Suitability of native milkweed (Asclepias) species versus cultivars for supporting monarch butterflies and bees in urban gardens

Public interest in ecological landscaping and gardening is fueling a robust market for native plants. Most plants available to consumers through the horticulture trade are cultivated forms that have been selected for modified flowers or foliage, compactness, or other ornamental characteristics. Depending on their traits, some native plant cultivars seem to support pollinators, specialist insect folivores, and insect-based vertebrate food webs as effectively as native plant species, whereas others do not. There is particular need for information on whether native cultivars can be as effective as true or “wild-type” native species for supporting specialist native insects of conservation concern. Herein we compared the suitability of native milkweed species and their cultivars for attracting and supporting one such insect, the iconic monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus L.), as well as native bees in urban pollinator gardens. Wild-type Asclepias incarnata L. (swamp milkweed) and Asclepias tuberosa L. (butterfly milkweed) and three additional cultivars of each that vary in stature, floral display, and foliage color were grown in a replicated common garden experiment at a public arboretum. We monitored the plants for colonization by wild monarchs, assessed their suitability for supporting monarch larvae in greenhouse trials, measured their defensive characteristics (leaf trichome density, latex, and cardenolide levels), and compared the proportionate abundance and diversity of bee families and genera visiting their blooms. Significantly more monarch eggs and larvae were found on A. incarnata than A. tuberosa in both years, but within each milkweed group, cultivars were colonized to the same extent as wild types. Despite some differences in defense allocation, all cultivars were as suitable as wild-type milkweeds in supporting monarch larval growth. Five bee families and 17 genera were represented amongst the 2,436 total bees sampled from blooms of wild-type milkweeds and their cultivars in the replicated gardens. Bee assemblages of A. incarnata were dominated by Apidae (Bombus, Xylocopa spp., and Apis mellifera), whereas A. tuberosa attracted relatively more Halictidae (especially Lasioglossum spp.) and Megachilidae. Proportionate abundance of bee families and genera was generally similar for cultivars and their respective wild types. This study suggests that, at least in small urban gardens, milkweed cultivars can be as suitable as their parental species for supporting monarch butterflies and native bees.

Invasive paper wasp turns urban pollinator gardens into ecological traps for monarch butterfly larvae

Invasive species can be particularly disruptive when they intersect with organisms of conservation concern. Stabilizing the declining eastern migratory population of monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) is projected to require extensive habitat restoration across multiple land use sectors including metropolitan areas. Numerous conservation programs encourage urban citizens to plant gardens with milkweeds, the obligate larval host plants of the monarch. Here, we show that predation by Polistes dominula, an invasive paper wasp that is particularly abundant in urban settings, can turn such sites into ecological traps for monarch larvae. Polistes dominula was the predominant paper wasp seen foraging in central Kentucky pollinator gardens. In 120 observed encounters with monarch larvae on milkweeds in gardens, most second to fourth instars were killed, whereas most fifth instars escaped by thrashing or dropping. The wasps bit and carried off second instars whole, whereas third and fourth instar kills were first gutted, then processed and carried away piecemeal. Predation on sentinel larvae was much higher in urban gardens than in rural settings. The wasps exploited ornamental butterfly "hibernation boxes" in pollinator gardens as nesting habitat. Polistes dominula is an under-recognized predator that may diminish the urban sector's contributions to monarch habitat restoration.

Strengths and limitations of Bacillus thuringiensis galleriae for managing Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica) adults and grubs with caveats for cross-order activity to monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) larvae

BACKGROUND

Target-selective biopesticides are needed to facilitate integrated pest and pollinator management in urban landscapes and gardens. Bacillus thuringiensis galleriae, strain SDS-502 (Btg), recently registered in the USA and Canada, produces Cry8Da protein active against scarab beetles. We evaluated Btg formulations for managing the Japanese beetle [Popillia japonica Newman (JB)], a polyphagous invasive pest, including residual spray effectiveness for reducing adult feeding on Rosa and Tilia spp., and granular formulations for early- or late-curative control of root-feeding grubs in turfgrass. We also tested for cross-order activity to monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus L.) larvae and other non-target insects.

RESULTS

Field-weathered Btg residues reduced JB feeding on foliage for 3-14 days. Most beetles were still flight-capable after 24 h confinement with Btg-treated leaves. Granular Btg failed to control early- or late-instar JB grubs in soils under several turfgrass species at multiple field sites. In three trials, feeding on Btg-sprayed milkweed resulted in 97-100% mortality of early instar monarchs, with symptoms of B. thuringiensis pathogenesis. Fall armyworms (Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith)) fed Btg-treated grass had reduced body mass, but there were no adverse effects on lady beetle larvae preying on Btg-sprayed aphids or on the aphids themselves.

CONCLUSION

This study supports efficacy of Btg strain SDS-502 for reducing defoliation by adult JB in urban landscape settings. Granular formulations, however, failed to control JB grubs in turfgrass soils. Btg should not be used in gardens with larval host plants of the monarch butterfly or other non-pest Lepidoptera, especially species of conservation concern. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Scarring and wound healing

Following injury, the skin undergoes a wound healing process culminating in the formation of a mature scar. Millions of patients worldwide are left with scars every year as a result of trauma or surgery. Scars can be painful, disfiguring and disabling, yet patients report that clinicians are often dismissive of their concerns, unable to identify pathological scars and unaware of treatment options. The normal wound healing process comprises three overlapping stages: inflammation, proliferation and remodelling. In some patients this process is deranged, resulting in the formation of hypertrophic or keloid scars. Clinicians can minimize the risk of these pathological scars developing with good surgical technique and wound aftercare. If pathological scars do form, they should be identified early and patients referred for treatment, most often topical or intralesional corticosteroids. In resistant cases, pathological scars may be treated with phototherapy, radiotherapy or surgical resection.

Ecology and management of earthworm casting on sports turf

Earthworm activity is beneficial in most natural and agricultural systems, but excessive earthworm casting is a problem on sports fields worldwide. Expulsion of soil-rich earthworm fecal matter, or casts, as mounds of soil on the turf canopy can muddy the surface, reduce photosynthesis, and lead to thinning, weed invasion and surface softening. Casts affect ball roll on sports fields, cause fouling of maintenance equipment, and dull mower blades. Build-up of cast material on reel mower units can affect height and quality of cut. Casting activity is dependent on environmental conditions such as soil texture, temperature, moisture, pH, and organic matter. Response to environmental conditions varies by species. Management options are limited, because no pesticides are specifically labeled for earthworm control at this time, and cultural control methods such as soil modification, turfgrass clipping removal, and sand topdressing have limited and inconsistent efficacy. Products containing plant-derived saponins and irritants show promise for earthworm management. Pest management practices to mitigate excessive earthworm casting will likely need to be species-specific, but limited knowledge of earthworm identification by end-users further inhibits the efficacy of control measures. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Quantifying bee assemblages and attractiveness of flowering woody landscape plants for urban pollinator conservation

Urban and suburban landscapes can be refuges for biodiversity of bees and other pollinators. Public awareness of declining pollinator populations has increased interest in growing plants that provide floral resources for bees. Various publications and websites list "bee-friendly" plants, but such lists are rarely based on empirical data, nor do they emphasize flowering trees and shrubs, which are a major component of urban landscapes. We quantified bee visitation to 72 species of flowering woody landscape plants across 373 urban and suburban sites in Kentucky and southern Ohio, USA, sampling and identifying the bee assemblages associated with 45 of the most bee-attractive species. We found strong plant species effects and variation in seasonal activity of particular bee taxa, but no overall differences in extent of bee visitation or bee genus diversity between native and non-native species, trees and shrubs, or early-, mid-, and late-season blooming plants. Horticulturally-modified varieties of Hydrangea, Prunus, and Rosa with double petals or clusters of showy sterile sepals attracted few bees compared to related plants with more accessible floral rewards. Some of the non-native woody plant species bloomed when floral resources from native plants were scarce and were highly bee-attractive, so their use in landscapes could help extend the flowering season for bees. These data will help city foresters, landscape managers, and the public make informed decisions to create bee-friendly urban and suburban landscapes.

Uptake and dissipation of neonicotinoid residues in nectar and foliage of systemically treated woody landscape plants

Systemic neonicotinoid insecticides used in urban arboriculture could pose a risk to bees and other pollinators foraging on treated plants. We measured uptake and dissipation of soil-applied imidacloprid and dinotefuran in nectar and leaves of 2 woody plant species, a broadleaf evergreen tree (Ilex × attenuata) and a deciduous shrub (Clethra alnifolia), to assess concentrations to which pollinators and pests might be exposed in landscape settings. Three application timings, autumn (postbloom), spring (prebloom), and summer (early postbloom), were evaluated to see if taking advantage of differences in the neonicotinoids' systemic mobility and persistence might enable pest control while minimizing transference into nectar. Nectar and tissue samples were collected from in-ground plants and analyzed for residues by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) in 2 successive years. Concentrations found in nectar following autumn or spring applications ranged from 166 to 515 ng/g for imidacloprid and from 70 to 1235 ng/gg for dinotefuran, depending on plant and timing. These residues exceed concentrations shown to adversely affect individual- and colony-level traits of bees. Summer application mitigated concentrations of imidacloprid (8-31 ng/g), but not dinotefuran (235-1191 ng/g), in nectar. Our data suggest that dinotefuran may be more persistent than is generally believed. Implications for integrated pest and pollinator management in urban landscapes are discussed. Environ Toxicol Chem 2018;37:860-870. © 2017 SETAC.

Outcomes in patients with acute kidney injury reviewed by Critical Care Outreach: What is the role of the National Early Warning Score?

Introduction

This study investigated outcomes in critically unwell acute kidney injury patients and the role of the National Early Warning Score and other factors in identifying patients who experience negative outcomes.

Methods

Retrospective cohort study investigating 64 patients seen by Critical Care Outreach between November 2014 and February 2015. Mortality at one year was analysed using multivariate regression; all other statistical tests were non-parametric.

Results

Forty-four per cent of patients required escalation to higher level care, 56% failed to survive beyond one year and 30% of those who did survive had a deterioration in renal function. Previous acute kidney injury significantly predicted mortality but the National Early Warning Score did not. A subgroup of patients developed Stage 3 acute kidney injury before a rise in National Early Warning Score.

Conclusions

Acute kidney injury in the Critical Care Outreach patient population is associated with high morbidity and mortality. Previous acute kidney injury and acute kidney injury stage may be superior to the National Early Warning Score at identifying patients in need of Critical Care Outreach review.

Initial recommendations for higher-tier risk assessment protocols for bumble bees, Bombus spp. (Hymenoptera: Apidae)

Global declines of bumble bees and other pollinator populations are of concern because of their critical role for crop production and maintenance of wild plant biodiversity. Although the consensus among scientists is that the interaction of many factors, including habitat loss, forage scarcity, diseases, parasites, and pesticides, potentially plays a role in causing these declines, pesticides have received considerable attention and scrutiny. In response, regulatory agencies have introduced more stringent pollinator testing requirements for registration and reregistration of pesticides, to ensure that the risks to pollinators are minimized. In this context, guidelines for testing bumble bees (Bombus spp.) in regulatory studies are not yet available, and a pressing need exists to develop suitable protocols for routine higher-tier studies with these non-Apis sp., social bees. To meet this need, Bayer CropScience LP, Syngenta Crop Protection LLC US, and Valent USA. Corporation organized a workshop bringing together a group of global experts on bumble bee behavior, ecology, and ecotoxicology to discuss and develop draft protocols for both semi-field (Tier II) and field (Tier III) studies. The workshop was held May 8-9, 2014, at the Bayer Bee Care Center, North Carolina, USA. The participants represented academic, consulting, and industry scientists from Europe, Canada, the United States, and Brazil. The workshop identified a clear protection goal and generated proposals for basic experimental designs, relevant measurements, and endpoints for both semifield (tunnel) and field tests. These initial recommendations are intended to form the basis of discussions to help advance the development of appropriate protocol guidelines.

Mowing mitigates bioactivity of neonicotinoid insecticides in nectar of flowering lawn weeds and turfgrass guttation

Systemic neonicotinoid insecticides are used to control turfgrass insect pests. The authors tested their transference into nectar of flowering lawn weeds or grass guttation droplets, which, if high enough, could be hazardous to bees or other insects that feed on such exudates. The authors applied imidacloprid or clothianidin to turf with white clover, followed by irrigation, and used liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to analyze residues in clover blooms that were directly sprayed during application or that formed after the first mowing. Imidacloprid residues in guttation fluid from field-grown creeping bentgrass were assessed similarly. The authors used Orius insidiosus, a small anthrocorid bug that is sensitive to dietary neonicotinoids, as a bioindicator of the exudates' toxicity. Nectar from directly sprayed clover blooms contained 5493 ng/g to 6588 ng/g imidacloprid or 2882 ng/g to 2992 ng/g clothianidin and was acutely toxic to Orius. Residues were 99.4% to 99.8% lower in nectar of blooms formed after mowing, and nontoxic to Orius. Imidacloprid residues in turfgrass guttation averaged 88 ng/g at 1 wk after treatment, causing some intoxication of Orius, but declined to 23 ng/g within 3 wk. Systemic transference of neonicotinoids into white clover nectar and creeping bentgrass guttation appears relatively low and transitory. The hazard to nontarget insects via nectar of flowering weeds in treated lawns can be mitigated by adhering to label precautions and mowing to remove blooms if they are inadvertently sprayed.

The effectiveness of flow cytometric sorting of human sperm (MicroSort®) for influencing a child's sex

BACKGROUND

Flow cytometric sorting can be used to separate sperm based on sex chromosome content. Differential fluorescence emitted by stained X- vs. Y-chromosome-bearing sperm enables sorting and collection of samples enriched in either X- or Y-bearing sperm for use to influence the likelihood that the offspring will be a particular sex. Herein we report the effectiveness of flow cytometric sorting of human sperm and its use in human ART procedures.

METHODS

This prospective, observational cohort study of the series of subjects treated with flow cytometrically sorted human sperm was conducted at investigational sites at two private reproductive centers. After meeting inclusion criteria, married couples (n = 4993) enrolled to reduce the likelihood of sex-linked or sex-limited disease in future children (n = 383) or to balance the sex ratio of their children (n = 4610). Fresh or frozen-thawed semen was processed and recovered sperm were stained with Hoechst 33342 and sorted by flow cytometry (n = 7718) to increase the percentage of X-bearing sperm (n = 5635) or Y-bearing sperm (n = 2083) in the sorted specimen. Sorted sperm were used for IUI (n = 4448) and IVF/ICSI (n = 2957). Measures of effectiveness were the percentage of X- and Y-bearing sperm in sorted samples, determined by fluorescence in situ hybridization, sex of babies born, IVF/ICSI fertilization- and cleavage rates, and IUI, IVF/ICSI, FET pregnancy rates and miscarriage rates.

RESULTS

Sorted specimens averaged 87.7 ± 5.0% X-bearing sperm after sorting for X and 74.3 ± 7.0% Y-bearing sperm after sorting for Y. Seventy-three percent of sorts were for girls. For babies born, 93.5% were females and 85.3% were males after sorting for X- and Y-bearing sperm, respectively. IUI, IVF/ICSI, and FET clinical pregnancy rates were 14.7%, 30.8%, and 32.1%, respectively; clinical miscarriage rates were 15.5%, 10.2%, and 12.7%.

CONCLUSIONS

Flow cytometric sorting of human sperm shifted the X:Y sperm ratio. IUI, IVF/ICSI and FET outcomes were consistent with unimpaired sperm function. Results provide evidence supporting the effectiveness of flow cytometric sorting of human sperm for use as a preconception method of influencing a baby's sex.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT00865735 (ClinicalTrials.gov).

Determining parental origin of embryo aneuploidy: analysis of genetic error observed in 305 embryos derived from anonymous donor oocyte IVF cycles

BACKGROUND

Since oocyte donors are typically young and believed to be a source of highly competent gametes, donor oocyte IVF is considered to be an effective treatment for diminished ovarian reserve. However, the aneuploidy rate for embryos originating from anonymously donated oocytes remains incompletely characterized. Here, comprehensive chromosomal screening results were reviewed from embryos obtained from anonymous donor-egg IVF cycles to determine both the aneuploidy rate and parental source of the genetic error. To measure this, preimplantation genetic screening (PGS) data on embryos were retrospectively collated with parental DNA obtained before IVF for chromosome-specific assessments. This approach permitted mitotic and meiotic copy errors to be differentiated for each chromosome among all embryos tested, thus providing information on the parental source of embryo aneuploidy (i.e., from the anonymous egg donor vs. sperm source).

RESULTS

305 embryos generated for 24 patients who began IVF treatment in 2013. For oocyte donors (n = 24), mean (±SD) age was 24.0 ± 2.7 years (range = 20-29). For embryos with full chromosomal reporting (n = 284), euploidy was present in only 133 (46.8%). Considering all embryo chromosomes, the average error rate was 18%. 133 of 151 observed embryo aneuploidies (88.1%) were attributable to an oocyte donor source. Among all aneuploid embryos (n = 151), chromosomal errors from both genetic parents (i.e., oocyte donor and sperm source) were present in 57%. The average correlation coefficient across all pairs of chromosomal abnormalities (r = 0.60) suggests that chromosomes tend to have multiple and simultaneous errors (complex aneuploidy) even when oocytes from young donors are used.

CONCLUSION

These data show that even when young donors provide oocytes for IVF, the probability of embryo aneuploidy remains high. The oocyte donor appears to make an important contribution to embryo aneuploidy even when her age is <30 yrs. If these findings are confirmed with larger, prospective studies, the routine integration of PGS with donor oocyte IVF cycles to identify single euploid embryos for transfer should be considered.

Conservation biological control and pest performance in lawn turf: does mowing height matter?

With >80 million United States households engaged in lawn and gardening activities, increasing sustainability of lawn care is important. Mowing height is an easily manipulated aspect of lawn management. We tested the hypothesis that elevated mowing of tall fescue lawn grass promotes a larger, more diverse community of arthropod natural enemies which in turn provides stronger biological control services, and the corollary hypothesis that doing so also renders the turf itself less suitable for growth of insect pests. Turf-type tall fescue was mowed low (6.4 cm) or high (10.2 cm) for two growing seasons, natural enemy populations were assessed by vacuum sampling, pitfall traps, and ant baits, and predation and parasitism were evaluated with sentinel prey caterpillars, grubs, and eggs. In addition, foliage-feeding caterpillars and root-feeding scarab grubs were confined in the turf to evaluate their performance. Although some predatory groups (e.g., rove beetles and spiders) were more abundant in high-mowed grass, predation rates were uniformly high because ants, the dominant predators, were similarly abundant regardless of mowing height. Lower canopy temperatures in high-mowed grass were associated with slower growth of grass-feeding caterpillars. Higher lawn mowing reduces fuel consumption and yard waste, and promotes a deep, robust root system that reduces need for water and chemical inputs. Although in this study elevated mowing height did not measurably increase the already-high levels of predation, it did suggest additional ways through which bottom-up effects on insect pest growth might interact with natural enemies to facilitate conservation biological control.

Impacts of a neonicotinoid, neonicotinoid-pyrethroid premix, and anthranilic diamide insecticide on four species of turf-inhabiting beneficial insects

Many turf managers prefer to control foliage- and root-feeding pests with the same application, so-called multiple-targeting, using a single broad-spectrum insecticide or a premix product containing two or more active ingredients. We compared the impact of a neonicotinoid (clothianidin), a premix (clothianidin + bifenthrin), and an anthranilic diamide (chlorantraniliprole), the main insecticide classes used for multiple targeting, on four species of beneficial insects: Harpalus pennsylvanicus, an omnivorous ground beetle, Tiphia vernalis, an ectoparasitoid of scarab grubs, Copidosoma bakeri, a polyembryonic endoparasitoid of black cutworms, and Bombus impatiens, a native bumble bee. Ground beetles that ingested food treated with clothianidin or the premix suffered high mortality, as did C. bakeri wasps exposed to dry residues of those insecticides. Exposure to those insecticides on potted turf cores reduced parasitism by T. vernalis. Bumble bee colonies confined to forage on white clover (Trifolium repens L.) in weedy turf that had been treated with clothianidin or the premix had reduced numbers of workers, honey pots, and immature bees. Premix residues incapacitated H. pennsylvanicus and C. bakeri slightly faster than clothianidin alone, but otherwise we detected no synergistic or additive effects. Chlorantraniliprole had no apparent adverse effects on any of the beneficial species. Implications for controlling turf pests with least disruption of non-target invertebrates are discussed.

Volatile compounds from crabapple (Malus spp.) cultivars differing in susceptibility to the Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica Newman)

The volatile compounds emitted by leaves of four crabapple cultivars susceptible to damage by Japanese beetles and four relatively resistant cultivars were examined. Twelve compounds, mostly terpene hydrocarbons, were identified from intact leaves. The terpenes (E)-β-ocimene, caryophylene, germacrene D and (E,E)-α-farnesene occurred in significantly higher levels in susceptible cultivars, whereas resistant cultivars produced greater amounts of (E)-4,8-dimethyl 1,3,7-nonatriene and linalool. The relative attractiveness of the cultivars as determined in a pitfall bioassay, however, was not related to their susceptibility to the Japanese beetle as previously determined by defoliation sustained in the field. The attractiveness of individual cultivars was found to be positiviely correlated with linalool as a percent of the total volatile blend emitted by leaves. This study and previous work suggest that variation in susceptibility of crabapple cultivars to defoliation by Japanese beetles is not due to the attractiveness of the individual cultivars but rather to nonvolatile components of susceptibility and/or resistance. A scenario for host location by the Japanese beetle is presented.

Assessing insecticide hazard to bumble bees foraging on flowering weeds in treated lawns

Maintaining bee-friendly habitats in cities and suburbs can help conserve the vital pollination services of declining bee populations. Despite label precautions not to apply them to blooming plants, neonicotinoids and other residual systemic insecticides may be applied for preventive control of lawn insect pests when spring-flowering weeds are present. Dietary exposure to neonicotinoids adversely affects bees, but the extent of hazard from field usage is controversial. We exposed colonies of the bumble bee Bombus impatiens to turf with blooming white clover that had been treated with clothianidin, a neonicotinoid, or with chlorantraniliprole, the first anthranilic diamide labeled for use on lawns. The sprays were applied at label rate and lightly irrigated. After residues had dried, colonies were confined to forage for six days, and then moved to a non-treated rural site to openly forage and develop. Colonies exposed to clothianidin-treated weedy turf had delayed weight gain and produced no new queens whereas those exposed to chlorantraniliprole-treated plots developed normally compared with controls. Neither bumble bees nor honey bees avoided foraging on treated white clover in open plots. Nectar from clover blooms directly contaminated by spray residues contained 171±44 ppb clothianidin. Notably, neither insecticide adversely impacted bee colonies confined on the treated turf after it had been mown to remove clover blooms present at the time of treatment, and new blooms had formed. Our results validate EPA label precautionary statements not to apply neonicotinoids to blooming nectar-producing plants if bees may visit the treatment area. Whatever systemic hazard through lawn weeds they may pose appears transitory, however, and direct hazard can be mitigated by adhering to label precautions, or if blooms inadvertently are contaminated, by mowing to remove them. Chlorantraniliprole usage on lawns appears non-hazardous to bumble bees.

Sources of child maltreatment information in Canada

AIM

Interest in understanding the problem of child maltreatment is widely shared by governments, organizations of physicians, and others. Our objective was to describe and discuss sources of information in Canada that could be used to help understand the nature and scope of the problem, either within any province or territory, or across all of Canada.

METHODS

A series of web searches and a focused literature review were conducted to identify sources of child maltreatment information. Government departments responsible for child welfare were also contacted on an as-needed basis in order to identify additional sources.

RESULTS

Identified sources included: child welfare administrative provincial/territorial data and reports based on those data, other child welfare information, surveys of child protection workers and shelter workers, mortality/morbidity data, police data, direct surveys of children and their parents, and the 2011 Canadian census. Each type of source had strengths and limitations in terms of how it could describe the nature and scope of the problem of child maltreatment.

CONCLUSION

Increased use of morbidity and mortality data, data linking, expanding existing databases, and increasing the use of general population surveys could expand understanding of child maltreatment in Canada.

Relative resistance or susceptibility of maple (Acer) species, hybrids and cultivars to six arthropod pests of production nurseries

BACKGROUND

Maples (Acer spp.) in production nurseries are vulnerable to numerous arthropod pests that can stunt or even kill the young trees. Seventeen cultivars representing various Acer species and hybrids were evaluated for extent of infestation or injury by shoot and trunk borers (Proteoteras aesculana, Chrysobothris femorata), potato leafhopper (Empoasca fabae), Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica), maple spider mite (Oligonychus aceris) and calico scale (Eulecanium cerasorum). Evaluations were done in replicated field plots in central and western Kentucky.

RESULTS

All of the maples were susceptible, to varying degrees, to one or more key pest(s). Red maples (A. rubrum) were relatively vulnerable to potato leafhopper injury and borers but nearly free of Japanese beetle feeding and spider mites. Sugar maples sustained conspicuous Japanese beetle damage but had very low mite populations, whereas the opposite was true for Freeman maples (A. × freemanii). A. campestre was heavily infested by calico scale. Within each species or hybrid there were cultivar differences in degree of infestation or damage by particular pests.

CONCLUSION

The results should help growers to focus pest management efforts on those plantings at greatest risk from particular pests, and to choose cultivars requiring fewer insecticide inputs to produce a quality tree.

Comparison of scarab grub populations and associated pathogens and parasitoids in warm- or cool-season grasses used on transitional zone golf courses

Seven different turfgrass species or mixes used on golf courses in the United States' transitional climatic zone were maintained as randomized and replicated plots in separate stands mowed at fairway (1.6 cm) or rough (6.4 cm) cutting heights and sampled in autumn to assess the density and species composition of scarab grubs; incidence of disease and parasitism thereof; and extent of turf damage from foraging insectivorous skunks, Mephitis mephitis. Influence of grass species on parasitism by spring or autumn-active tiphiid wasps was further assessed on implanted grubs in open enclosures. Masked chafers (Cyclocephala spp.) were three-fold more abundant than Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica Newman, grubs in plots of Zoysia and Cynodon sp. mowed at fairway height, and P. japonica were five-fold more abundant than masked chafer grubs in cool-season turf plots mowed at rough height. Phyllophaga spp. accounted for <1% of grubs in the samples. Milky disease bacteria (Paenibacillus sp.) were the predominant pathogens of Cyclocephala spp., followed by Serratia sp. bacteria and gregarines (Stictospora cf. villani). Cyclocephala grub densities, milky disease incidence (25%), and parasitism by the native tiphiid Tiphia pygidialis Alien (10-12%) were especially high in zoysiagrass. Japanese beetle grubs were infected by Paenibacillus, Serratia, Stictospora, and microsporidia (Ovavesicula sp.), but incidence of individual pathogens was relatively low (<6%) and similar among grasses within each stand. Few nematode-infected grubs were found. Skunk damage was mainly in the cool-season fairway-height grasses, probably reflecting difficulty in foraging in the much tougher stolons and rhizomes of the warm season turfgrasses. The degree of natural suppression of scarab grubs provided by endemic pathogens or parasitoids is unlikely to be compromised by the grass species used on a particular site.

Comparative impact of an anthranilic diamide and other insecticidal chemistries on beneficial invertebrates and ecosystem services in turfgrass

BACKGROUND

Chlorantraniliprole, the first anthranilic diamide insecticide labeled for turf, combines strong selective activity against key pests with low vertebrate toxicity. The hypothesis that it is less disruptive to beneficial invertebrates and their ecosystem services than are other prevailing insecticide classes was tested. Plots in golf course settings were treated with chlorantraniliprole, or with a representative nicotinoid (clothianidin), pyethroid (bifenthrin) or a combination (clothianidin-bifenthrin) formulation. Non-target effects were assessed via pitfall traps (epigeal predators), Tullgren funnel extraction (soil microarthropods), hand sorting (earthworms), counting ant mounds and earthworm casts on tees and putting greens, assessing predation on sentinel pest eggs and comparing grass clipping decomposition in treated versus untreated turf.

RESULTS

Chlorantraniliprole had little or, in most cases, no impact on predatory or soil invertebrates, predation or decomposition. Each of the other insecticides temporarily reduced abundance and activity of one or more predator groups. Clothianidin and the clothianidin-bifenthrin combination retarded grass clipping decomposition, and the combination suppressed earthworms and casts more than did carbaryl, a toxic standard.

CONCLUSION

Chlorantraniliprole is compatible with conservation biocontrol and a good fit for industry initiatives to use relatively less toxic pesticides. One caveat is that its use on golf courses may require targeted management of ant mounds and earthworm casts that are suppressed as a side effect by some less selective insecticides.

Can a chitin-synthesis-inhibiting turfgrass fungicide enhance black cutworm susceptibility to a baculovirus?

BACKGROUND

Developmental resistance, i.e. reduced virulence and speed of kill of late instars, is a limiting factor in the use of baculoviruses for caterpillar control. Agrotis ipsilon multicapsid nucleopolyhedrovirus (AgipMNPV) is highly infective to young black cutworms, Agrotis ipsilon, but too slow-acting against late instars for effective curative control on golf courses or sports fields. Chitin-synthesis-inhibiting fungicides containing the active ingredient polyoxin-d are used to control fungal diseases in turfgrass, and similar compounds have been shown in the laboratory to synergize baculoviruses by disrupting peritrophic membrane function. This study tested whether applying the virus together with such a fungicide can synergize AgipMNPV activity against A. ipsilon in turfgrass.

RESULTS

The addition of a chitin synthesis inhibitor failed to increase AgipMNPV infectivity to A. ipsilon in the field. Rather, delayed and slightly reduced mortality from viral infection was seen when larvae fed on fungicide/virus-treated grasses as opposed to virus-only treatments. Choice tests revealed the fungicide residues to be a mild feeding deterrent.

CONCLUSION

Because polyoxin-d does not deactivate AgipMNPV, the two substances are compatible. However, combination applications of polyoxin-d and Agip MNPV on turfgrass might interfere with larval ingestion of a lethal virus dose, resulting in prolonged larval feeding in the field.

Prospects for managing turfgrass pests with reduced chemical inputs

Turfgrass culture, a multibillion dollar industry in the United States, poses unique challenges for integrated pest management. Why insect control on lawns, golf courses, and sport fields remains insecticide-driven, and how entomological research and extension can best support nascent initiatives in environmental golf and sustainable lawn care are explored. High standards for aesthetics and playability, prevailing business models, risk management-driven control decisions, and difficulty in predicting pest outbreaks fuel present reliance on preventive insecticides. New insights into pest biology, sampling methodology, microbial insecticides, plant resistance, and conservation biological control are reviewed. Those gains, and innovations in reduced-risk insecticides, should make it possible to begin constructing holistic management plans for key turfgrass pests. Nurturing the public's interest in wildlife habitat preservation, including beneficial insects, may be one means to change aesthetic perceptions and gain leeway for implementing integrated pest management practices that lend stability to turfgrass settings.

Ant-exclusion to promote biological control of soft scales (Hemiptera: Coccidae) on woody landscape plants

Ant-exclusion to facilitate biocontrol by endemic natural enemies was investigated for suppressing infestations of two coccids, calico scale, Eulecanium cerasorum (Cockerell), and magnolia scale, Neolecanium cornuparvum (Thro), in landscape settings. Application of sticky bands combined with basal trunk sprays resulted in 92-100% reduction in counts of honeydew-seeking ants, mainly Formica subsericea Say, ascending large, scale-infested sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marshall) trees. Ant-exclusion was associated with increased numbers of green lacewing, mainly Chrysoperla rufilabris (Burmeister), larvae and spiders on multiple sample dates, and 54 and 69% fewer surviving scale nymphs after the first and second growing seasons. Foliar sooty mold accumulation was also significantly reduced where ants were excluded. In feeding trials, C. rufilabris larvae collected from the tree canopies consumed large numbers of settled scale nymphs. On another site, ant-exclusion led to 82% reduction in magnolia scale densities on Magnolia stellata (Siebold & Zuccarini) Maximowicz, compared with controls, after 1 yr. Nine and 10 ant species were found tending calico and magnolia scales, respectively, at landscape sites in central Kentucky, and in situ observation trials showed that many of them aggressively attack approaching lacewing larvae. Our results suggest that where ants are closely associated with soft scales on woody landscape plants, ant-exclusion has potential as a sustainable pest management strategy.

Incidence of turf-damaging white grubs (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) and associated pathogens and parasitoids on Kentucky golf courses

Root-feeding grubs (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) were sampled from damaged areas of 61 irrigated roughs on 32 Kentucky golf courses to determine species composition and natural enemy incidence, the first such survey in the United States' transitional turfgrass climatic zone. Masked chafers (Cyclocephala lurida Bland and C. borealis Arrow) and Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica Newman) accounted for ≈73 and 26% of grubs found in an autumn survey, with Cyclocephala spp. predominating at most sites, although mixed infestations were common. Only a few Phyllophaga spp., and no exotic species other than P. japonica were found. Cyclocephala spp. also predominated in seasonal and statewide surveys regardless of whether a course had cool- or warm-season grass fairways. Pathogenic bacteria, Paenibacillus and Serratia spp., and the autumn-active parasitoid Tiphia pygidialis Allen were the main enemies associated with Cyclocephala spp. Predominant enemies of P. japonica were Paenibacillus, Serratia, and Metarhizium spp. in autumn, and eugregarines, Stictospora sp. (probably S. villani Hays and Clopton) and Tiphia vernalis Rohwer in spring. Entomopathogenic nematodes and the microsporidian Ovavesicula popilliae Andreadis & Hanula were nearly absent in our samples. No predictive relationships were found between soil parameters and proportionate abundance of Cyclocephala or P. japonica, or with natural enemy incidence at particular sites. Although incidence of individual enemies was generally low (<20%; often <5%) in these point-in-time surveys, collectively and over their hosts' prolonged development they may take a significant toll on grub populations.

Evaluating a naturally occurring baculovirus for extended biological control of the black cutworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in golf course habitats

Golf courses are a potential market for microbial insecticides, but how intensive management of such sites interacts with efficacy of entomopathogens is poorly known. We evaluated Agrotis ipsilon nucleopolyhedrovirus (AgipMNPV) for suppressing black cutworms, Agrotis ipsilon Hufnagel (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), in turf representative of golf course habitats and on whole tees under actual play. In independent trials on sand- or soil-based putting greens and surrounds, or fairway-height creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L.), < or = 1-wk-old AgipMNPV residues (10 x 10(8) occlusion bodies [OBs] per m2) typically gave 50-60% lethal infection of introduced third instars. In most cases, however, there was no residual control beyond 2-4 wk. Spraying fairway-height bentgrass with AgipMNPV alone (10 x 10(9) OBs per m2) gave 90, 85, and 7% infection of second instars introduced 4 d, 3 wk, or 5 wk later, but adjuvants (optical brightener, lignin, or both) intended to synergize and protect the virus from UV degradation did not extend infectivity. Fresh (< 1-wk-old) AgipMNPV residues killed 76-86% of neonates hatching from eggs on tees under play, but levels of control plummeted within a few weeks. Three species of braconids, an encyrtid Copidosoma bakeri (Howard), and a tachinid, Bonnetia comta (Fallen) collectively killed 24-31% of larvae recovered from those tees. AgipMNPV seems better suited for targeted control of early instars than for season-long control. Golf turf is a severe environment for baculoviruses so several applications per growing season would probably be needed to maintain high enough titers on grass foliage to effectively control caterpillar pests.

Impact of insecticide-manipulated defoliation by Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica) on grapevines from vineyard establishment through production

BACKGROUND

Japanese beetle (JB), Popillia japonica Newman, is a severe pest of grapes in the southeastern USA where viticulture is a growing industry. This study evaluated the impact of foliar injury from JB field populations on growth, fruit ripening, berry composition and yield of young vines of six cultivars from vineyard establishment through the first year of production. Three spray regimes, carbaryl applied every 7 or 14 days, or no insecticide, were used to manipulate levels of defoliation by JB.

RESULTS

Cultivars varied in susceptibility and response to defoliation by JB. Some (e.g. Norton) showed reduced vine growth and delayed post-veraison increase in total soluble sugars and pH, as well as reduced cluster number and weight, berries per cluster and yield. Others (e.g. Concord) showed little or no measurable impact from JB. Notably, the biweekly spray regime was as effective as weekly sprays in mitigating the impacts of defoliation.

CONCLUSION

Foliar loss from JB feeding can set back establishment and productivity of young grapevines. Nevertheless, many growers can reduce spray frequency without compromising the benefits of JB management. Even susceptible cultivars can tolerate low to moderate (<20%) levels of defoliation, and some are resistant enough to be grown without treating for JB.

Managing earthworm casts (Oligochaeta: Lumbricidae) in turfgrass using a natural byproduct of tea oil (Camellia sp.) manufacture

BACKGROUND

Earthworm casts are a worldwide problem on golf courses and sports fields when they disrupt the playability, aesthetics and maintenance of closely mowed playing surfaces. Currently, no pesticides are labeled for earthworms in the United States. Tea seed pellets (TSPs), a saponin-rich byproduct of Camellia oleifera Abel oil manufacture, were tested for expelling earthworms and reducing casts on creeping bentgrass turf. The fate of expelled worms, methods for removing them and impacts on pest and beneficial arthropods were also evaluated.

RESULTS

Application of TSPs at 2.93 kg 100 m(-2), followed by irrigation, quickly expelled earthworms from the soil. A single application reduced casts by 80-95% for at least 5 weeks. Mowing or sweeping removed expelled earthworms from putting green surfaces. Most expelled earthworms burrowed down when transferred to untreated turf, but few survived. Bioassay-guided fractionation confirmed the vermicidal activity results from a mix of saponins. TSPs did not reduce the abundance of beneficial soil arthropods, nor did they control black cutworms or white grubs in treated turf.

CONCLUSION

TSPs are an effective botanical vermicide that could be useful for selectively managing earthworm casts on closely mowed turfgrass. They might also be used to suppress earthworms in grassy strips alongside runways to reduce bird strike hazard at airports.

Ovipositional preferences of the Japanese beetle (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) among warm- and cool-season turfgrass species

Japanese beetles, Popillia japonica Newman (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), were evaluated for ovipositional preferences among four turfgrasses common in northwestern Arkansas. Choice assays revealed females preferred to oviposit in tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) and zoysiagrass (Zoysia japonica Steud.), and that they avoided oviposition in common bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon [L.] Pers.) and hybrid bermudagrass (C. dactylon x C. transvaalensis Pers.). Significantly fewer eggs were oviposited in hybrid bermudagrass in a no-choice assay, suggesting that chemical and/or physical plant characteristics deter oviposition in that grass. The percentage of turfgrass cores with evidence of female activity (presence of female or eggs, or signs of female digging) in choice assays revealed no differences among treatments, yet significantly fewer hybrid bermudagrass cores had eggs. These results suggest that many females did not initially reject hybrid bermudagrass based on aboveground plant characteristics, but rather they left without ovipositing. Therefore, resistance in hybrid bermudagrass is likely expressed below ground. Our results suggest that the use of hybrid bermudagrass as a means of cultural control in an integrated pest management program may discourage Japanese beetle oviposition and subsequent grub infestations in lawns, golf courses, or sports fields.

Quantitative resistance traits and suitability of woody plant species for a polyphagous scarab, Popillia japonica Newman

The Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica Newman, has an unusually broad host range among deciduous woody plants, yet it feeds only sparingly, or not at all, on certain species in the field. We evaluated beetles' preference, survival over time and fecundity on eight woody plant species historically rated as susceptible or resistant and, after verifying those ratings, tested whether resistance is correlated with so-called quantitative defense traits including leaf toughness, low nutrient content (water, nitrogen, and sugars), and relatively high amounts of tannins or saponins, traditionally associated with such plants. We further tested whether species unsuitable for Japanese beetles are also rejected by fall webworms, Hyphantria cunea (Drury) (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae), the expected outcome if the aforementioned traits serve as broad-based defenses against generalists. Choice tests supported historical resistance ratings for the selected species: tuliptree, lilac, dogwood, and Bradford callery pear were rejected by Japanese beetles, whereas sassafras, cherry plum, Virginia creeper, and littleleaf linden were readily eaten. Rejected species also were unsuitable for survival over time, or egg-laying, indicating beetles' inability to overcome the resistance factors through habituation, compensatory feeding, or detoxification. None of the aforementioned leaf traits was consistently higher or lower in the resistant or susceptible plants, and plant species rejected by Japanese beetles often were not rejected by fall webworms. Specialized secondary chemistry, not quantitative defenses, likely determines the Japanese beetle's dietary range among deciduous woody plant species it may encounter.

Seasonal biology and management of the maple shoot borer, Proteoteras aesculana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), in production nurseries

BACKGROUND

Proteoteras aesculana (Riley), a caterpillar that causes tip dieback and kills the central leader of maples, is an important nursery pest. The authors sought to develop a pheromone lure, use it to clarify the pest's seasonal biology, determine when and where infestations originate and extend the management window.

RESULTS

Gas chromatography, electroantennographic detection and trapping showed that (Z)-dodec-8-en-1-ol (Z8-12:OH) is the major sex pheromone component. Flight began in March, peaking in early spring. Larvae developed during April and May, giving rise to moths active in late May and June. No additional larvae were found in maples following that flight. Sporadic moth captures occurred into November, suggesting that adults overwinter. Three parasitoid species, all new host records, were documented. A different tortricid, Episimus tyrius Heinrich, caused leaf-tying damage in late summer. Maples shipped from Oregon were free of shoot borers, refuting speculation that larvae overwinter in buds. One bifenthrin spray applied from just before bud break at onset of moth flight to just after peak flight when shoots had two pairs of leaves reduced infestation by 96-100%.

CONCLUSION

Maples are infested soon after planting in Kentucky nurseries via eggs laid in early spring. The temporal window for preventive control is broader than previously thought.

Japanese beetles facilitate feeding by green june beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) on ripening grapes

Adult activity of native green June beetles, Cotinis nitida L., and invasive Japanese beetles, Popillia japonica Newman, peaked in late July in Kentucky coincident with later stages of veraison in early- and midseason ripening grape (Vitis spp.) cultivars. Most C. nitida feeding aggregations sampled on clusters of early-ripening grapes in the research vineyard also contained Japanese beetles. Assays showed C. nitida generally are unable to bite into intact ripe grape berries, whereas Japanese beetles readily do so. The beetles' disparate biting ability is likely because of differences in their mandibles, which are sharply pointed and opposable in P. japonica compared with C. nitida mandibles that are bluntly spatulate, do not meet at their tips, and seemingly are only suited for feeding on fruit pulp or other soft food. Japanese beetles were shown to facilitate C. nitida feeding by biting through the skin and providing access to the soft berry pulp. Juice from early- and midseason ripening grape cultivars with relatively high sugar content elicited the greatest feeding by P. japonica. A scenario is suggested wherein Japanese beetles open wound sites and contaminate fruits with yeasts that induce fermentation volatiles that attract C. nitida. Japanese beetles had difficulty biting berries of Sunbelt, a late-ripening cultivar. Phenological resistance, i.e., planting cultivars that ripen after peak flight, could be an effective management strategy. Establishment of P. japonica in grape-growing regions of the southeastern United States will likely elevate the pest status of C. nitida in vineyards.

Knockdown, residual, and antifeedant activity of pyrethroids and home landscape bioinsecticides against Japanese beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) on Linden foliage

Residual toxicity and leaf protection capability of five pyrethroids, professional and home garden azadirachtin formulations, and six other bioinsecticides for the home landscape were evaluated against the Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica Newman (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), on linden, Tilia cordata L. Capacity of intoxicated beetles to recover and subsequently feed and disperse also was evaluated to provide insight on activity characteristics of the different compounds. Intact shoots were sprayed and left in the field for varying intervals before being challenged with beetles in no-choice and choice tests. All pyrethroids except permethrin gave greater leaf protection, knockdown, and kill than did carbaryl, the standard, after 14 d of weathering. Deltamethrin, cyfluthrin, bifenthrin, and lamda-cyhalothrin gave a high level of protection for at least 19 d, and azadirachtin (Azatin XL) deterred feeding in choice tests for as long as 14 d. Home garden formulations containing pyrethrins in canola oil (Pyola) or azadiractin (Neem-Away) gave good short-term (< 3-d) protection. Formulations of capsaicin, rotenone + pyrethrins, kaolin particle film, D-limonene, or garlic extract were ineffective, the latter two formulations being highly phytotoxic to linden. Results of this study should help support updating of guidelines for insecticidal control of Japanese beetles.

Residual effects of imidacloprid on Japanese beetle (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) oviposition, egg hatch, and larval viability in turfgrass

Preventive control of turf-infesting scarabaeid grubs by neonicotinoid insecticides is presumed to mainly result from residues killing first instars in the soil. The extent to which sublethal behavioral effects or intoxication of other life stages contribute to such control is poorly known. We tested whether Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica Newman, females lay fewer eggs in turf treated with imidacloprid (Merit 75 WP) or an imidacloprid-bifenthrin combination (Allectus GC SC), and whether exposure to those residues in thatch and soil reduces their survival and subsequent ability to feed or take flight. Effects of imidacloprid residues on egg hatch and viability of successive larval instars also were studied. In two sets of choice tests, 68 and 82% fewer eggs were laid in Kentucky bluegrass with Allectus residues than in controls. When females were confined in treated turf, however, neither insecticide consistently reduced their fecundity or affected depth at which eggs were laid, although exposure to fresh Allectus residues reduced the beetles' subsequent viability. Imidacloprid residues up to 2 ppm in soil did not affect egg viability or days to hatch, but they killed neonates soon after eclosion. Imidacloprid curatively applied at label rate (0.34 kg active ingredient/ha) reduced weight gain, burrowing capability, frass production, and survival of second and third instars in turfgrass cores, with high mortality within 30 d. Intoxication and behavioral impairment of third instars also occurred in autumn field trials. Our data suggest that imidacloprid has greater activity against late instars than is generally appreciated.

Insecticide resistance in the bed bug: a factor in the pest's sudden resurgence?

Infestations of the bed bug, Cimex lectularius L. (Heteroptera: Cimicidae), are increasing around the world at an alarming rate and have become a major public health concern. The evolution of insecticide resistance could be a primary factor in explaining this resurgence. Extremely high levels of resistance to two pyrethroid insecticides, deltamethrin and lambda-cyhalothrin, relative to a susceptible colony, were detected in populations collected from human dwellings in Kentucky and Ohio. Offspring of a cross between a resistant and susceptible colony had intermediate susceptibility. Evaluations of populations from across the United States indicate that resistance to pyrethroid insecticides is already widespread. Without the development of new tactics for bed bug management, further escalation of this public health problem should be expected.

Insecticide resistance in the bed bug: a factor in the pest's sudden resurgence?

Infestations of the bed bug, Cimex lectularius L. (Heteroptera: Cimicidae), are increasing around the world at an alarming rate and have become a major public health concern. The evolution of insecticide resistance could be a primary factor in explaining this resurgence. Extremely high levels of resistance to two pyrethroid insecticides, deltamethrin and lambda-cyhalothrin, relative to a susceptible colony, were detected in populations collected from human dwellings in Kentucky and Ohio. Offspring of a cross between a resistant and susceptible colony had intermediate susceptibility. Evaluations of populations from across the United States indicate that resistance to pyrethroid insecticides is already widespread. Without the development of new tactics for bed bug management, further escalation of this public health problem should be expected.

Microbial control of black cutworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in turfgrass using Agrotis ipsilon multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus

Agrotis ipsilon multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (family Baculoviridae, genus Nucleopolyhedrovirus, AgipMNPV), a naturally occurring baculovirus, was found infecting black cutworm, Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), on central Kentucky golf courses. Laboratory, greenhouse, and field studies investigated the potential of AgipMNPV for managing black cutworms in turfgrass. The virus was highly active against first instars (LC50 = 73 occlusion bodies [OBs] per microl with 2-microl dose; 95% confidence intervals, 55-98). First instars that ingested a high lethal dose stopped feeding and died in 3-6 d as early second instars, whereas lethally infected fourth instars continued to feed and grow for 4-9 d until death. Sublethal doses consumed by third or fifth instars had little or no effect on subsequent developmental rate or pupal weight. Horizontal transmission of AgipMNPV in turfgrass plots was shown. Sprayed suspensions of AgipMNPV (5 x 10(8) - 6 x 10(9) OBs/m2) resulted in 75 to > 93% lethal infection of third or fourth instars in field plots of fairway-height creeping bentgrass, Agrostis stolonifera (Huds.), and on a golf course putting green collar. Virus spray residues (7 x 10(9) OBs/m2) allowed to weather on mowed and irrigated creeping bentgrass field plots significantly increased lethal infection of implanted larvae for at least 4 wk. This study, the first to evaluate a virus against a pest in turfgrass, suggests that AgipMNPV has potential as a preventive bioinsecticide targeting early instar black cutworms. Establishing a virus reservoir in the thatch and soil could suppress successive generations of that key pest on golf courses and sport fields.

Trapping Phyllophaga spp. (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Melolonthinae) in the United States and Canada using sex attractants

The sex pheromone of the scarab beetle, Phyllophaga anxia, is a blend of the methyl esters of two amino acids, L-valine and L-isoleucine. A field trapping study was conducted, deploying different blends of the two compounds at 59 locations in the United States and Canada. More than 57,000 males of 61 Phyllophaga species (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Melolonthinae) were captured and identified. Three major findings included: (1) widespread use of the two compounds [of the 147 Phyllophaga (sensu stricto) species found in the United States and Canada, males of nearly 40% were captured]; (2) in most species intraspecific male response to the pheromone blends was stable between years and over geography; and (3) an unusual pheromone polymorphism was described from P. anxia. Populations at some locations were captured with L-valine methyl ester alone, whereas populations at other locations were captured with L-isoleucine methyl ester alone. At additional locations, the L-valine methyl ester-responding populations and the L-isoleucine methyl ester-responding populations were both present, producing a bimodal capture curve. In southeastern Massachusetts and in Rhode Island, in the United States, P. anxia males were captured with blends of L-valine methyl ester and L-isoleucine methyl ester.

Trapping Phyllophaga spp. (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Melolonthinae) in the United States and Canada using sex attractants

The sex pheromone of the scarab beetle, Phyllophaga anxia, is a blend of the methyl esters of two amino acids, L-valine and L-isoleucine. A field trapping study was conducted, deploying different blends of the two compounds at 59 locations in the United States and Canada. More than 57,000 males of 61 Phyllophaga species (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Melolonthinae) were captured and identified. Three major findings included: (1) widespread use of the two compounds [of the 147 Phyllophaga (sensu stricto) species found in the United States and Canada, males of nearly 40% were captured]; (2) in most species intraspecific male response to the pheromone blends was stable between years and over geography; and (3) an unusual pheromone polymorphism was described from P. anxia. Populations at some locations were captured with L-valine methyl ester alone, whereas populations at other locations were captured with L-isoleucine methyl ester alone. At additional locations, the L-valine methyl ester-responding populations and the L-isoleucine methyl ester-responding populations were both present, producing a bimodal capture curve. In southeastern Massachusetts and in Rhode Island, in the United States, P. anxia males were captured with blends of L-valine methyl ester and L-isoleucine methyl ester.

Life history and natural enemy associations of calico scale (Homoptera: Coccidae) in Kentucky

Seasonal phenology of calico scale, Eulecanium cerasorum (Cockerell), was monitored for 3 yr on various deciduous tree species in central Kentucky. Infestations were found on 16 host species in six plant families. Calico scale is a univoltine parthenogenic species that overwinters as second instars on bark. Nymphs molted to adult females around mid-April and began producing eggs in late April. Mean fecundity ranged from 3,728 to 4,654 eggs per female, depending on host plant species. Date of first crawler hatch in 2001-2003 ranged from 21 to 26 May, corresponding to a mean accumulation of 818 +/- 2 Celsius degree-days (DDC), calculated from 1 January and a base of 4.4 degrees C. This value predicted crawler hatch within 2 d in Lexington, KY, in 2004. Crawler dispersal lasted 2 to 3 wk. Upon hatching, crawlers move to leaves where they feed during summer. Crawlers primarily settled on the abaxial side of leaves and their within-leaf distribution varied between different tree species. Settled crawlers molted in mid-July and second instars remained on leaves until late September through mid-October, when they returned to bark to overwinter. On hackberry, Celtis occidentalis L., they were concentrated toward the basal end of shoots, primarily because leaf flush continued beyond the end of the crawler dispersal period. Crawler distribution did not differ between upper and lower canopy zones. Fourteen species of parasitoids and a coccinellid beetle were reared from individual scales. Monitoring with sticky traps in tree canopies confirmed that targeting crawlers with insecticides during late May or June would not coincide with peak flight activity of the scale's primary parasitoids.

Factors affecting distribution of the mound-building ant Lasius neoniger (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and implications for management on golf course putting greens

Lasius neoniger (Emery), a cosmopolitan ant species, can be a serious pest when its mound-building activities occur on golf course putting greens and other closely mowed turfgrass sites. We mapped the distribution of 735 ant mounds on 30 sand-based putting greens of three golf courses. We then examined factors that might explain why >90% of the mounds on such greens were concentrated in a 2-m wide band just inside the perimeter. Root aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) from which L. neoniger obtains honeydew were largely absent from high-sand root zone mix of greens but present in surrounding turfgrass on natural soil. Main ant nests, with brood, also were absent from sand-based greens but abundant in adjacent roughs. Although more root aphids were found within ant nests than away from nests, their numbers seem too low to be the main factor restricting the ants' distribution to edges of putting greens. In manipulative experiments, ants responded to low cut (scalped) turf and to sand-filled holes by increased mound building. We suggest that most ant mounds on sand-based greens are associated with subnests, used by foraging workers, which are connected to main nests located just outside the collar in natural soil. Encroachment of mounds into greens occurs when the polydomous colonies seasonally expand their foraging territories, accounting for mounds being concentrated around the perimeter. Control actions for L. neoniger on golf courses should focus on the perimeter of sand-based greens.

Managing Eastern tent caterpillars Malacosoma americanum (F) on horse farms to reduce risk of mare reproductive loss syndrome

An equine disease now known as mare reproductive loss syndrome (MRLS) struck the Ohio Valley in 2001-2002 causing thousands of foal abortions and enormous economic loss. Evidence that pregnant mares' exposure to Eastern tent caterpillars Malacosoma americanum (F) induces MRLS created an urgent call for control measures suitable for use on horse farms. We surveyed egg mass distribution and monitored emergence in wild cherry trees, and evaluated reduced-risk treatment strategies including foliage sprays, trunk injections, winter egg mass treatments and barrier sprays to intercept larvae entering pastures. Egg masses were concentrated in the lower canopy, on exposed sides of trees. Larval emergence began in mid-March. Emergence was prolonged (3-4 weeks) in 2002, a typically cool spring, but more synchronized in warmer 2003. Winter treatment of egg masses with bifenthrin or permethrin in a penetrating solvent prevented emergence, but 3% horticultural oil was ineffective for that purpose. Insecticidal soap or oil sprayed directly on neonates gave relatively poor control. Bifenthrin and spinosad were effective as foliage sprays against all instars, their field-weathered residues active for at least 7 days. Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner var kurstaki controlled neonates within 3 days but was less active against late instars, with shorter residual action than bifenthrin or spinosad. Larvae did not avoid insecticide-treated leaves. Trunk microinjection of cherry trees with dicrotophos was effective against all instars, whereas microinjection with milbemectin or abamectin gave poor or inconsistent control. Trunk injection with emamectin benzoate also was effective. Dry permethrin residues controlled late instars crawling in pasture grass for at least 7 days. Factors complicating M americanum management on horse farms are discussed.

Floral affinity and benefits of dietary mixing with flowers for a polyphagous scarab, Popillia japonica Newman

Many generalist herbivores, especially adult beetles, are facultative florivores, feeding on leaves but readily accepting floral tissues when available. We speculated that day-flying beetles with high energetic requirements would benefit from dietary mixing with nutrient-rich flower tissues and favor them during foraging. We tested that "Floral Affinity Hypothesis" with Popillia japonica, a day-active ruteline scarab that feeds intermittently throughout its adult life on multiple plant species. In field tests with six species of flowering hosts, far more landings occurred on flowers than on foliage for all plants except Hibiscus syriacus which bears flowers along the main stem rather than terminally. Trials with elevated plants showed that height of the floral display contributes to beetles' landing on flowers. Flower petals generally were preferred over leaves in laboratory choice tests. Nitrogen and water content were comparable or higher in foliage than in petals, but plant sugars were much higher in petals. Longevity and fecundity of beetles provided single-plant diets of Hibiscus, Rosa x hybrida, or Trifolium flowers for 3 weeks were as high, or higher, than for beetles fed foliage of Tilia cordata, a highly suitable resource. As expected, rotating flowers or Tilia foliage with marginally suitable Quercus palustris foliage enhanced those parameters relative to a diet of Quercus alone, but beetles provided high-quality Tilia foliage also benefitted from dietary mixing with flowers. Nearly all past dietary mixing studies concerned immature insects, for which growth rate is paramount. Opportunistic florivory by adult beetles represents a type of dietary mixing wherein the premium may be calorie-rich food for fueling flight muscles, with ensuing reproductive benefits.

Epidermal growth factor activates m-calpain (calpain II), at least in part, by extracellular signal-regulated kinase-mediated phosphorylation

How m-calpain is activated in cells has challenged investigators because in vitro activation requires near-millimolar calcium. Previously, we demonstrated that m-calpain activation by growth factors requires extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK); this enables tail deadhesion and allows productive motility. We now show that ERK directly phosphorylates and activates m-calpain both in vitro and in vivo. We identified serine 50 as required for epidermal growth factor (EGF)-induced calpain activation in vitro and in vivo. Replacing the serine with alanine limits activation by EGF and subsequent cell deadhesion and motility. A construct with the serine converted to glutamic acid displays constitutive activity in vivo; expression of an estrogen receptor fusion construct produces a tamoxifen-sensitive enzyme. Interestingly, EGF-induced m-calpain activation occurs in the absence of increased intracellular calcium levels; EGF triggers calpain even in the presence of intracellular calcium chelators and in calcium-free media. These data provide evidence that m-calpain can be activated through the ERK cascade via direct phosphorylation and that this activation may occur in the absence of cytosolic calcium fluxes.

Floral characteristics affect susceptibility of hybrid tea roses, Rosa x hybrida, to Japanese beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)

The Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica Newman, feeds on the flowers and foliage of roses. Rosa x hybrida. Beetles attracted to roses land almost exclusively on the flowers. This study evaluated characteristics of rose flowers including color, size, petal count and fragrance, as well as height of plants and blooms within plant as factors in attractiveness to Japanese beetles. Artificial flowers that had been painted to match the spectral reflectance of real blooms were attached to potted nonflowering rose plants in the field and the number of beetles that landed on each model was recorded. More beetles landed on the yellow- and white-colored flower models than on the five other bloom colors that were tested. Large (15 cm diameter) yellow flower models attracted more beetles than did smaller (8 cm diameter) yellow models. There was no difference in beetle response to yellow flower models of the same size that differed in bloom complexity (i.e., number of petals). Experiments in which blooming rose plants were elevated above controls, or in which flower models were placed at different heights within plant canopies, failed to support the hypothesis that height per se accounts for beetles' attraction to flowers over leaves. Attractiveness of selected rose cultivars that varied in fragrance and flower color also was evaluated in the field. Yellow-flowered cultivars were more susceptible than those with red flowers, regardless of fragrance intensity as rated by breeders. Growing cultivars of roses that have relatively dark and small-sized blooms may have some benefit in reducing Japanese beetles' attraction to roses.

Effects of spring imidacloprid application for white grub control on parasitism of Japanese beetle (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) by Tiphia vernalis (Hymenoptera: Tiphiidae)

Imidacloprid, a relatively long residual neonicotinoid soil insecticide, is often applied to lawns and golf courses in spring for preventive control of root-feeding white grubs. We evaluated effects of such applications on spring parasitism of the overwintered third-instar Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica Newman, by Tiphia vernalis Rohwer, an introduced solitary ectoparasitoid. Natural rates of parasitism on a golf course rough were significantly lower in plots treated with full or one-half label rates of imidacloprid in early May compared with untreated turf. Parasitism also was reduced when female T. vernalis were exposed to imidacloprid residues on turf cores in the laboratory. Such exposures did not affect wasp mortality, longevity, survival, or developmental period of Tiphia larvae feeding on hosts in treated turf. They did, however, reduce wasps' ability to parasitize hosts in nontreated soil for at least 1-2 wk postexposure. In Y-trail choice tests, wasps that previously had been exposed to treated turf failed to respond normally to host frass trails in the soil. Female wasps did not avoid imidacloprid residues, imidacloprid-treated host frass, or host grubs that had previously been exposed to treated soil. This study indicates that applying imidacloprid in early spring can interfere with biological control by T. vernalis, whereas postponing preventive grub treatments until June or July, after the wasps' flight period, will help to conserve T. vernalis populations.