Results of a randomized controlled trial of the cannabis eCHECKUP TO GO personalized normative feedback intervention on reducing cannabis use, cannabis consequences, and descriptive norms

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of cannabis use disorder and its negative consequences among young adults has highlighted the need for prevention and early intervention programs. However, low treatment prevalence persists due to factors such as lack of perceived need, concerns about stigma, and limited access to treatment. To address these barriers, web-based cannabis interventions have been developed, but their efficacy remain limited. This study aims to evaluate the cross-site efficacy of the Cannabis eCHECKUP TO GO program, a web-based Personalized Normative Feedback and Protective Behavioral Strategies intervention for reducing cannabis use frequency and consequences in college students with willingness to change.

METHODS

Participants were 781 students from three universities (two in Canada, one in the US) who reported using cannabis in the past month and expressed interest in reducing or engaging in safer cannabis use. The study randomly assigned them to either an experimental group that received personalized normative feedback or a control group that received information on healthy stress management. The study collected follow-up data 4 weeks after the initial intervention and measured participants' frequency of cannabis use, number of cannabis consequences, descriptive and injunctive norms at both time points.

RESULTS

The results showed no significant reductions in cannabis use or negative consequences of use. However, students who received personalized normative feedback experienced a significant reduction in descriptive norms related to cannabis use, to be more in line with actual use.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that more targeted interventions may be necessary for university students who are already using and seeking help to reduce their use.

Trajectories of oppositional defiant disorder severity from adolescence to young adulthood and substance use, mental health, and behavioral problems

Background

Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) is a disruptive behavioral disorder; however, increasing evidence emphasizes irritable mood as a primary symptom of ODD.

Objectives

This study investigated whether heterogeneous groups (classes) of individuals can be differentiated based on ODD sub-dimensions (irritability and defiance) or on overall ODD symptoms longitudinally. We also examine associations between ODD trajectory class and comorbid substance use (heavy episodic drinking, cannabis use), mental health (depression and anxiety) and behavioral symptoms (ADHD, aggression and substance use) in both adolescence and young adulthood (controlling for adolescent levels of each of these concerns).

Method

Data were from a randomly recruited community sample of 662 Canadian youth (T1 ages 12-18) followed biennially for 10 years (T6 ages 22-29).

Results

Growth mixture models revealed trajectories classes of ODD based on severity of symptoms. A three-class solution provided the best fit with Low (n = 119; 18%), Moderate (n = 473; 71.5%), and High (n = 70; 10.6%) ODD classes. Class trajectory differences were similarity based on symptoms severity (rather than type) for symptom sub-dimensions (irritability defiance). Adolescent and young adult substance use, mental health symptoms, and behavioral problems were significantly higher for the High ODD trajectory class compared to both other classes. Youth in the Moderate ODD trajectory class also showed higher comorbid symptoms in adolescence and young adulthood, compared to the Low ODD trajectory class.

Conclusion

Early identification of children and adolescents with high or moderate ODD symptoms and interventions that simultaneously address defiance and irritability are supported by the findings.

Transparent, Open, and Reproducible Prevention Science

The field of prevention science aims to understand societal problems, identify effective interventions, and translate scientific evidence into policy and practice. There is growing interest among prevention scientists in the potential for transparency, openness, and reproducibility to facilitate this mission by providing opportunities to align scientific practice with scientific ideals, accelerate scientific discovery, and broaden access to scientific knowledge. The overarching goal of this manuscript is to serve as a primer introducing and providing an overview of open science for prevention researchers. In this paper, we discuss factors motivating interest in transparency and reproducibility, research practices associated with open science, and stakeholders engaged in and impacted by open science reform efforts. In addition, we discuss how and why different types of prevention research could incorporate open science practices, as well as ways that prevention science tools and methods could be leveraged to advance the wider open science movement. To promote further discussion, we conclude with potential reservations and challenges for the field of prevention science to address as it transitions to greater transparency, openness, and reproducibility. Throughout, we identify activities that aim to strengthen the reliability and efficiency of prevention science, facilitate access to its products and outputs, and promote collaborative and inclusive participation in research activities. By embracing principles of transparency, openness, and reproducibility, prevention science can better achieve its mission to advance evidence-based solutions to promote individual and collective well-being.

The Protective Role of Grit against Alcohol and Cannabis Use through Young Adulthood

Introduction: Problematic substance use in young adulthood is consistently related to negative outcomes later in life. Understanding the factors that protect against problematic substance provides opportunities for early preventive intervention. We examine the protective role of grit - passion and perseverance for long-term goals - on substance use through young adulthood, a period of heightening risks for substance use. Methods: In this research, we use cross-lagged panel models and data from the Victoria Healthy Youth Survey (N = 477, 52% female) to test the reciprocal within-time associations and the directional relationships between grit (passion and perseverance) and substance use (cannabis and alcohol) across three assessments (6 years, ages 18-29). All models controlled for sex and SES. Results: Significant findings show negative within-time associations between passions and perseverance and cannabis use at T1 (ages 18-24) and at T2 (ages 20-26), and significant, negative within-time associations between passion and perseverance and alcohol use (heavy episodic drinking) at T1 but not at T2. No significant across-time associations between passion and perseverance and substance use were found. Conclusion: Preventive interventions to enhance passion and perseverance may provide important targets for interventions for young adults to reduce current substance use. However, grit did not have an effect beyond the stability of cannabis use or alcohol use over time, suggesting effects may act by substituting proactive goals for current substance use.

Predictors of Early-Onset Cannabis Use in Adolescence and Risks for Substance Use Disorder Symptoms in Young Adulthood

Early detection of risks for substance use disorders is essential to lifelong health and well-being for some youth. Very early-onset use is proposed as an indicator of risk for substance use disorders, but risk and protective factors related to early-onset use have not been identified. The current study compared risk and protective factors that distinguish early- and late-onset cannabis users from abstainers using data collected from a large community sample. The study also examined onset-group differences in participants’ reports of substance use disorder symptoms a decade later. Heavy episodic drinking (early-onset: OR = 7.29 CI = [1.60, 33.19]) and engagement with peers involved in deviant behaviors (early-onset: OR = 2.50 CI = [1.50, 4.13]) are risk factors for early-onset cannabis use. Protective factors, including parent monitoring (early-onset: OR = 0.73 CI = [0.58, 0.93]), engagement with peers involved in positive behaviors (early-onset: OR = 0.54 CI = [0.39, 0.76]), school engagement (early-onset: OR = 0.83 CI = [0.72, 0.96]), and academic grades (early-onset: OR = 0.37 CI = [0.21, 0.65]) also predicted early versus later onset-group differences. Early age of onset may be distinctly related to risk and protective factors previously associated with risks for substance use in all adolescents.

Disruption of Transitions in High-Risk Substance Use from Adolescence to Young Adulthood: School, Employment, and Romantic Relationship Factors

Background: Few studies have examined social-contextual moderators of substance use transitions from adolescence to young adulthood. A better understanding of the extent to which school, employment, and romantic relationships can disrupt high-risk use patterns could inform strategies for substance use prevention and treatment.Objective: The current study examines the extent school, employment, and relationship factors can disrupt transition in high-risk substance use patterns from adolescence to young adulthood.Method: Data were collected biennially from 662 youth in six assessments across ten years (2003-2013). Using latent transition analysis (LTA) that examined transition is substance use classes, we examined school, employment, and relationship moderators of use transitions.Results: Few differences were found during adolescence with the most significant findings occurring in the transition from adolescence to young adulthood. Examining the transitions from adolescence to young adulthood (W4 to W6), we found evidence that school, employment, and relationship status disrupted problematic substance use patterns, such that, individuals that indicated entering school, working full-time, or getting married or entering a relationship were more likely to transition to a low-risk substance use class than remain in the high-risk class.Conclusions/Importance: Findings underscore the importance of school completion, obtaining stable career employment, and quality relationship to help reduce high-risk substance use patterns leading into young adulthood. Prevention and intervention efforts should consider the diverse needs of youth and be prepared to provide a wide range of services that include educational opportunities and career development if they want to reduce high-risk substance use patterns.

Ethical Challenges in Promoting the Implementation of Preventive Interventions: Report of the SPR Task Force

Prevention science researchers and practitioners are increasingly engaged in a wide range of activities and roles to promote evidence-based prevention practices in the community. Ethical concerns invariably arise in these activities and roles that may not be explicitly addressed by university or professional guidelines for ethical conduct. In 2015, the Society for Prevention Research (SPR) Board of Directors commissioned Irwin Sandler and Tom Dishion to organize a series of roundtables and establish a task force to identify salient ethical issues encountered by prevention scientists and community-based practitioners as they collaborate to implement evidence-based prevention practices. This article documents the process and findings of the SPR Ethics Task Force and aims to inform continued efforts to articulate ethical practice. Specifically, the SPR membership and task force identified prevention activities that commonly stemmed from implementation and scale-up efforts. This article presents examples that illustrate typical ethical dilemmas. We present principles and concepts that can be used to frame the discussion of ethical concerns that may be encountered in implementation and scale-up efforts. We summarize value statements that stemmed from our discussion. We also conclude that the field of prevention science in general would benefit from standards and guidelines to promote ethical behavior and social justice in the process of implementing evidence-based prevention practices in community settings. It is our hope that this article serves as an educational resource for students, investigators, and Human Subjects Review Board members regarding some of the complexity of issues of fairness, equality, diversity, and personal rights for implementation of preventive interventions.

Age-varying effects of cannabis use frequency and disorder on symptoms of psychosis, depression and anxiety in adolescents and adults

AIMS

We tested the age-varying associations of cannabis use (CU) frequency and disorder (CUD) with psychotic, depressive and anxiety symptoms in adolescent and adult samples. Moderating effects of early onset (≤ 15 years) and sex were tested.

DESIGN

Time-varying effect models were used to assess the significance of concurrent associations between CU and CUD and symptoms of psychosis, depression and anxiety at each age.

SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

Adolescent data (V-HYS; n = 662) were collected from a randomly recruited sample of adolescents in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada during a 10-year period (2003-13). Adult cross-sectional data (NESARC-III; n = 36 309) were collected from a representative sample from the United States (2012-13).

MEASUREMENTS

Mental health symptoms were assessed using self-report measures of diagnostic symptoms. CU was based on frequency of past-year use. Past-year CUD was based on DSM-5 criteria.

FINDINGS

For youth in the V-HYS, CU was associated with psychotic symptoms following age 22 [b = 0.13, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.002, 0.25], with depressive symptoms from ages 16-19 and following age 25 (b = 0.17, 95% CI = 0.003, 0.34), but not with anxiety symptoms. CUD was associated with psychotic symptoms following age 23 (b = 0.51, 95% CI = 0.01, 1.01), depressive symptoms at ages 19-20 and following age 25 (b = 0.71, 95% CI = 0.001, 1.42) and anxiety symptoms ages 26-27 only. For adults in the NESARC-III, CU was associated with mental health symptoms at most ages [e.g. psychotic symptoms; age 18 (b = 0.22, 95% CI = 0.10, 0.33) to age 65 (b = 0.36, 95% CI = 0.16, 0.56)]. CUD was associated with all mental health symptoms across most ages [e.g. depressive symptoms; age 18 (b = 0.96, 95% CI = 0.19, 1.73) to age 61 (b = 1.11, 95% CI = 0.01, 2.21)]. Interactions with sex show stronger associations for females than males in young adulthood [e.g.

V-HYS

CUD × sex interaction on psychotic symptoms significant after age 26 (b = 1.12, 95% CI = 0.02, 2.21)]. Findings were not moderated by early-onset CU.

CONCLUSIONS

Significant associations between cannabis use (CU) frequency and disorder (CUD) and psychotic and depressive symptoms in late adolescence and young adulthood extend across adulthood, and include anxiety.

Patterns of marijuana use and physical health indicators among Canadian youth

We examine how trajectories of marijuana use in Canadian youth (ages 15 to 28) are related to physical health indicators in adolescence and young adulthood. Youth were initially recruited in 2003 (N = 662; 48% male; ages 12 to 18) and followed for six waves. Five trajectories of marijuana use (Abstainers-29%, Occasional users-27%, Decreasers-14%, Increasers-20% and Chronic users-11%) were identified. Chronic users reported more physical symptoms, poorer physical self-concept, less physical activity, poorer eating practices, less sleep, and higher number of sexual partners during adolescence than other classes. Decreasers also reported poorer physical self-concept and poorer eating practices than abstainers. Other trajectory classes showed few significant health problems. Chronic users also reported more acute health problems (i.e. serious injuries, early sexual debut, higher number of sexual partners, greater likelihood of having a STI) in young adulthood than all other classes contributing to costs of healthcare. Youth who engage in early, frequent and continued use of marijuana from adolescence to young adulthood are at-risk of physical health problems in adolescence and young adulthood.

Depressive symptom trajectories and physical health: Persistence of problems from adolescence to young adulthood

BACKGROUND

We examine how depressive symptom trajectories are related to adolescent and young adult subjective health, health-promoting, health-risk, and sexual risk behaviors, as well as cardiometabolic risks.

METHOD

Data came from a community-based sample of youth (N = 662; 52% female) followed biannually, six times across 10 years. Latent class growth analysis identified four depressive symptom trajectories which were compared on adolescent (T1; ages 12-18) and young adult (T6; ages 22-29) health indicators.

RESULTS

The Low stable trajectory (49%) showed the fewest health risks. The Persistent high trajectory (9%) reported higher physical symptoms, lower physical self-concept, less physical activity and sleep, and higher rates of smoking and sexual risk behaviors than the Low stable trajectory and risks for physical symptoms, physical self-concept, and physical activity worsened in young adulthood. Increasers (21%) showed risks for physical symptoms, physical activity, and sleep in adolescence and problems for physical symptoms and physical self-concept persisted in young adulthood. Decreasers (22%) showed risks for physical symptoms, physical self-concept, physical activity, and sleep in adolescence but these risks resolved into young adulthood.

LIMITATIONS

Findings may not generalize to ethnic minorities. Sex differences were not examined due to sample size limitations and most variables, except cardiometabolic risks, were self-reported.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest early treatment of depressive symptoms that includes strategies addressing physical symptoms, physical self-concept, and physical activity may prove beneficial. Screening youth for physical symptoms and declines in health-promoting behaviors may also identify youth at risk of depression onset and progression.

Transitions in the use of multiple substances from adolescence to young adulthood

BACKGROUND

Research indicates that many adolescents frequently use multiple substances. This study examines stability and transitions in the use and co-use of multiple substances (cigarette, alcohol, marijuana, illicit drugs) from adolescence to young adulthood.

METHODS

Data were collected biennially from 662 youth in six assessments across ten years (2003-2013). We used latent class analysis (LCA) to classify youth by substances used at each wave and used latent transition analysis (LTA) to examine transition probabilities across waves.

RESULTS

At each wave, a three-class model best fit the data. Classes included a poly-use class, that had the highest probabilities of use among all substances, a co-use class, that had high probabilities of use of alcohol and marijuana, and an alcohol-dominate class that started with low probabilities of use among all substances but showed increasing probabilities of alcohol use, at later ages. LTA showed that the probability of remaining in the poly-use class was the most stable from one wave to the next, followed by the alcohol-dominate class, and the co-use class. The most transitions occurred for the co-use class, with more individuals transitioning to the poly-use class than to the alcohol-dominate class.

CONCLUSIONS

Strong stability among adolescent substance use classes was found between waves. Transitions were typically to classes using more substances, although, transitions to use fewer substances was evident for some individuals. Distinguishing stable and transitioning classes of substance use and co-use provides opportunities for prevention and intervention to disrupt high-risk use classes.

Health behavior changes in adolescence and young adulthood: Implications for cardiometabolic risk

OBJECTIVE

Adolescence and young adulthood produce developmentally salient and contextual challenges for health behavior choices. The present study examines how changes in physical activity, nutrition, and sleep duration before and after high school graduation influence cardiometabolic risk (CMR) in adulthood (at ages 22-29).

METHOD

Youth (N = 662; Time 1 ages 12-18; 48% male) were followed biannually across 10 years. Piecewise latent growth curve modeling was used to assess how changes in physical activity, nutrition, and sleep duration before and after high school influence CMR in young adulthood, accounting for baseline levels of each health behavior. Sex differences in associations were examined.

RESULTS

Higher initial (baseline) levels of physical activity and nutrition predicted lower CMR. Increases in physical activity and nutrition before and after high school also contributed to lower CMR. When examined simultaneously, initial levels of physical activity and sleep duration (for female participants only) and increases in nutrition had independent effects on CMR.

CONCLUSIONS

Prevention approaches that take into account the salient developmental and contextual differences in adolescence and young adulthood may improve efforts to prevent CMR. (PsycINFO Database Record

The Longitudinal Effects of Oppositional Defiant Disorder Symptoms on Academic and Occupational Functioning in the Transition to Young Adulthood

The young adult years are particularly important for accruing the education and work experience needed for long-term economic stability. We examine the effects of symptoms of ODD at baseline (i.e., T1 ages 12 to 18 years; N = 662; 48 % male) and of increases in these symptoms on academic and occupational functioning in young adulthood (i.e., T6 ages 22 to 29 years; N = 478; 45 % male) using multiple measures; including achievement levels (i.e., educational attainment, occupational prestige, and income) and financial and work stress (i.e., debt, financial strain, and perceived workplace stress). Our findings show that both adolescent levels of and increases in symptoms of ODD influence academic and occupational functioning in young adulthood. We discuss the implications of ODD symptoms for accruing economic capital in young adulthood, as well as approaches to detecting and intervening that are needed to halt the potentially cascading effects of ODD symptoms.

Frequent marijuana use and driving risk behaviours in Canadian youth

Background

A better understanding of the relations between patterns of marijuana use and driving risks in young adulthood is needed.

Methods

Secondary analyses of self-report data from the Victoria Healthy Youth Survey. Youth (baseline ages 12 to 18; N=662; 52% females) were interviewed biannually (on six occasions) from 2003 to 2013 and classified as abstainers (i.e., used no marijuana in past 12 months), occasional users (i.e., used at most once per week), and frequent users (i.e., used more than once a week).

Results

In the frequent user group, 80% of males and 75% of females reported 'being in a car driven by driver (including themselves) using marijuana or other drugs in the last 30 days', 64% of males and 33% of females reported that they were 'intoxicated' with marijuana while operating a vehicle and 50% of males and 42% of females reported being in a car driven by a driver using alcohol. In addition, 28% of occasional users and also a small proportion of abstainers reported 'being in a car driven by a driver using marijuana or other drugs in the last 30 days'.

Interpretation

The high frequency of driving risk behaviours, particularly for frequent users, suggest that plans for legalization of recreational use should anticipate the costs of preventive education efforts that present an accurate picture of potential risks for driving. Youth also need to understand risks for dependence, and screening for and treatment of marijuana use disorders is needed.

Enhancing Social Responsibility and Prosocial Leadership to Prevent Aggression, Peer Victimization, and Emotional Problems in Elementary School Children

Testing the theories that form the basis of prevention programs can enhance our understanding of behavioral change and inform the development, coordination, and adaptation of prevention programs. However, theories of change showing the linkages from intervention program components to risk or protective factors to desired outcomes across time are rarely specified or tested. In this 2-year longitudinal study, we test the theory that increases in two protective factors (i.e., children's prosocial leadership and their teachers' expectations of social responsibility) targeted by the WITS Programs (Walk Away, Ignore, Talk it Out, and Seek Help) would be associated with declines in peer victimization, aggression, and emotional problems. Participants included Canadian students, in grades 1-4 at baseline (n = 1329) and their parents and teachers. Consistent with our theory of change, variability in program implementation (adherence and integration) and in children's use of program skills (child responsiveness) are related to increases in both protective factors. Increases in these protective factors are associated with subsequent declines in children's aggression, victimization, and emotional problems. We discuss how enhancement of these protective factors may operate to improve child outcomes and the need for theory-based research to refine and improve the effectiveness of intervention strategies and to improve program scale-up.

Trends in adolescent research for the new millennium

This article highlights several promising trends in research on adolescence and discusses the likely future course of several recent developments in adolescent research. Current trends include a focus on the transition to young adulthood, the increasing examination of the context and co-occurrence of adolescent problems, and emphasis on the resilience of adolescents in high-risk circumstances. There is a strong need for more research on the cognitive and neurocognitive gains and changes of adolescence and on positive psychosocial behaviours and outcomes for youth. We are just beginning to understand within-group differences in adolescent development, including the life experiences of minority youth, adolescents with disabilities, and homosexual adolescents. The impact of social context and social change on adolescents is also receiving more attention. Methodological approaches likely to be seen more in the future include the use of pattern-centred analyses to complement traditional variable-centred approaches and a greater appreciation for qualitative data analysis as a route to gaining insights into adolescent development. Finally, university-community partnerships are promoted as a way to solve the problems of youth and improve the probability of their healthy futures.

Gender differences in and risk factors for depression in adolescence: A 4-year longitudinal study

The current study used longitudinal data (N 1/4 1322; 648 males, 674 females) from adolescents ages 12 to 19 years (in 1994) to investigate gender differences in and risk factors for depressive symptoms and major depressive episodes (MDEs). The sample had participated in three waves of Canada’s National Population Health Survey (1994, 1996, and 1998). Results showed that although there was not a statistically significant increase in depressive symptoms in early adolescence, there was a robust gender difference in the levels of depressive symptoms and the prevalence of MDE, with girls more affected than boys. Over time, decreases in social support and increases in smoking were both linked to increases in depressive symptoms. Moreover, youth who smoked and who were free from major depression in 1994 were 1.4 times more likely to report a MDE in 1996 or 1998. To be effective, prevention and treatment programmes for depression may also need to address risks such as poor social support and smoking, as these risk factors may serve to maintain depressive symptoms over time.

The Longitudinal Effects of Peer Victimization on Physical Health From Adolescence to Young Adulthood

PURPOSE

Extensive research with children and adolescents documents the deleterious mental health outcomes associated with peer victimization, and recent research suggests that peer victimization is also associated with physical health problems in these age groups. The present study examines the concurrent and prospective links between physical and relational victimization and physical health problems (physical symptoms and physical self-concept) from adolescence to young adulthood (age 12-29 years).

METHODS

Data were collected from the Victoria Healthy Youth Survey, a six-wave multicohort study conducted biennially between 2003 and 2014 (N = 662).

RESULTS

As expected, both relational and physical victimization were associated with greater physical symptoms and poorer physical self-concept concurrently and with physical self-concept over time. Relational victimization, which occurred more frequently, also predicted physical symptoms across young adulthood.

CONCLUSIONS

Peer victimization puts adolescents at risk for immediate and long-term physical health difficulties. This study highlights the unique effects of physical and relational victimization and shows that victimized youth continue to experience poorer physical health for years after high school.

Reciprocal Effects of Internalizing and Oppositional Defiance Symptoms on Heavy Drinking and Alcohol-Related Harms in Young Adulthood

There is a need for longitudinal research to understand how psychopathology relates to the onset and maintenance of substance use from adolescence into young adulthood. Hence, we investigate the longitudinal, reciprocal influences of internalizing (anxiety and depression) and externalizing (oppositional defiance) symptoms on heavy episodic drinking (HED; ≥5 drinks per occasion) and alcohol-related harms in a community-based sample of youth aged 12–27 years. Participants were chosen from the Victoria Healthy Youth Survey, followed six times, biennially between 2003 and 2013 (N = 662). Analyses used cross-lagged panel models to examine reciprocal relations over time. Differences across age and sex were also tested. Defiance symptoms predicted increases in HED, which reciprocally predicted increases in defiance symptoms for females. Internalizing symptoms were related to HED within time for females. Alcohol-related harms had reciprocal positive associations with internalizing and defiance symptoms for both males and females. Associations were largely invariant across age groups, suggesting that the presence and strength of associations persisted across development. While psychopathology preceded the onset of HED and harms, the overall findings suggest that these risk processes are mutually reinforcing across development and that youth may become entrenched in an interdependent cycle that significantly increases their risk of comorbid disorders in adulthood.

Planning for Sustainability of an Evidence-Based Mental Health Promotion Program in Canadian Elementary Schools

Substantial research illuminates many factors effecting the implementation of evidence-based mental health promotion programs in schools; however, research on how schools plan for sustaining their investments in these programs is limited. In this qualitative study, we elicited descriptions of opportunities and challenges for sustainability. We interviewed 24 individuals from schools involved in a longitudinal, qualitative research project that followed uptake and implementation of the evidence-based WITS Programs across 2 years (Leadbeater et al. 2012). WITS stands for Walk away, Ignore, Talk it out and Seek help and the online WITS Programs focus on preventing peer victimization ( www.witsprograms.ca ). Our findings suggest that sustainability planning in schools is not merely a next step following high quality implementation, but rather involves multiple ongoing processes that need to be anticipated and supported by school leadership and program champions and developers in order to realize investments in evidence-based programs.

The Nature and Frequency of Cyber Bullying Behaviors and Victimization Experiences in Young Canadian Children

As access to technology is increasing in children and adolescents, there are growing concerns over the dangers of cyber bullying. It remains unclear what cyber bullying looks like among young Canadian children and how common these experiences are. In this study, we examine the psychometric properties of a measure of cyber bullying behaviors and victimization experiences. We also examine the frequency of these behaviors and experiences among fifth- and sixth-grade Canadian children at the beginning ( n = 714) and end ( n = 638) of a school year. Children’s cyber bullying behaviors and victimization experiences were relatively stable across the school year and were highest for sixth-grade students who reported greater access to and use of technology. Cyber bullying behaviors representing joking around were endorsed more frequently than aggressive types of behaviors (i.e., spreading rumours or posting embarrassing pictures online). Implications for school-based prevention efforts are discussed.

Coparenting in immigrant Chinese Canadian families: the role of discrepancies in acculturation and expectations for adolescent assistance

For immigrant families, differential acculturation between mothers and fathers may present challenges to parenting adolescents. The current study investigated the concurrent relations among discrepancies in parental acculturation, discrepancies in parental expectations for adolescents, and coparenting quality with a sample of 162 married immigrant Chinese Canadian couples with adolescents (mean age = 14.94 years; SD = 1.73). Acculturation was assessed as parents' behavioral involvement in both Canadian and Chinese cultures. As predicted, mother-father differences in acculturation (in relation to both cultures) were related to discrepant expectations for how much adolescents should assist the family. Further, mother-father differences in Chinese acculturation were related to fathers' perceptions of a poorer coparenting relationship. Finally, this relation was partially mediated by discrepant parental expectations for adolescent assistance. Implications for parenting roles, enculturation, family dynamics, and intervention are considered.

Peer Victimization and Internalizing Symptoms From Adolescence Into Young Adulthood: Building Strength Through Emotional Support

This longitudinal study investigated how changes in peer victimization were associated with changes in internalizing symptoms among 662 adolescents across a 4-year period. The moderating effects of initial levels of father, mother, and friend emotional support on this association were also examined. Gender and age group differences (early adolescent group aged 12-15 years; late adolescent group aged 16-18 years) were tested. Increases in physical and relational victimization were related to increases in internalizing symptoms. Friend emotional support was more protective in reducing internalizing symptoms for adolescent males than adolescent females in both the early and late adolescent groups. Gender differences also moderated the effects of mother and father emotional support.

Relational victimization and depressive symptoms in adolescence: moderating effects of mother, father, and peer emotional support

Adolescence heralds a unique period of vulnerability to depressive symptoms. This longitudinal study examined relational victimization in adolescents' peer relationships as a unique predictor of depressive symptoms among a primarily (85%) Caucasian sample of 540 youth (294 females) concurrently and across a 6-year period. The moderating effects of emotional support received from mothers, fathers, and peers on the association between relational victimization and adolescents' depressive symptoms were also investigated. Findings revealed that adolescents who were relationally victimized consistently had higher depressive symptoms than their non-victimized peers. However, high levels of emotional support from fathers buffered this relationship over time. Emotional support from mothers and peers also moderated the longitudinal relationship between relational victimization and depressive symptoms, with high levels of support predicting increases in adolescents' symptoms. Relational victimization presents a clear risk for depressive symptoms in adolescence, and emotional support may serve either a protective or vulnerability-enhancing role depending on the source of support.

How much can you drink before driving? The influence of riding with impaired adults and peers on the driving behaviors of urban and rural youth

AIMS

Following an ecological model to specify risks for impaired driving, we assessed the effects of youth attitudes about substance use and their experiences of riding in cars with adults and peers who drove after drinking alcohol or smoking cannabis on the youths' own driving after drinking or using cannabis.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Participants were 2594 students in grades 10 and 12 (mean age = 16 years and 2 months; 50% girls) from public high schools in urban (994) and rural communities (1600) on Vancouver Island in British Columbia, Canada; 1192 of these were new drivers with restricted licenses. Self-report data were collected in anonymous questionnaires. Regression analyses were used to assess the independent and interacting effects of youth attitudes about substance use and their experiences of riding in cars with adults or peers who drove after drinking alcohol or smoking cannabis on youth driving.

FINDINGS

Youth driving risk behaviors were associated independently with their own high-risk attitudes and experiences riding with peers who drink alcohol or use cannabis and drive. However, risks were highest for the youth who also report more frequent experiences of riding with adults who drink alcohol or use cannabis and drive.

CONCLUSIONS

Prevention efforts should be expanded to include the adults and peers who are role models for new drivers and to increase youths' awareness of their own responsibilities for their personal safety as passengers.

Victimization and Relational Aggression in Adolescent Romantic Relationships: The Influence of Parental and Peer Behaviors, and Individual Adjustment

Consistent with the view that adolescent relationships are established in the context of important characteristics of their social networks, we examined the effects of adolescents' experiences of parenting (psychological control and positive monitoring) and of peer aggression and victimization, on their self reports of dating victimization and aggression. We also examined the effects of individual differences in emotional and behavioral problems. We used questionnaire data from a population-based sample of youth 12-18 years old who were in dating relationships (n = 149). Parental monitoring emerged as a protective factor in reducing both dating victimization and relational aggression. Our findings also point to a significant transfer of aggression in peer relationships to relational aggression in dating relationships.

Self-criticism and depressive symptomatology interact to predict middle school academic achievement

Although previous research has implicated adolescent depression in academic difficulties, few studies have explored the role of cognitive/personality factors in this area. To address this gap, the present study examines the role of self-criticism in academic functioning among early adolescent students over a 1-year interval. We hypothesized and found that adolescent self-criticism and depressive symptomatology interacted to predict decreased grade point average (GPA) over time, an interaction that was found predominantly in boys. This finding illustrates the need to integrate research on personality and psychopathology into educational psychology.

Pathways toward educational achievement among African American and Puerto Rican adolescent mothers: reexamining the role of social support from families

Although a majority of adolescent mothers are graduating from high school, the processes that enhance the educational attainment of adolescent mothers are not well understood. With a sample of 93 African American and Puerto Rican adolescent mothers, we assessed the effects of material support from family (i.e., child care assistance from grandmother and residence with grandmother) and emotional support from family over and above pre- and postpregnancy risk factors (i.e., maternal age at first birth, delayed grade placement before pregnancy, ethnicity, depressive symptoms, stressful life events, and repeat pregnancy) during the first year postpartum on educational attainment at 6 years postpartum. Significant contributors to the explained variance in educational attainment included: delayed grade placement before pregnancy, maternal age at first birth, depressive symptoms, emotional support from family, and residence with grandmother. Unexpectedly, higher perceived emotional support from family and living with grandmother predicted lower educational attainment. Post hoc analysis of qualitative data suggested reasons for these latter findings and point to the need to reconceptualize and broaden the elements of social support that constitute protective factors for adolescent mothers.

The effects of family, school, and classroom ecologies on changes in children's social competence and emotional and behavioral problems in first grade

This study tested the independent and interactive influences of classroom (concentrations of peer prosocial behaviors and victimization), family (household moves, mothers' education), and school (proportion of students receiving income assistance) ecologies on changes in children's social competence (e.g., interpersonal skills, leadership abilities), emotional problems (e.g., anxious, withdrawn behaviors), and behavioral problems (e.g., disruptiveness, aggressiveness) in first grade. Higher classroom concentrations of prosocial behaviors and victimization predicted increases in social competence, and greater school disadvantage predicted decreases. Multiple household moves and greater school disadvantage predicted increases in behavioral problems. Multiple household moves and low levels of mothers' education predicted increases in emotional problems for children in classrooms with few prosocial behaviors. Greater school disadvantage predicted increases in emotional problems for children in classrooms with low prosocial behaviors and high victimization. Policy implications of these findings are considered.

An interactive-synergetic approach to the assessment of personality vulnerability to depression: Illustration using the adolescent version of the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire

Research on personality vulnerability to depression is characterized by a "main effect" approach, often at the expense of examining interactions among various dimensions of vulnerability. To compare the "main effect" and "interactive-synergetic" approaches, we utilized data from a longitudinal study of adolescent adjustment. Focusing on dependency, self-criticism, and efficacy, the three factors of the adolescent version of the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ; Blatt, Schaffer, Bers, & Quinlan, 1992), we found support for the interactive-synergetic approach. Dependency and self-criticism interacted in predicting changes in depressive and internalizing symptoms (under low efficacy), and among boys-changes in internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Results illuminate the synergetic interplay among dimensions of risk and resilience in clinical research and practice.

Levels of interpersonal concerns and social functioning in early adolescent boys and girls

Previous research has shown that the Interpersonal Concerns factor of the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ; Blatt, D'Affliti, & Quinlan, 1976, 1979; Depressive Experiences Questionnaire for Adolescent [DEQ-A]; Blatt, Schaffer, Bers, & Quinlan, 1992) assesses 2 levels of interpersonal relatedness in young adults and older adolescents: neediness and relatedness. However, studies investigating the relation of the DEQ and DEQ-A with social functioning have not used the Neediness and Relatedness subscales of the Interpersonal Concerns factor. This study investigated (a) whether the Neediness and Relatedness subscales can be differentiated in a sample of early adolescents and (b) how the 2 subscales are differentially associated with indexes of social functioning. Results indicate that this differentiation of Neediness and Relatedness, and their associations with social functioning, emerges in early adolescence, especially for girls.

A multivariate model of gender differences in adolescents' internalizing and externalizing problems

Gender differences observed in interpersonal and self-critical vulnerabilities, reactivity to stressful life events, quality of relationships, and self-concepts inform a multivariate theoretical model of the moderating effects of gender on internalizing and externalizing problems in adolescence. To test this model, data were collected in a 1-year prospective study from an ethnically diverse sample of 460 middle school students. Increases in girls' internalizing symptoms, compared with boys', were partly explained by greater stability in girls' interpersonal vulnerabilities and greater magnitude in coefficients linking girls' relationships with parents and peers and internalizing problems. Boys' risks for externalizing problems, compared with girls', were partly explained by the greater stability in boys' vulnerability to self-criticism. Coefficients for most pathways in the model are similar for boys and girls.

A multivariate model of gender differences in adolescents' internalizing and externalizing problems

Gender differences observed in interpersonal and self-critical vulnerabilities, reactivity to stressful life events, quality of relationships, and self-concepts inform a multivariate theoretical model of the moderating effects of gender on internalizing and externalizing problems in adolescence. To test this model, data were collected in a 1-year prospective study from an ethnically diverse sample of 460 middle school students. Increases in girls' internalizing symptoms, compared with boys', were partly explained by greater stability in girls' interpersonal vulnerabilities and greater magnitude in coefficients linking girls' relationships with parents and peers and internalizing problems. Boys' risks for externalizing problems, compared with girls', were partly explained by the greater stability in boys' vulnerability to self-criticism. Coefficients for most pathways in the model are similar for boys and girls.

Maternal social support patterns and child maltreatment: comparison of maltreating and nonmaltreating mothers

Compared to demographically matched mothers, maltreating mothers listed fewer friends in their social support networks, reported less contact with friends, and gave lower ratings of quality of support received from friends. Maternal depressive symptoms, quality of current relationships, and social support from friends were each independently associated with maltreatment status in logistic regression analysis. Implications for intervention and research are offered.