge length (measured as the perimeter of core forest patches), core area of forest patches (measured as area of forest patches beyond an edge width of 100 m), habitat perforation (measured as the perimeter of nonforested landscape within core forest patches), patch size(measured as area of forest patches), and forest cover. Chimpanzee density estimates ranged from 0.1 (direct observation) to 0.9 (distance sampling) individuals km−2 depending on estimation method with a mean nest group size of 7 ± 5.4 (SD). The mean encounter rate for signs of chimpanzee activity was significantly higher in mature forests (2.3 signs km−1) than in secondary forests (0.3 signs km−1) and above 1000 m elevation (4.0 signs km−1) than below 1000 m (1.0 signs km−1). The mean encounter rate for signs of human activity was significantly higher in secondary (8.0 signs km−1) than in mature forests (0.9 signs km−1). Secondary forests, habitat perforation, and edge length had a significant negative effect on the occurrence of chimpanzee signs. Overall, human activity and forest degradation affected the number of observed chimpanzee signs negatively. Regular antipoaching patrols and reforestation programs in degraded areas could potentially reduce threats to populations of endangered species and may increase suitable habitat area.

Current and future trends in socio-economic, demographic and governance factors affecting global primate conservation

Currently, ~65% of extant primate species (ca 512 species) distributed in 91 countries in the Neotropics, mainland Africa, Madagascar, South Asia and Southeast Asia are threatened with extinction and 75% have declining populations as a result of deforestation and habitat loss resulting from increasing global market demands, and land conversion for industrial agriculture, cattle production and natural resource extraction. Other pressures that negatively impact primates are unsustainable bushmeat hunting, the illegal trade of primates as pets and as body parts, expanding road networks in previously isolated areas, zoonotic disease transmission and climate change. Here we examine current and future trends in several socio-economic factors directly or indirectly affecting primates to further our understanding of the interdependent relationship between human well-being, sustainable development, and primate population persistence. We found that between 2001 and 2018 ca 191 Mha of tropical forest (30% canopy cover) were lost as a result of human activities in the five primate range regions. Forty-six percent of this loss was in the Neotropics (Mexico, Central and South America), 30% in Southeast Asia, 21% in mainland Africa, 2% in Madagascar and 1% in South Asia. Countries with the greatest losses (ca 57% of total tree cover loss) were Brazil, Indonesia, DRC, China, and Malaysia. Together these countries harbor almost 50% of all extant primate species. In 2018, the world human population was estimated at ca 8bn people, ca 60% of which were found in primate range countries. Projections to 2050 and to 2100 indicate continued rapid growth of the human populations in these five primate range regions, with Africa surpassing all the other regions and totaling ca 4bn people by the year 2100. Socioeconomic indicators show that, compared to developed nations, most primate range countries are characterized by high levels of poverty and income inequality, low human development, low food security, high levels of corruption and weak governance. Models of Shared Socioeconomic Pathway scenarios (SSPs) projected to 2050 and 2100 showed that whereas practices of increasing inequality (SSP4) or unconstrained growth in economic output and energy use (SSP5) are projected to have dire consequences for human well-being and primate survivorship, practices of sustainability-focused growth and equality (SSP1) are expected to have a positive effect on maintaining biodiversity, protecting environments, and improving the human condition. These results stress that improving the well-being, health, and security of the current and future human populations in primate range countries are of paramount importance if we are to move forward with effective policies to protect the world's primate species and promote biodiversity conservation.

Distribution and conservation status of Boutourlini's blue monkey (Cercopithecus mitis boutourlinii), a Vulnerable subspecies endemic to western Ethiopia

Reliable data on the distribution and threats facing primate species are crucial to identifying priority sites for conservation and designing effective management plans. Boutourlini's blue monkey (Cercopithecus mitis boutourlinii) is a little-known arboreal primate endemic to the forests of western Ethiopia. This subspecies is categorized as Vulnerable on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List and the distribution of extant populations is largely unknown. To increase our knowledge of the spatial distribution and conservation status of Boutourlini's blue monkey, we carried out intensive reconnaissance surveys from January 2010 to May 2011 across approximately 40% of its potential range and conducted interviews with local people at each of the survey locations. We carried out geospatial analyses and mapped the distribution of Boutourlini's blue monkey localities with respect to elevation, protected area status, and changes in forest cover over time using ArcGIS 10.4.0. Through our surveys, we discovered 30 previously unknown Boutourlini's blue monkey populations in three administrative regions of western Ethiopia (Amhara, Oromia, and Southern Nations, Nationalities and People's Regions). A total of 34 different groups were sighted and counted at the survey sites, averaging 14.7 members (range 8-23) per group. There are now 32 Boutourlini's blue monkey populations of recently confirmed occurrence at altitudes ranging from 1039 to 2780 m asl, seven in forests of greater than 50 km². Crop feeding by Boutourlini's blue monkeys was reported by people at seven sites and confirmed through direct observation at three of these sites. None of the known extant populations of Boutourlini's blue monkeys occur within a strictly protected area (e.g., national park) where exploitative human activities are outlawed. A complete reassessment of the distribution and conservation status of Boutourlini's blue monkey will require further surveys across the remaining approximately 60% of its potential range.

Distinguished primatologist address-moving from advocacy to activism: Changing views of primate field research and conservation over the past 40 years

Field studies of wild nonhuman primates have grown exponentially over the past 40 years and our knowledge of primate behavior, ecology, and social, and mating systems has expanded greatly. However, we are facing a major extinction crisis with some 60% of all primate species listed as threatened and more than 75% of species with declining populations. The primary factor driving primate population decline is human population increase, which over the past 50 years has resulted in the unsustainable conversion and degradation of natural landscapes for industrial agriculture, the production of nonagricultural commodities for international trade, pastureland for cattle, dam construction, fossil fuel exploration, mining, and the construction of road networks and infrastructure to support large urban centers. Recent ecological modeling predicts that by the end of the century, the four primate-richest countries in the world will lose 32-78% of their existing primate habitat to agricultural expansion, and nine of the top 15 primate-richest countries are expected to have 80-100% of their primate species extinct or threatened with extinction. If we are going to save the world's primates, the time to act is now! Not only should all primate field research include a strong conservation component, but in addition we must actively join with our professional societies, zoos and research facilities, universities, conservation organizations, concerned business leaders, global citizens, like-minded political leaders, and grassroots organizations to inform, demand and direct governments, multinational corporations, and international organizations to engage in transformational change to protect biodiversity and seek environmental justice against those entities that actively destroy our planet. As the chief academic discipline dedicated to the study of primates, we must organize and collectively move from being advocates for primate conservation to becoming activists for primate conservation. This is a call to action.