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Liodakis I, Marscher AP, Agudo I, Berdyugin AV, Bernardos MI, Bonnoli G, Borman GA, Casadio C, Casanova V, Cavazzuti E, Rodriguez Cavero N, Di Gesu L, Di Lalla N, Donnarumma I, Ehlert SR, Errando M, Escudero J, García-Comas M, Agís-González B, Husillos C, Jormanainen J, Jorstad SG, Kagitani M, Kopatskaya EN, Kravtsov V, Krawczynski H, Lindfors E, Larionova EG, Madejski GM, Marin F, Marchini A, Marshall HL, Morozova DA, Massaro F, Masiero JR, Mawet D, Middei R, Millar-Blanchaer MA, Myserlis I, Negro M, Nilsson K, O’Dell SL, Omodei N, Pacciani L, Paggi A, Panopoulou GV, Peirson AL, Perri M, Petrucci PO, Poutanen J, Puccetti S, Romani RW, Sakanoi T, Savchenko SS, Sota A, Tavecchio F, Tinyanont S, Vasilyev AA, Weaver ZR, Zhovtan AV, Antonelli LA, Bachetti M, Baldini L, Baumgartner WH, Bellazzini R, Bianchi S, Bongiorno SD, Bonino R, Brez A, Bucciantini N, Capitanio F, Castellano S, Ciprini S, Costa E, De Rosa A, Del Monte E, Di Marco A, Doroshenko V, Dovčiak M, Enoto T, Evangelista Y, Fabiani S, Ferrazzoli R, Garcia JA, Gunji S, Hayashida K, Heyl J, Iwakiri W, Karas V, Kitaguchi T, Kolodziejczak JJ, La Monaca F, Latronico L, Maldera S, Manfreda A, Marinucci A, Matt G, Mitsuishi I, Mizuno T, Muleri F, Ng SCY, Oppedisano C, Papitto A, Pavlov GG, Pesce-Rollins M, Pilia M, Possenti A, Ramsey BD, Rankin J, Ratheesh A, Sgró C, Slane P, Soffitta P, Spandre G, Tamagawa T, Taverna R, Tawara Y, Tennant AF, Thomas NE, Tombesi F, Trois A, Tsygankov S, Turolla R, Vink J, Weisskopf MC, Wu K, Xie F, Zane S. Polarized blazar X-rays imply particle acceleration in shocks. Nature 2022; 611:677-681. [PMID: 36418451 PMCID: PMC9684068 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-05338-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Most of the light from blazars, active galactic nuclei with jets of magnetized plasma that point nearly along the line of sight, is produced by high-energy particles, up to around 1 TeV. Although the jets are known to be ultimately powered by a supermassive black hole, how the particles are accelerated to such high energies has been an unanswered question. The process must be related to the magnetic field, which can be probed by observations of the polarization of light from the jets. Measurements of the radio to optical polarization-the only range available until now-probe extended regions of the jet containing particles that left the acceleration site days to years earlier1-3, and hence do not directly explore the acceleration mechanism, as could X-ray measurements. Here we report the detection of X-ray polarization from the blazar Markarian 501 (Mrk 501). We measure an X-ray linear polarization degree ΠX of around 10%, which is a factor of around 2 higher than the value at optical wavelengths, with a polarization angle parallel to the radio jet. This points to a shock front as the source of particle acceleration and also implies that the plasma becomes increasingly turbulent with distance from the shock.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioannis Liodakis
- grid.1374.10000 0001 2097 1371Finnish Centre for Astronomy with ESO, FI-20014, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Alan P. Marscher
- grid.189504.10000 0004 1936 7558Institute for Astrophysical Research, Boston University, Boston, MA USA
| | - Iván Agudo
- grid.450285.e0000 0004 1793 7043Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía, IAA-CSIC, Glorieta de la Astronomía s/n, Granada, Spain
| | - Andrei V. Berdyugin
- grid.1374.10000 0001 2097 1371Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Maria I. Bernardos
- grid.450285.e0000 0004 1793 7043Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía, IAA-CSIC, Glorieta de la Astronomía s/n, Granada, Spain
| | - Giacomo Bonnoli
- grid.450285.e0000 0004 1793 7043Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía, IAA-CSIC, Glorieta de la Astronomía s/n, Granada, Spain ,grid.450217.5INAF Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera, Merate (LC), Italy
| | - George A. Borman
- Crimean Astrophysical Observatory RAS, P/O Nauchny, Nauchnij, Crimea
| | - Carolina Casadio
- grid.4834.b0000 0004 0635 685XInstitute of Astrophysics, Foundation for Research and Technology - Hellas, Voutes, Heraklion, Greece ,grid.8127.c0000 0004 0576 3437Department of Physics, University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Víctor Casanova
- grid.450285.e0000 0004 1793 7043Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía, IAA-CSIC, Glorieta de la Astronomía s/n, Granada, Spain
| | - Elisabetta Cavazzuti
- grid.423784.e0000 0000 9801 3133Agenzia Spaziale Italiana, Via del Politecnico snc, Roma, Italy
| | - Nicole Rodriguez Cavero
- grid.4367.60000 0001 2355 7002Physics Department and McDonnell Center for the Space Sciences, Washington University in St Louis, St Louis, MO USA
| | - Laura Di Gesu
- grid.423784.e0000 0000 9801 3133Agenzia Spaziale Italiana, Via del Politecnico snc, Roma, Italy
| | - Niccoló Di Lalla
- grid.168010.e0000000419368956Department of Physics and Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA USA
| | - Immacolata Donnarumma
- grid.423784.e0000 0000 9801 3133Agenzia Spaziale Italiana, Via del Politecnico snc, Roma, Italy
| | - Steven R. Ehlert
- grid.419091.40000 0001 2238 4912NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, AL USA
| | - Manel Errando
- grid.4367.60000 0001 2355 7002Physics Department and McDonnell Center for the Space Sciences, Washington University in St Louis, St Louis, MO USA
| | - Juan Escudero
- grid.450285.e0000 0004 1793 7043Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía, IAA-CSIC, Glorieta de la Astronomía s/n, Granada, Spain
| | - Maya García-Comas
- grid.450285.e0000 0004 1793 7043Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía, IAA-CSIC, Glorieta de la Astronomía s/n, Granada, Spain
| | - Beatriz Agís-González
- grid.450285.e0000 0004 1793 7043Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía, IAA-CSIC, Glorieta de la Astronomía s/n, Granada, Spain
| | - César Husillos
- grid.450285.e0000 0004 1793 7043Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía, IAA-CSIC, Glorieta de la Astronomía s/n, Granada, Spain
| | - Jenni Jormanainen
- grid.1374.10000 0001 2097 1371Finnish Centre for Astronomy with ESO, FI-20014, University of Turku, Turku, Finland ,grid.1374.10000 0001 2097 1371Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Svetlana G. Jorstad
- grid.189504.10000 0004 1936 7558Institute for Astrophysical Research, Boston University, Boston, MA USA ,grid.15447.330000 0001 2289 6897Laboratory of Observational Astrophysics, St Petersburg University, St Petersburg, Russia
| | - Masato Kagitani
- grid.69566.3a0000 0001 2248 6943Graduate School of Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Evgenia N. Kopatskaya
- grid.15447.330000 0001 2289 6897Astronomical Institute, St Petersburg State University, St Petersburg, Russia
| | - Vadim Kravtsov
- grid.1374.10000 0001 2097 1371Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Henric Krawczynski
- grid.4367.60000 0001 2355 7002Physics Department and McDonnell Center for the Space Sciences, Washington University in St Louis, St Louis, MO USA
| | - Elina Lindfors
- grid.1374.10000 0001 2097 1371Finnish Centre for Astronomy with ESO, FI-20014, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Elena G. Larionova
- grid.15447.330000 0001 2289 6897Astronomical Institute, St Petersburg State University, St Petersburg, Russia
| | - Grzegorz M. Madejski
- grid.168010.e0000000419368956Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, Stanford University and SLAC, Menlo Park, CA USA
| | - Frédéric Marin
- grid.440483.f0000 0000 9383 4469Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Observatoire Astronomique de Strasbourg, UMR 7550, Strasbourg, France
| | - Alessandro Marchini
- grid.9024.f0000 0004 1757 4641Department of Physical Sciences, Earth and Environment, Astronomical Observatory, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Herman L. Marshall
- grid.116068.80000 0001 2341 2786MIT Kavli Institute for Astrophysics and Space Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA USA
| | - Daria A. Morozova
- grid.15447.330000 0001 2289 6897Astronomical Institute, St Petersburg State University, St Petersburg, Russia
| | - Francesco Massaro
- grid.470222.10000 0004 7471 9712Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, , Sezione di Torino, Torino, Italy ,grid.7605.40000 0001 2336 6580Dipartimento di Fisica, Universitá degli Studi di Torino, Torino, Italy
| | | | - Dimitri Mawet
- grid.20861.3d0000000107068890California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA USA
| | - Riccardo Middei
- grid.423784.e0000 0000 9801 3133Space Science Data Center, Agenzia Spaziale Italiana, Roma, Italy ,grid.463298.20000 0001 2168 8201INAF Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Monte Porzio Catone (RM), Italy
| | | | | | - Michela Negro
- Center for Research and Exploration in Space Science and Technology (CRESST), Greenbelt, MD USA ,grid.266673.00000 0001 2177 1144Department of Physics and Center for Space Sciences and Technology, University of Maryland Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD USA
| | - Kari Nilsson
- grid.1374.10000 0001 2097 1371Finnish Centre for Astronomy with ESO, FI-20014, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Stephen L. O’Dell
- grid.419091.40000 0001 2238 4912NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, AL USA
| | - Nicola Omodei
- grid.168010.e0000000419368956Department of Physics and Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA USA
| | - Luigi Pacciani
- grid.466835.a0000 0004 1776 2255INAF Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, Roma, Italy
| | - Alessandro Paggi
- grid.470222.10000 0004 7471 9712Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, , Sezione di Torino, Torino, Italy ,grid.7605.40000 0001 2336 6580Dipartimento di Fisica, Universitá degli Studi di Torino, Torino, Italy ,grid.436940.cINAF-Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino, Pino Torinese, Italy
| | | | - Abel L. Peirson
- grid.168010.e0000000419368956Department of Physics and Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA USA
| | - Matteo Perri
- grid.423784.e0000 0000 9801 3133Space Science Data Center, Agenzia Spaziale Italiana, Roma, Italy ,grid.463298.20000 0001 2168 8201INAF Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Monte Porzio Catone (RM), Italy
| | | | - Juri Poutanen
- grid.1374.10000 0001 2097 1371Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Turku, Turku, Finland ,grid.426428.e0000 0004 0405 8736Space Research Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Simonetta Puccetti
- grid.423784.e0000 0000 9801 3133Agenzia Spaziale Italiana, Via del Politecnico snc, Roma, Italy
| | - Roger W. Romani
- grid.168010.e0000000419368956Department of Physics and Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA USA
| | - Takeshi Sakanoi
- grid.69566.3a0000 0001 2248 6943Graduate School of Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Sergey S. Savchenko
- grid.15447.330000 0001 2289 6897Astronomical Institute, St Petersburg State University, St Petersburg, Russia ,grid.4886.20000 0001 2192 9124Special Astrophysical Observatory, Russian Academy of Sciences, Nizhnii Arkhyz, Russia ,grid.437494.90000 0000 9168 8058Pulkovo Observatory, St Petersburg, Russia
| | - Alfredo Sota
- grid.450285.e0000 0004 1793 7043Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía, IAA-CSIC, Glorieta de la Astronomía s/n, Granada, Spain
| | | | - Samaporn Tinyanont
- grid.205975.c0000 0001 0740 6917University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA USA
| | - Andrey A. Vasilyev
- grid.15447.330000 0001 2289 6897Astronomical Institute, St Petersburg State University, St Petersburg, Russia
| | - Zachary R. Weaver
- grid.189504.10000 0004 1936 7558Institute for Astrophysical Research, Boston University, Boston, MA USA
| | - Alexey V. Zhovtan
- Crimean Astrophysical Observatory RAS, P/O Nauchny, Nauchnij, Crimea
| | - Lucio A. Antonelli
- grid.423784.e0000 0000 9801 3133Space Science Data Center, Agenzia Spaziale Italiana, Roma, Italy ,grid.463298.20000 0001 2168 8201INAF Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Monte Porzio Catone (RM), Italy
| | - Matteo Bachetti
- grid.437052.70000 0001 0096 8079INAF Osservatorio Astronomico di Cagliari, Selargius (CA), Italy
| | - Luca Baldini
- grid.470216.6Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Pisa, Pisa, Italy ,grid.5395.a0000 0004 1757 3729Dipartimento di Fisica, Universitá di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Wayne H. Baumgartner
- grid.419091.40000 0001 2238 4912NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, AL USA
| | - Ronaldo Bellazzini
- grid.470216.6Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Stefano Bianchi
- grid.8509.40000000121622106Dipartimento di Matematica e Fisica, Universitá degli Studi Roma Tre, Roma, Italy
| | - Stephen D. Bongiorno
- grid.419091.40000 0001 2238 4912NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, AL USA
| | - Raffaella Bonino
- grid.470222.10000 0004 7471 9712Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, , Sezione di Torino, Torino, Italy ,grid.7605.40000 0001 2336 6580Dipartimento di Fisica, Universitá degli Studi di Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Alessandro Brez
- grid.470216.6Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Niccoló Bucciantini
- grid.426239.80000 0000 9176 4495INAF Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri, Firenze, Italy ,grid.8404.80000 0004 1757 2304Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia, Universitá degli Studi di Firenze, Sesto Fiorentino (FI), Italy ,grid.470204.5Q30265285Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Firenze, Sesto Fiorentino (FI), Italy
| | - Fiamma Capitanio
- grid.466835.a0000 0004 1776 2255INAF Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, Roma, Italy
| | - Simone Castellano
- grid.470216.6Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Stefano Ciprini
- grid.423784.e0000 0000 9801 3133Space Science Data Center, Agenzia Spaziale Italiana, Roma, Italy ,grid.470219.9Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Roma Tor Vergata, Roma, Italy
| | - Enrico Costa
- grid.466835.a0000 0004 1776 2255INAF Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, Roma, Italy
| | - Alessandra De Rosa
- grid.466835.a0000 0004 1776 2255INAF Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, Roma, Italy
| | - Ettore Del Monte
- grid.466835.a0000 0004 1776 2255INAF Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, Roma, Italy
| | - Alessandro Di Marco
- grid.466835.a0000 0004 1776 2255INAF Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, Roma, Italy
| | - Victor Doroshenko
- grid.426428.e0000 0004 0405 8736Space Research Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia ,grid.10392.390000 0001 2190 1447Institut für Astronomie und Astrophysik, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Michal Dovčiak
- grid.423799.20000 0004 0385 3578Astronomical Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Ondřejov, Czech Republic
| | - Teruaki Enoto
- grid.7597.c0000000094465255RIKEN Cluster for Pioneering Research, Saitama, Japan
| | - Yuri Evangelista
- grid.466835.a0000 0004 1776 2255INAF Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, Roma, Italy
| | - Sergio Fabiani
- grid.466835.a0000 0004 1776 2255INAF Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, Roma, Italy
| | - Riccardo Ferrazzoli
- grid.466835.a0000 0004 1776 2255INAF Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, Roma, Italy
| | - Javier A. Garcia
- grid.20861.3d0000000107068890California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA USA
| | - Shuichi Gunji
- grid.268394.20000 0001 0674 7277Yamagata University, Yamagata-shi, Japan
| | | | - Jeremy Heyl
- grid.17091.3e0000 0001 2288 9830University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia Canada
| | - Wataru Iwakiri
- grid.443595.a0000 0001 2323 0843Department of Physics, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Chuo University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Vladimir Karas
- grid.423799.20000 0004 0385 3578Astronomical Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Ondřejov, Czech Republic
| | - Takao Kitaguchi
- grid.7597.c0000000094465255RIKEN Cluster for Pioneering Research, Saitama, Japan
| | | | - Fabio La Monaca
- grid.466835.a0000 0004 1776 2255INAF Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, Roma, Italy
| | - Luca Latronico
- grid.470222.10000 0004 7471 9712Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, , Sezione di Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Simone Maldera
- grid.470222.10000 0004 7471 9712Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, , Sezione di Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Alberto Manfreda
- grid.470216.6Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Andrea Marinucci
- grid.423784.e0000 0000 9801 3133Agenzia Spaziale Italiana, Via del Politecnico snc, Roma, Italy
| | - Giorgio Matt
- grid.8509.40000000121622106Dipartimento di Matematica e Fisica, Universitá degli Studi Roma Tre, Roma, Italy
| | - Ikuyuki Mitsuishi
- grid.27476.300000 0001 0943 978XGraduate School of Science, Division of Particle and Astrophysical Science, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Tsunefumi Mizuno
- grid.257022.00000 0000 8711 3200Hiroshima Astrophysical Science Center, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Fabio Muleri
- grid.466835.a0000 0004 1776 2255INAF Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, Roma, Italy
| | - Stephen C.-Y. Ng
- grid.194645.b0000000121742757Department of Physics, University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Chiara Oppedisano
- grid.470222.10000 0004 7471 9712Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, , Sezione di Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Alessandro Papitto
- grid.463298.20000 0001 2168 8201INAF Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Monte Porzio Catone (RM), Italy
| | - George G. Pavlov
- grid.29857.310000 0001 2097 4281Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA USA
| | | | - Maura Pilia
- grid.437052.70000 0001 0096 8079INAF Osservatorio Astronomico di Cagliari, Selargius (CA), Italy
| | - Andrea Possenti
- grid.437052.70000 0001 0096 8079INAF Osservatorio Astronomico di Cagliari, Selargius (CA), Italy
| | - Brian D. Ramsey
- grid.419091.40000 0001 2238 4912NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, AL USA
| | - John Rankin
- grid.466835.a0000 0004 1776 2255INAF Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, Roma, Italy
| | - Ajay Ratheesh
- grid.466835.a0000 0004 1776 2255INAF Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, Roma, Italy
| | - Carmelo Sgró
- grid.470216.6Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Patrick Slane
- grid.455754.20000 0001 1781 4754Center for Astrophysics, Harvard & Smithsonian, Cambridge, MA USA
| | - Paolo Soffitta
- grid.466835.a0000 0004 1776 2255INAF Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, Roma, Italy
| | - Gloria Spandre
- grid.470216.6Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Toru Tamagawa
- grid.7597.c0000000094465255RIKEN Cluster for Pioneering Research, Saitama, Japan
| | - Roberto Taverna
- grid.5608.b0000 0004 1757 3470Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia, Universitá degli Studi di Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Yuzuru Tawara
- grid.27476.300000 0001 0943 978XGraduate School of Science, Division of Particle and Astrophysical Science, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Allyn F. Tennant
- grid.419091.40000 0001 2238 4912NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, AL USA
| | - Nicolas E. Thomas
- grid.419091.40000 0001 2238 4912NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, AL USA
| | - Francesco Tombesi
- grid.6530.00000 0001 2300 0941Dipartimento di Fisica, Universitá degli Studi di Roma Tor Vergata, Roma, Italy
| | - Alessio Trois
- grid.437052.70000 0001 0096 8079INAF Osservatorio Astronomico di Cagliari, Selargius (CA), Italy
| | - Sergey Tsygankov
- grid.1374.10000 0001 2097 1371Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Turku, Turku, Finland ,grid.426428.e0000 0004 0405 8736Space Research Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Roberto Turolla
- grid.5608.b0000 0004 1757 3470Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia, Universitá degli Studi di Padova, Padova, Italy ,grid.83440.3b0000000121901201Mullard Space Science Laboratory, University College London, Dorking, UK
| | - Jacco Vink
- grid.7177.60000000084992262Anton Pannekoek Institute for Astronomy & GRAPPA, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Martin C. Weisskopf
- grid.419091.40000 0001 2238 4912NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, AL USA
| | - Kinwah Wu
- grid.83440.3b0000000121901201Mullard Space Science Laboratory, University College London, Dorking, UK
| | - Fei Xie
- grid.466835.a0000 0004 1776 2255INAF Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, Roma, Italy ,grid.256609.e0000 0001 2254 5798Guangxi Key Laboratory for Relativistic Astrophysics, School of Physical Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Silvia Zane
- grid.83440.3b0000000121901201Mullard Space Science Laboratory, University College London, Dorking, UK
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