Paramecium, a Model to Study Ciliary Beating and Ciliogenesis: Insights From Cutting-Edge Approaches

Cilia are ubiquitous and highly conserved extensions that endow the cell with motility and sensory functions. They were present in the first eukaryotes and conserved throughout evolution (Carvalho-Santos et al., 2011). Paramecium has around 4,000 motile cilia on its surface arranged in longitudinal rows, beating in waves to ensure movement and feeding. As with cilia in other model organisms, direction and speed of Paramecium ciliary beating is under bioelectric control of ciliary ion channels. In multiciliated cells of metazoans as well as paramecia, the cilia become physically entrained to beat in metachronal waves. This ciliated organism, Paramecium, is an attractive model for multidisciplinary approaches to dissect the location, structure and function of ciliary ion channels and other proteins involved in ciliary beating. Swimming behavior also can be a read-out of the role of cilia in sensory signal transduction. A cilium emanates from a BB, structurally equivalent to the centriole anchored at the cell surface, and elongates an axoneme composed of microtubule doublets enclosed in a ciliary membrane contiguous with the plasma membrane. The connection between the BB and the axoneme constitutes the transition zone, which serves as a diffusion barrier between the intracellular space and the cilium, defining the ciliary compartment. Human pathologies affecting cilia structure or function, are called ciliopathies, which are caused by gene mutations. For that reason, the molecular mechanisms and structural aspects of cilia assembly and function are actively studied using a variety of model systems, ranging from unicellular organisms to metazoa. In this review, we will highlight the use of Paramecium as a model to decipher ciliary beating mechanisms as well as high resolution insights into BB structure and anchoring. We will show that study of cilia in Paramecium promotes our understanding of cilia formation and function. In addition, we demonstrate that Paramecium could be a useful tool to validate candidate genes for ciliopathies.

Lysosomal retargeting of Myoferlin mitigates membrane stress to enable pancreatic cancer growth

Lysosomes must maintain the integrity of their limiting membrane to ensure efficient fusion with incoming organelles and degradation of substrates within their lumen. Pancreatic cancer cells upregulate lysosomal biogenesis to enhance nutrient recycling and stress resistance, but it is unknown whether dedicated programmes for maintaining the integrity of the lysosome membrane facilitate pancreatic cancer growth. Using proteomic-based organelle profiling, we identify the Ferlin family plasma membrane repair factor Myoferlin as selectively and highly enriched on the membrane of pancreatic cancer lysosomes. Mechanistically, lysosomal localization of Myoferlin is necessary and sufficient for the maintenance of lysosome health and provides an early acting protective system against membrane damage that is independent of the endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT)-mediated repair network. Myoferlin is upregulated in human pancreatic cancer, predicts poor survival and its ablation severely impairs lysosome function and tumour growth in vivo. Thus, retargeting of plasma membrane repair factors enhances the pro-oncogenic activities of the lysosome.

Towards characterization of photo-excited electron transfer and catalysis in natural and artificial systems using XFELs

The ultra-bright femtosecond X-ray pulses provided by X-ray Free Electron Lasers (XFELs) open capabilities for studying the structure and dynamics of a wide variety of biological and inorganic systems beyond what is possible at synchrotron sources. Although the structure and chemistry at the catalytic sites have been studied intensively in both biological and inorganic systems, a full understanding of the atomic-scale chemistry requires new approaches beyond the steady state X-ray crystallography and X-ray spectroscopy at cryogenic temperatures. Following the dynamic changes in the geometric and electronic structure at ambient conditions, while overcoming X-ray damage to the redox active catalytic center, is key for deriving reaction mechanisms. Such studies become possible by using the intense and ultra-short femtosecond X-ray pulses from an XFEL, where sample is probed before it is damaged. We have developed methodology for simultaneously collecting X-ray diffraction data and X-ray emission spectra, using an energy dispersive spectrometer, at ambient conditions, and used this approach to study the room temperature structure and intermediate states of the photosynthetic water oxidizing metallo-protein, photosystem II. Moreover, we have also used this setup to simultaneously collect the X-ray emission spectra from multiple metals to follow the ultrafast dynamics of light-induced charge transfer between multiple metal sites. A Mn-Ti containing system was studied at an XFEL to demonstrate the efficacy and potential of this method.

Annexin-A1 identified as the oral epithelial cell anti-Candida effector moiety

Innate and adaptive immunity are considered critical to protection against mucosal candidal infections. Among innate anti-Candida mechanisms, oral and vaginal epithelial cells have antifungal activity. The mechanism is fungistatic, acid-labile and includes a requirement for cell contact by intact, but not necessarily live, epithelial cells. The purpose of this study was to use the acid-labile property to further characterize the effector moiety. Surface material extracted from phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) -treated, but not acid-treated, epithelial cells significantly inhibited the growth of Candida blastoconidia in a dose-dependent manner which was abrogated by prior heat and protease treatment. Proteins extracted from PBS-treated cells bound blastoconidia and hyphae more intensely than those from acid-treated cells. Proteins from PBS-treated cells eluted from Candida revealed two unique bands of approximately 33 and 45 kDa compared with acid-treated cells. Mass spectrometry identified these proteins as Annexin-A1 and actin, respectively. Oral epithelial cells stained positive for Annexin-A1, but not actin. Western blots showed reduced Annexin-A1 in proteins from acid-treated epithelial cells compared with those from PBS-treated epithelial cells. Lastly, it was demonstrated that immunoprecipitation of Annexin-A1 from proteins extracted from PBS-treated oral epithelial cells resulted in abrogation of inhibitory activity. Taken together, these results indicate that Annexin-A1 is a strong candidate for the epithelial cell anti-Candida effector protein.

Factors associated with acute otitis media in children due to penicillin intermediately resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae

OBJECTIVES

This study was conducted to analyze the association between recent antimicrobial use and acute otitis media (AOM) due to Streptococcus pneumoniae intermediately resistant to penicillin (PISP). The influence of drug resistance on the clinical course of AOM was also assessed.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study was conducted in infants at Japanese Red Cross Medical Center, Tokyo. Children included in the study were under 24 months of age and diagnosed with AOM due to infection with S. pneumoniae between April 2002 and March 2007. Crude risk ratios (cRR) of PISP infection in cases with recent antibiotic use and other factors were obtained. The Mantel-Haenszel estimate was applied for the adjustment of cRR.

RESULTS

Of 35 children, 13 had AOM due to penicillin-susceptible S. pneumoniae (PSSP) and 22 had AOM due to PISP. The adjusted risk ratio (aRR) of penicillin antibiotic use within 1 month was 1.99 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.36-2.92), and the aRR of penicillin antibiotic use within 1 week was 1.93 (95% CI: 1.33-2.67). Recent use of penicillin antibiotics was an associated factor for AOM due to PISP. The clinical course was not clearly different between cases infected with PSSP and those with PISP.

CONCLUSION

Recent use of penicillin antibiotics might be a selective pressure for PISP.

Acute otitis media due to Haemophilus influenzae with antibiotic resistance: experience of a tertiary hospital in Tokyo city

OBJECTIVE

The objective of the study was to clarify the associated factors of pediatric acute otitis media (AOM) due to Haemophilus influenzae with antibiotic resistance.

METHODS

A retrospective chart review was conducted for all AOM cases due to H.influenzae in children younger than 2 years of age that were presented at the Department of Otolaryngology, Japanese Red Cross Medical Hospital (JRCMC), Tokyo, from April 2005 to March 2007.

RESULTS

Seventy-six children were enrolled in this study. Multivariate analysis showed that residing at the JRCMC infant home (OR, 3.7; [95% CI, 1.1-12.8]; P=0.039) and a history of consuming macrolide in the past month (OR, 4.7; [95% CI, 1.1-21.5]; P=0.041) were the associated factors for AOM due to beta-lactamase positive, ampicillin-resistant H. influenzae.

CONCLUSIONS

A history of consuming macrolide in the past month should be noted on antibiotic prescriptions for children with AOM who are younger than 2 years of age.

Oral and vaginal epithelial cell anti-Candida activity is acid labile and does not require live epithelial cells

BACKGROUND

Candida albicans is the causative agent of oral and vaginal candidiasis. Innate host defenses against C. albicans are important against each infection. Among these are oral and vaginal epithelial cells that have anti-Candida activity. The mechanism of action includes a requirement for cell contact with no role for soluble factors, and a putative role for carbohydrates based on the sensitivity of the activity to periodic acid.

METHODS

Periodic acid treatment of epithelial cells as well as the property of partial resistance of antifungal activity to fixation was used to further dissect the mechanism of action.

RESULTS

The results herein effectively now challenge a role for carbohydrates alone. Firstly, the putative carbohydrate(s) released into supernatants of periodic acid-treated epithelial cells could not compete with fresh epithelial cells for activity, and equivalent abrogation of activity was observed by periodic acid-treated cells irrespective of the amount of carbohydrate released. Instead, the similar abrogation of activity following treatment with other acids or when cocultured under acidic conditions suggests that the activity is acid-labile. Finally, while activity requires intact epithelial cells, it does not require live cells; activity was minimally affected by fixing epithelial cells prior to coculture where the majority of cells remained impermeable to Trypan blue but were defined as non-viable by positive nuclear staining with propidium iodide.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that antifungal activity is dependent on contact by intact, but not necessarily live, epithelial cells through an acid-labile mechanism.

Efficacy of ozone on survival and permeability of oral microorganisms

In the present study, we examined the effect of ozonated water on oral microorganisms and dental plaque. Almost no microorganisms were detected after being treated with ozonated water (4 mg/l) for 10 s. To estimate the ozonated water-treated Streptococcus mutans, bacterial cells were stained with LIVE/DEAD BacLight Bacterial Viability Kit. Fluorescence microscopic analysis revealed that S. mutans cells were killed instantaneously in ozonated water. Some breakage of ozonated water-treated S. mutans was found by electron microscopy. When the experimental dental plaque was exposed to ozonated water, the number of viable S. mutans remarkably decreased. Ozonated water strongly inhibited the accumulation of experimental dental plaque in vitro. After the dental plaque samples from human subjects were exposed to ozonated water in vitro, almost no viable bacterial cells were detected. These results suggest that ozonated water should be useful in reducing the infections caused by oral microorganisms in dental plaque.

Genomic analysis of a mouse model of immunoglobulin A nephropathy reveals an enhanced PDGF-EDG5 cascade

The molecular mechanism of immunoglobulin A nephropathy (IgAN), the most common primary renal glomerular disease worldwide, is unknown. HIGA (high serum IgA) mouse is a valid model of IgAN showing almost all of the pathological features, including mesangial cell proliferation. Here we elucidate a pattern of gene expression associated with IgAN by analyzing the diseased kidneys on cDNA microarrays. In particular, we showed an enhanced expression of several genes regulating the cell cycle and proliferation, including growth factors and their receptors, as well as endothelial differentiation gene-5 (EDG5), a receptor for sphingosine 1-phosphate (SPP). One of the growth factors, platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) induces a marked upregulation of EDG5 in proliferative mesangial cells, and promotes cell proliferation synergistically with SPP. The genomic approach allows us to identify families of genes involved in a process, and can indicate that enhanced PDGF-EDG5 signaling plays an important role in the progression of IgAN.

Toll-like receptor-4 is expressed by macrophages in murine and human lipid-rich atherosclerotic plaques and upregulated by oxidized LDL

BACKGROUND

Inflammation is implicated in atherogenesis and plaque disruption. Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR-2) and TLR-4, a human homologue of drosophila Toll, play an important role in the innate and inflammatory signaling responses to microbial agents. To investigate a potential role of these receptors in atherosclerosis, we assessed the expression of TLR-2 and TLR-4 in murine and human atherosclerotic plaques.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Aortic root lesions of high-fat diet-fed apoE-deficient mice (n=5) and human coronary atherosclerotic plaques (n=9) obtained at autopsy were examined for TLR-4 and TLR-2 expression by immunohistochemistry. Aortic atherosclerotic lesions in all apoE-deficient mice expressed TLR-4, whereas aortic tissue obtained from control C57BL/6J mice showed no TLR-4 expression. All 5 lipid-rich human plaques expressed TRL-4, whereas the 4 fibrous plaques and 4 normal human arteries showed no or minimal expression. Serial sections and double immunostaining showed TLR-4 colocalizing with macrophages both in murine atherosclerotic lesions and at the shoulder region of human coronary artery plaques. In contrast to TLR-4, none of the plaques expressed TLR-2. Furthermore, basal TLR-4 mRNA expression by human monocyte-derived macrophages was upregulated by ox-LDL in vitro.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study demonstrates that TLR-4 is preferentially expressed by macrophages in murine and human lipid-rich atherosclerotic lesions, where it may play a role to enhance and sustain the innate immune and inflammatory responses. Moreover, upregulation of TLR-4 in macrophages by oxidized LDL suggests that TLR-4 may provide a potential pathophysiological link between lipids and infection/inflammation and atherosclerosis.

Molecular monitoring of bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis by cDNA microarray-based gene expression profiling

Pulmonary fibrosis is a progressive disorder whose molecular pathology is poorly understood. Here we developed an in-house cDNA microarray ("lung chip") originating from a lung-normalized cDNA library. By using this lung chip, we analyzed global gene expression in a murine model of bleomycin-induced fibrosis and selected 82 genes that differed by more than twofold intensity in at least one pairwise comparison with controls. Cluster analysis of these selected genes showed that the expression of genes associated with inflammation reached maximum levels at 5 days after bleomycin administration, while genes involved in the development of fibrosis increased gradually up to 14 days after bleomycin treatment. These changes in gene expression signature were well correlated with observed histopathological changes. The results show that microarray analysis of animal disease models is a powerful approach to understanding the gene expression programs that underlie these disorders.

High-dose recombinant apolipoprotein A-I(milano) mobilizes tissue cholesterol and rapidly reduces plaque lipid and macrophage content in apolipoprotein e-deficient mice. Potential implications for acute plaque stabilization

BACKGROUND

Repeated doses of recombinant apolipoprotein A-I(Milano) phospholipid complex (apoA-I(m)) reduce atherosclerosis and favorably change plaque composition in rabbits and mice. In this study, we tested whether a single high dose of recombinant apoA-I(m) could rapidly mobilize tissue cholesterol and reduce plaque lipid and macrophage content in apoE-deficient mice.

METHODS AND RESULTS

High cholesterol-fed, 26-week-old apoE-deficient mice received a single intravenous injection of saline (n=16), 1080 mg/kg dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC; n=14), or 400 mg/kg of recombinant apoA-I(m) complexed with DPPC (1:2.7 weight ratio; n=18). Blood was sampled before and 1 and 48 hours after injection, and aortic root plaques were evaluated for lipid content and macrophage content after oil-red O and immunostaining, respectively. One hour after injection, the plasma cholesterol efflux-promoting capacity was nearly 2-fold higher in recombinant apoA-I(m)-treated mice compared with saline and DPPC-treated mice (P<0.01). Compared with baseline values, serum free cholesterol, an index of tissue cholesterol mobilization, increased 1.6-fold by 1 hour after recombinant apoA-I(m) injection, and it remained significantly elevated at 48 hours (P<0.01). Mice receiving recombinant apoA-I(m) had 40% to 50% lower lipid content (P<0.01) and 29% to 36% lower macrophage content (P<0.05) in their plaques compared with the saline- and DPPC-treated mice, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

A single high dose of recombinant apoA-I(m) rapidly mobilizes tissue cholesterol and reduces plaque lipid and macrophage content in apoE-deficient mice. These findings suggest that this strategy could rapidly change plaque composition toward a more stable phenotype.

[Clinical laboratory data and reference intervals standardized in Fukuoka]

In Fukuoka whose population is approximately five million inhabitants, surveys on the accuracy of laboratory data have been performed by the Fukuoka Prefecture Medical Association for the last 30 years. We have been attempting to evaluate the data for routine use since 1988, and it has become possible to share laboratory data between all institutions in Fukuoka prefectures. As a result, reference intervals for 23 clinical chemistry analytes were established in 1995, to which were added in 1996 five serum protein constituents that have been utilized for clinical examinations. Methods for documentations and monitorings the data obtained in the prefecture were also established, standardization of the above analytes extended to 97% of the institutions in the prefecture. Results for 14 of the 23 clinical chemistry analytes have become highly reliable and clinically useful as differences between institutions in terms of results have narrowed. Standardization of other analytes is now in progress.

Identification of muscle specific ring finger proteins as potential regulators of the titin kinase domain

The giant myofibrillar protein titin contains within its C-terminal region a serine-threonine kinase of unknown function. We have identified a novel muscle specific RING finger protein, referred to as MURF-1, that binds in vitro to the titin repeats A168/A169 adjacent to the titin kinase domain. In myofibrils, MURF-1 is present within the periphery of the M-line lattice in close proximity to titin's catalytic kinase domain, within the Z-line lattice, and also in soluble form within the cytoplasm. Yeast two-hybrid screens with MURF-1 as a bait identified two other highly homologous MURF proteins, MURF-2 and MURF-3. MURF-1,2,3 proteins are encoded by distinct genes, share highly conserved N-terminal RING domains and in vitro form dimers/heterodimers by shared coiled-coil motifs. Of the MURF family, only MURF-1 interacts with titin repeats A168/A169, whereas MURF-3 has been reported to affect microtubule stability. Association of MURF-1 with M-line titin may potentially modulate titin's kinase activity similar to other known kinase-associated proteins, whereas differential expression and heterodimerization of MURF1, 2 and 3 may link together titin kinase and microtubule-dependent signal pathways in striated muscles.

Atomic resolution structure analysis of beta' polymorph crystal of a triacylglycerol: 1,2-dipalmitoyl-3-myristoyl-sn-glycerol

The crystal structure of the beta'-2 form of a mixed chain triacylglycerol (TAG), 1,2-dipalmitoyl-3-myristoyl-sn-glycerol (PPM), was determined to a final reliability factor of 0.074. This work is the first to resolve the atomic-level structure of the beta' polymorph, which is of the highest functionality among multiple polymorphs in asymmetric TAG. In particular, fat crystals present in food emulsions are in beta', whose transformation into beta causes deterioration in their physical properties. beta'-2, one of the two beta' forms of PPM, forms a monoclinic unit cell with a space group of C2; Z = 8, a = 16.534(5) A, b = 7.537(2) A, c = 81.626(9) A; beta = 90.28(2) degrees, V = 10171(3) A(3), density = 1.018 g/cm(3), and mu = 4.96 cm(-1). The following characteristics were obtained: 1) two asymmetric units, named A and B, form a hybrid-type orthorhombic perpendicular subcell; 2) the two asymmetric units reveal different glycerol conformations: trans for sn-1 palmitic acid and sn-2 palmitic acid, but gauche for sn-3 myristic acid in A; and trans for sn-2 palmitic acid and sn-3 myristic acid, but gauche for sn-1 palmitic acid in B; 3) a unit lamellae reveals a four-chain-length structure consisting of two double-layer leaflets; 4) the two double-layer leaflets are combined end-by-end in a unit lamellae; and 5) the chain axes are alternatively inclined against the lamellar interface. -- Sato, K., M. Goto, J. Yano, K. Honda, D. R. Kodali, and D. M. Small. Atomic resolution structure analysis of beta' polymorph crystal of a triacylglycerol: 1,2-dipalmitoyl-3-myristoyl-sn-glycerol. J. Lipid Res. 2001. 42: 338--345.

Pravastatin treatment increases collagen content and decreases lipid content, inflammation, metalloproteinases, and cell death in human carotid plaques: implications for plaque stabilization

BACKGROUND

The clinical benefits of lipid lowering with statins are attributed to changes in plaque composition leading to lesion stability, but supporting clinical data from human studies are lacking. Therefore, we investigated the effect of 3 months of pravastatin treatment on composition of human carotid plaques removed during carotid endarterectomy.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Consecutive patients with symptomatic carotid artery stenosis received 40 mg/d pravastatin (n=11) or no lipid-lowering therapy (n=13; control subjects) for 3 months before scheduled carotid endarterectomy. Carotid plaque composition was assessed with special stains and immunocytochemistry with quantitative image analysis. Plaques from the pravastatin group had less lipid by oil red O staining (8.2+/-8.4% versus 23.9+/-21.1% of the plaque area, P<0.05), less oxidized LDL immunoreactivity (13.3+/-3.6% versus 22.0+/-6.5%, P<0.001), fewer macrophages (15.0+/-10.2% versus 25.3+/-12.5%, P<0.05), fewer T cells (11.2+/-9.3% versus 24.3+/-13.4%, P<0.05), less matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2) immunoreactivity (3.6+/-3.9% versus 8.4+/-5.3%, P<0.05), greater tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 (TIMP-1) immunoreactivity (9.0+/-6.2% versus 3.1+/-3.9%, P<0.05), and a higher collagen content by Sirius red staining (12.4+/-3.1% versus 7.5+/-3.5%, P<0.005). Cell death by TUNEL staining was reduced in the pravastatin group (17.7+/-7.8% versus 32.0+/-12.6%, P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

-Pravastatin decreased lipids, lipid oxidation, inflammation, MMP-2, and cell death and increased TIMP-1 and collagen content in human carotid plaques, confirming its plaque-stabilizing effect in humans.

Standardization of Laboratory Data and Establishment of Reference Intervals in the Fukuoka Prefecture: A Japanese Perspective

Standardization of 22 clinical chemistry analytes and five serum protein constituents has been performed in the Fukuoka Prefecture, which has a population of approximately five million. The standardization project was established to determine reference intervals for these analytes by educating physicians, medical technologists and staff of medical institutions, and by daily or monthly monitoring the use of common control samples through e-mail. Standardization extended to 97% of the institutions in the prefecture. Results for 14 of the 22 clinical chemistry analytes have become highly reliable and differences between institutions decreased. Standardization of other analytes is now in progress. Regional collaboration based on international guidelines led to a significant improvement in interlaboratory comparability. Areas where further improvements are needed have been identified.

Polymorphism of linoleic acid (cis-9, cis-12-octadecadienoic acid) and alpha-linolenic acid (cis-9, cis-12, cis-15-octadecatrienoic acid)

Crystallization and polymorphic properties of linoleic acid (cis-9, cis-12-Octadecadienoic acid) (LA) and alpha-linolenic acid (cis-9, cis-12, cis-15-Octadecatrienoic acid) (alpha-LNA) have been studied by optical microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The DSC analyses presented three polymorphs in LA, and two polymorphs in alpha-LNA. The XRD patterns of the higher- and lower-temperature forms in LA and alpha-LNA showed orthorhombic O'(//)+O-like and O'(//) subcell, which were similar to those of alpha- and gamma-forms of mono-unsaturated fatty acids, respectively. From the solvent crystallization of LA and alpha-LNA in acetonitrile, single crystals of the higher temperature polymorphs have been obtained. The crystal habits of truncated rhombic shape were also similar to those of alpha-forms of the mono-unsaturated fatty acids. The enthalpy and entropy values of fusion and dissolution of the alpha-forms of LA, alpha-LNA and oleic acid showed that the two values decreased with increasing number of the cis-double bond.

Inhibition of metastatic carcinoma cell growth in livers by poly(I):poly(C)/cationic liposome complex (LIC)

The complex of poly(I):poly(C) and a new cationic liposome (LIC) has a potent antitumor activity against many tumor cell lines in vitro, whereas poly(I):poly(C) itself has no such activity. In the present study we tested the sensitivity of 21 human colon and pancreatic cancer cell lines to LIC or Adriamycin in vitro. The growth of most of the cell lines was strongly inhibited by both LIC and Adriamycin in vitro, although a few insensitive cell lines were different. We also studied the in vivo antitumor activity of LIC or Adriamycin in three experimental liver metastasis models in nude mice using a human pancreatic cancer cell line (AsPC-1) and two human colon cancer cell lines (Ls174T and HCC-M1544). The administration of LIC or Adriamycin was started 3 days after the injection of tumor cells. Animals received 0.1 mg/kg LIC IV twice weekly or 5 mg/kg Adriamycin IV every 5 days during the experiments. LIC showed potent antitumor activity in all three liver cancer models. Although Adriamycin had potent antitumor activity in the HCC-M1544 model, it had only a moderate effect in the AsPC-1 model and at most a weak effect in the Ls174T model. At the effective doses LIC did not cause detectable pathological changes in the liver and did not elicit toxicity to mice in these models, whereas Adriamycin did exhibit toxic effects. These results suggest that LIC is a promising candidate drug to treat hepatic metastasis.

Smoking increases tissue factor expression in atherosclerotic plaques: implications for plaque thrombogenicity

BACKGROUND

Smoking increases the risk of atherothrombotic events. To determine whether smoking influences plaque thrombogenicity, we examined the effect of cigarette smoking and aspirin use on tissue factor (TF) expression in atherosclerotic plaques.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A total of 23 apoE-/- mice were exposed to cigarette smoke with (n=9) or without (n=14) aspirin treatment. Eleven mice who were exposed to filtered room air served as controls. Aortic root plaques of mice exposed to smoke had higher immunoreactivity for TF (14+/-4% versus 6.4+/-3%; P=0.0005), vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (15+/-4% versus 5+/-2%; P=0.002), and macrophages (16+/-5% versus 6+/-2%; P=0.002) compared with nonsmoking controls. Aspirin treatment attenuated smoking-induced changes in plaque composition. In human plaques obtained by carotid endarterectomy, TF immunoreactivity (8+/-5% versus 2+/-2%; P=0.0002) and activity (P=0. 03) were higher in the plaques from smokers (n=28) than those from nonsmokers (n=28). Aspirin use was associated with reduced TF expression in smokers (9+/-8% versus 3+/-4%; P=0.0017).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest increased plaque TF expression and thrombogenicity as a novel mechanism for the increased risk of atherothrombotic events in smokers. Treatment with aspirin may reduce TF expression.

Monoclonal antibody against vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 inhibits neointimal formation after periadventitial carotid artery injury in genetically hypercholesterolemic mice

Vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1 is induced in smooth muscle cells after arterial injury, in which it has been implicated in the recruitment of inflammatory cells to the site of injury. To investigate the effect of hypercholesterolemia on VCAM-1 induction after injury and the role of VCAM-1 in neointimal response to injury, we injured the carotid artery of wild-type and apolipoprotein E null (KO) mice fed normal and high cholesterol chow. We demonstrate a graded response of VCAM-1 induction as well as monocyte/macrophage infiltration by immunohistochemistry 3 days after injury that correlated with increasing circulating cholesterol levels. Three weeks after injury, KO mice fed high cholesterol chow (KO HC group) had a significantly greater neointimal formation compared with wild-type and KO mice fed normal chow (P<0.05). Inhibition of VCAM-1 function in the KO HC group by monoclonal antibody treatment significantly reduced monocyte/macrophage infiltration and neointimal formation. There was reduced alpha-actin expression in KO HC mice 7 days after injury that was partially inhibited by VCAM-1 antibody treatment. Cell migration in an in vitro injury model was partially inhibited by monoclonal VCAM-1 antibody treatment. We propose an additional role for VCAM-1 in smooth muscle cell activation and neointimal formation after injury.

Effect of alpha-2 adrenoceptor antagonists on colonic function in rats

We studied the effect of alpha-2 adrenoceptor antagonists on colonic function stimulated by water-avoidance stress, 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), bethanechol and castor oil by comparison with the effects of atropine and a 5-hydroxytryptamine 3 (5-HT3) receptor antagonist, ondansetron. Yohimbine, idazoxan and atropine, but not ondansetron, significantly inhibited water-avoidance stress-stimulated faecal excretion. Yohimbine and idazoxan inhibited neither 5-HT- nor bethanechol-stimulated faecal excretion. In contrast, atropine inhibited both 5-HT- and bethanechol-stimulated faecal excretion and ondansetron inhibited 5-HT-stimulated faecal excretion. Yohimbine did not inhibit the incidence of diarrhoea induced by castor oil, but idazoxan significantly inhibited diarrhoea observed during a 1-h period after the administration of castor oil. Both atropine and ondansetron inhibited diarrhoea during a 2-h period after the administration of castor oil. These findings suggest that alpha-2 adrenoceptor antagonists specifically inhibit colonic motor function stimulated by stress in rats.

Eating habits and intensity of medication in elderly hypertensive outpatients

Several dietary factors have been shown to lower blood pressure in elderly patients in clinical trials, but it is not known how eating habits affect blood pressure control in outpatients treated with antihypertensive drugs. We obtained data on dietary information regarding food groups rich in potassium, magnesium, and calcium by submitting a questionnaire to 190 elderly outpatients. Blood pressure levels and the intensity and cost of antihypertensive treatment were obtained from clinical records. The mean age and blood pressure were 72.3 +/- 9.3 years and 138.7 +/- 15.2/74.6 +/- 8.8 mmHg, respectively. Patients were divided into three groups on the basis of the intensity of medication: the LS group (n=52), treated with a low dose of a single drug; the HS group (n=95), treated with a high dose of a single drug; and the M group (n=43), treated with multiple drugs. Average age, body mass index, blood pressure levels, and extent of target organ damage were similar among the three groups. Intake frequency (rarely, once or twice per week, 3 to 6 times per week, or every day) of the food groups was compared among the three groups. The LS group ate fruit (p < 0.05) and seaweed (p < 0.01) with significant frequency compared with the other groups, whereas milk and dairy products were taken with similar frequency by all groups. The monthly cost of antihypertensive medications averaged 17,218 +/- 620 yen in the LS group, 17,746 +/- 375 yen in the HS group, and 20,066 +/- 1,364 yen in the M group. These data suggest that habitual intake of foods rich in potassium and magnesium are associated with reduced intensity and cost of medication and with preservation of blood pressure control in elderly hypertensive outpatients.

Gene expression of prothrombin in human and rat kidneys: basic and clinical approach

Prothrombin has remarkable affinity for calcium oxalate crystals. It is produced in renal tubular cells and is detected as a urinary form of prothrombin F1. The aim of this basic study was (1) to isolate prothrombin mRNA from normal human and rat kidneys; (2) to confirm expression level changes in stone-forming rat kidneys; and (3) to analyze the DNA sequence of renal prothrombin. The aim of the clinical investigation was to measure the serum levels of renal prothrombin in clinical cases of various urologic diseases. The expression of prothrombin mRNA in human kidneys and male Wistar rat kidneys was investigated using reverse transcription-PCR, with prothrombin (F1, F2, and thrombin) primers. Renal prothrombin levels were measured in the sera of patients with renal cell carcinoma, renal transplant donors, patients with chronic renal failure, and renal transplant recipients, using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Expression of cyclophilin as well as prothrombin mRNA could be detected. Prothrombin mRNA expression levels seemed to be increased in stone-forming rats. The DNA sequence of renal prothrombin differed from that of liver prothrombin at three points. Repeated measurements of renal prothrombin showed that values were high during the acute tubular necrosis period and tended to decrease with the recovery of renal function. Prothrombin mRNA expression could be confirmed in human and rat kidneys, as well as in stone-forming rat kidneys. Serum concentration measurements can be considered useful for assessment of recovery from acute tubular necrosis after renal transplantation and for diagnosis of acute rejection.

Reconstituted HDL containing human apolipoprotein A-1 reduces VCAM-1 expression and neointima formation following periadventitial cuff-induced carotid injury in apoE null mice

Arterial injury triggers an inflammatory response in part mediated by induction of adhesion molecules such as vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) and is implicated in neointimal thickening. Since HDL is known to reduce cytokine-activated VCAM-1 expression, we tested the hypothesis that VCAM-1 expression and neontimal thickening following arterial injury are inhibited by reconstituted human HDL containing plasma-derived apoA-1 (rHDL). We used the carotid cuff injury in apoE (-/-) mice fed high cholesterol. Mice received rHDL (40 mg/kg) intravenously every other day for 3 weeks. Compared to control, rHDL treatment inhibited neointima formation (0. 008 +/- 0.004 mm(2) vs. 0.037 +/- 0.019 mm(2); P < 0.01) 21 days after injury, reduced VCAM-1 expression, and decreased monocyte/macrophage infiltration as assessed by histomorphometric analysis within the first week after injury. These changes occurred without any effect on plasma total and HDL cholesterol levels as well as the arterial tissue cholesterol levels. rHDL treatment also reduced the formation of modified lipoprotein in the arterial wall compared to control within the first week after injury. This finding suggests an antioxidant effect of rHDL associated with reduced VCAM-1 expression and neointimal formation after arterial injury.

Inhibition of cancer cell growth by polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid/cationic liposome complex: a new biological activity

A complex of polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid [poly(I) x poly(C)] and cationic liposome (LIC) inhibited the growth of many tumor cell lines at low concentration in vitro, but poly(I) x poly(C) alone had no such antiproliferative effect. The IC50 values of LIC against the tumor cells ranged from 0.1 to 1000 ng/ml. LIC had strong cytotoxic effects on malignant cells of epithelial and fibroblastic origin from various tissues and was also effective against Adriamycin-resistant tumor cells. LIC did not significantly affect the growth of lymphoma cells, leukemia cells, normal diploid fibroblasts, or primary liver cells at concentrations up to 10 microg/ml. The mechanism of the antiproliferative effect of LIC against malignant cells was the induction of apoptosis. LIC induced the fragmentation of nuclear DNA and the degradation of rRNA in tumor cells. The DNA fragmentation occurred within 1-5 h after the addition of LIC, and both the fragmentation and the inhibition of cancer-cell growth were suppressed by a nuclease inhibitor. In contrast, caspase inhibitors did not affect the antiproliferative activity of LIC. These results suggest that LIC induced apoptosis in malignant cells through the direct activation of nucleases and not through the activation of caspases. LIC reduced the incidence and the size of metastatic liver-cancer tumors in two different mouse metastatic liver-cancer models using human colon carcinoma cells. Histochemical analysis revealed that the KM12-HX cells in the tumor nodules were undergoing apoptosis; therefore, LIC also induced the apoptosis of tumor cells in vivo. In these animal models, LIC caused no observed changes in normal hepatocytes.

Distribution of alpha1-adrenoceptor subtype mRNAs in human renal cortex

OBJECTIVE

To determine the quantity and distribution of alpha1-adrenoceptor subtype mRNAs in human renal cortex.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Specimens of renal cortex tissue were obtained at the time of radical nephrectomy or total nephroureterectomy from 46 patients (mean age 59.0 years, sd 14.7) with renal cell carcinoma, renal pelvic or ureteric tumour. Using the reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), the RNase protection assay and in situ hybridization, the presentation, quantity and distribution of alpha1-adrenoceptor subtype mRNAs were determined.

RESULTS

Expression of the three alpha1-adrenoceptor subtype mRNAs (alpha1a, alpha1b and alpha1d) was confirmed in the arteries of the renal cortex (arciform, interlobular, arteriole), but among the three subtypes, the alpha1b was less apparent by in situ hybridization. Intense alpha1-mRNA staining was apparent especially in the smooth muscle of arterial walls. In both proximal and distal renal tubules, each of the alpha1-mRNAs was less marked in cytoplasm than in the arteries. In the glomeruli weak staining was detected in the endothelium but there was no obvious staining in the veins. RT-PCR showed all three subtypes of alpha1-adrenoceptor. The RNase protection assay showed that the predominant alpha1-adrenoceptor subtype mRNA in human renal cortex was alpha1a. However, the abundance of alpha1a-mRNA in human kidney was much less than in the prostate.

CONCLUSION

Three alpha1-adrenoceptor subtype mRNAs were recognized in human renal cortex and detected particularly in the smooth muscle of the arteries. There was more alpha1a-adrenoceptor subtype in human renal cortex than the other subtypes. It is not known how each subtype operates against adrenergic stimulation; further studies are needed to examine receptor density or receptor function.

Molecular interactions and kinetic properties of fats

This article has reviewed the recent work on the molecular interactions and kinetic properties of the polymorphic transformations of the TAGs in the single and mixed states. Progress has recently been made in the molecular-level understanding of the polymorphic transformations of the TAGs. Particularly, the use of the time-resolved X-ray diffraction with Synchrotron radiation (SR-XRD) has provided precise information of the structural changes of the fat crystals at a time scale of 10 sec. Therefore, fruitful information was obtained on the kinetic and molecular aspects of crystallization and mixing processes of the various types of mixed-acid TAGs, which were not obtained with the traditional thermal and structural techniques because of their complicated structural properties. One may anticipate that, although the experimental sites and machine times are limited, the SR-XRD techniques will be more applied to the fat systems involving the following materials and systems; (a) multicomponent natural fats with and without additives of emulsifiers, proteins and carbohydrates, (b) fats in dispersed phases such as oil-in-water (O/W) and water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions, (c) crystallization and transformation processes under external influences of hydrostatic pressure and shear stress [68].

Structural analyses of polymorphic transitions of sn-1, 3-distearoyl-2-oleoylglycerol (SOS) and sn-1, 3-dioleoyl-2-stearoylglycerol (OSO): assessment on steric hindrance of unsaturated and saturated acyl chain interactions

Polymorphic transformations in two saturated-unsaturated mixed acid triacylglycerols, SOS (sn -1,3-distearoyl-2-oleoylglycerol) and OSO (sn -1,3-dioleoyl-2-stearoylglycerol), have been studied by FT-IR spectroscopy using deuterated specimens in which stearoyl chains are fully deuterated. A reversible phase transition between sub alpha and alpha and a series of irreversible transitions (alpha-->gamma-->beta'-->beta (beta2, beta1) for SOS and alpha-->beta'-->beta for OSO) were studied with an emphasis on the conformational ordering process of stearoyl and oleoyl chains. The alpha-->sub alpha reversible transition was due to the orientational change of stearoyl chains in the lateral directions from the hexagonal subcell to a perpendicularly packed one. As the first stage of the series of irreversible transitions from alpha to beta, the conformational ordering of saturated chains took place in the alpha-->gamma transition of SOS and in the alpha-->beta' transition of OSO; one stearoyl chain in SOS and OSO takes the all-trans conformation and the second stearoyl chain in SOS takes the bent conformation like those observed in the most stable beta-type. As the final stage, the ordering of unsaturated chains occurred in the beta'-->beta transition both for SOS and OSO. A conversion in the layered structure from bilayer to trilayer was also accompanied by the conformational ordering in the alpha-->gamma transition of SOS and in the beta'-->beta transition of OSO.

Introducing antisense oligodeoxynucleotides into Paramecium via electroporation

A method utilizing electroporation to deliver antisense oligodeoxynucleotides into Paramecium tetraurelia has been developed. For these studies antisense oligonucleotides directed to different regions of the calmodulin mRNA were used. It was found that a pulse delivered at 150-250 V (375-625 V/cm field strength) for 3.9-4.2 ms using a 275 microF capacitor with resistance set at 13 Ohms was sufficient to achieve measurable incorporation of fluorescently-labeled oligodeoxynucleotides in up to 95% of the cells treated. Optimal parameters included using oligodeoxynucleotides of at least 12 bases in length with a 3' blocking group at a dose of around 10 microM. In addition, multiple oligodeoxynucleotides directed to the same target mRNA resulted in at least a 10-fold reduction in the dose of oligodeoxynucleotide required to achieve the desired effects. Taken together, these results indicate that the use of antisense oligodeoxynucleotides can be an easy and useful method for linking genes to specific functions in Paramecium tetraurelia. Finally, this report discusses how different 3' blocking groups and the use of combinations of oligodeoxynucleotides directed to different regions of the same target mRNA can help address concerns about specificity.

Diversity in the fatty-acid conformation and chain packing of cis-unsaturated lipids

Recent X-ray diffraction and Fourier transform IR spectroscopic studies have unveiled a great diversity in the molecular conformation and chain packing of lipid molecules containing cis-unsaturated fatty-acid chains. Specifically, a dramatic diversity in the olefinic conformation, subcell packing and chain-chain interactions has been clearly revealed by crystal structures of principal cis-monounsaturated fatty acids. The structural diversity is most manifest in oleic acid crystals. These findings were applied to analyses of the complicated structural transformation of diacylglycerols and triacylglycerols containing oleic acid and saturated acid moieties, in which the stabilization of the oleic acid causes the complexity of the transformation and mixing behavior. Although this knowledge has been obtained in the crystalline state, one may assume that the structural diversity of these unsaturated molecules plays a similar role in the lipids of biomembranes, lipoproteins and lipid deposits in which aliphatic chain packing is a critical problem, since most lipid domains can undergo liquid to solid or solid to liquid alterations.

Nitric oxide: a possible etiologic factor in spinal cord cavitation

To determine whether nitric oxide (NO) is related to spinal cord cavitation, we treated mice that underwent spinal cord injury with NG-mono-methyl-L-arginine (N-MMA). Spinal cord specimens were subjected to glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) immunostaining, which is selective for astrocytes. Spinal cord cavities and GFAP-positive glial cells appeared simultaneously at 3 days after spinal cord injury, and the cavities enlarged at 7 days. In mice receiving N-MMA, the cavities were significantly smaller than those in the mice that underwent spinal cord injury only. However, the numbers of GFAP-positive cells showed no difference between these two groups. These experimental findings suggest that cavitation of the spinal cord is caused mainly by NO released from activated glial cells.

Quantification and distribution of alpha1-adrenoceptor subtype mRNAs in human proximal urethra

1. We performed RNase protection assays and in situ hybridization to investigate the ratio of the three alpha1-adrenoceptor subtype mRNAs, alpha1a, alpha1b and alpha1d, in human proximal urethra, and their localization in urethral cross-sections. As revealed by the RNase protection assays, alpha1a was the predominant subtype mRNA in both male and female urethral samples. Alpha1d mRNA was detected only in the female sample, and alpha1b mRNA was not detected in any of the samples tested. The ratio of the abundance of the subtype mRNAs, alpha1a:alpha1b:alpha1d, was 100:0:0 in the male urethra and 90:0:10 in the female urethra. 2. In situ hybridization studies showed no significant differences in the cross-sectional distribution of alpha1-adrenoceptor subtype mRNAs between male and female urethras. Intense alpha1a staining was observed in the smooth muscle of the urethra, but alpha1b and alpha1d staining was much less intense. 3. Of the three cloned alpha1 subtypes, alpha1a is the most likely to be responsible for the contraction of the human urethra. Owing to the side effects of nonselective alpha1 drugs, alpha1-selective drugs may be clinically superior to nonselective drugs for the treatment of urethral disorders.

An epitope localized in c-Src negative regulatory domain is a potential marker in early stage of colonic neoplasms

In previous work, we established a new monoclonal antibody that specifically recognizes the active form of c-Src tyrosine kinase (Kawakatsu et al, 1996). To determine whether c-Src is active in colorectal tumorigenesis, we examined the expression of an active form of c-Src in human normal mucosa, hyperplastic polyps, adenomas, and adenocarcinomas. The tissue distribution of the active form of c-Src was studied by immunohistochemistry using this antibody, termed Clone 28. Among 66 cases of adenoma tested, 61 (92%) showed positive staining (adenoma with mild atypia, 3 of 3; adenoma with moderate atypia, 38 of 42; adenoma with severe atypia, 20 of 21). In contrast to the frequent and intense staining in adenomas, adenocarcinoma showed weak staining with less frequency in 4 of 16 (25%) cases. The number of specimens with positive staining in well- and moderately differentiated adenocarcinomas was limited to an early stage. The active form of c-Src mainly localized to the nuclear membrane and the perinuclear region. These results provide the first direct evidence that the activation of c-Src appears to be an early event in colonic carcinogenesis in situ. The findings of the present study thus allow us to propose a molecular mechanism involving c-Src activation in the process of malignant transformation of the human colonic neoplastic cells.

Quantification and distribution of alpha 1-adrenoceptor subtype mRNAs in human vas deferens: comparison with those of epididymal and pelvic portions

1. This study was intended to quantify the amounts of the alpha 1-adrenoceptor subtype mRNAs in human vas deferens, and demonstrate the receptor subtype responsible for the vas contraction. 2. The RNase protection assay showed that the mean total amount of alpha 1a mRNA was 7.4 +/- 2.2 pg/5 micrograms of poly (A)+ RNA (97.0% of the total alpha 1 mRNA) in the epididymal portion (E-vas) and 4.9 +/- 0.8 pg/5 micrograms of poly (A)+ RNA (96.3% of the total) in the pelvic portion (P-vas). The E-vas showed a tendency to have a greater alpha 1a mRNA abundance than the P-vas (P = 0.11). The alpha 1b and alpha 1d mRNAs were absent or of extremely low abundance. 3. By an in situ hybridization, the alpha 1a and alpha 1d mRNAs were recognized in the smooth muscle cells of the E-vas and the P-vas, and the distribution pattern the same in both tissue. The alpha 1b mRNA positive site was scarcely detectable in both vas portions. 4. In a functional study, l-phenylephrine produced concentration-dependent contraction in the E-vas (Emax = 2.24 +/- 0.70 g; pD2 = 5.32 +/- 0.09) and the P-vas (Emax = 2.46 +/- 0.46 g; pD2 = 5.07 +/- 0.12). KMD-3213, a novel alpha 1A-adrenoceptor-selective antagonist, caused parallel rightward shifts of the concentration-response curves for l-phenylephrine. Apparent pKB values were 9.90 +/- 0.16 for the E-vas and 9.71 +/- 0.17 for the P-vas. There was no significant difference in Emax, pD2 or pKB estimates between the two portions. 5. We have found that alpha 1a mRNA is predominant in the human vas deferens, and confirmed that contraction of this organ is mediated by the alpha 1A-adrenoceptor.