Acute lung injury and persistent small airway disease in a rabbit model of chlorine inhalation

Chlorine is a pulmonary toxicant to which humans can be exposed through accidents or intentional releases. Acute effects of chlorine inhalation in humans and animal models have been well characterized, but less is known about persistent effects of acute, high-level chlorine exposures. In particular, animal models that reproduce the long-term effects suggested to occur in humans are lacking. Here, we report the development of a rabbit model in which both acute and persistent effects of chlorine inhalation can be assessed. Male New Zealand White rabbits were exposed to chlorine while the lungs were mechanically ventilated. After chlorine exposure, the rabbits were extubated and were allowed to survive for up to 24h after exposure to 800ppm chlorine for 4min to study acute effects or up to 7days after exposure to 400ppm for 8min to study longer term effects. Acute effects observed 6 or 24h after inhalation of 800ppm chlorine for 4min included hypoxemia, pulmonary edema, airway epithelial injury, inflammation, altered baseline lung mechanics, and airway hyperreactivity to inhaled methacholine. Seven days after recovery from inhalation of 400ppm chlorine for 8min, rabbits exhibited mild hypoxemia, increased area of pressure-volume loops, and airway hyperreactivity. Lung histology 7days after chlorine exposure revealed abnormalities in the small airways, including inflammation and sporadic bronchiolitis obliterans lesions. Immunostaining showed a paucity of club and ciliated cells in the epithelium at these sites. These results suggest that small airway disease may be an important component of persistent respiratory abnormalities that occur following acute chlorine exposure. This non-rodent chlorine exposure model should prove useful for studying persistent effects of acute chlorine exposure and for assessing efficacy of countermeasures for chlorine-induced lung injury.

Withaferin a alone and in combination with cisplatin suppresses growth and metastasis of ovarian cancer by targeting putative cancer stem cells

Currently, the treatment for ovarian cancer entails cytoreductive surgery followed by chemotherapy, mainly, carboplatin combined with paclitaxel. Although this regimen is initially effective in a high percentage of cases, unfortunately within few months of initial treatment, tumor relapse occurs because of platinum-resistance. This is attributed to chemo-resistance of cancer stem cells (CSCs). Herein we show for the first time that withaferin A (WFA), a bioactive compound isolated from the plant Withania somnifera, when used alone or in combination with cisplatin (CIS) targets putative CSCs. Treatment of nude mice bearing orthotopic ovarian tumors generated by injecting human ovarian epithelial cancer cell line (A2780) with WFA and cisplatin (WFA) alone or in combination resulted in a 70 to 80% reduction in tumor growth and complete inhibition of metastasis to other organs compared to untreated controls. Histochemical and Western blot analysis of the tumors revealed that inclusion of WFA (2 mg/kg) resulted in a highly significant elimination of cells expressing CSC markers - CD44, CD24, CD34, CD117 and Oct4 and downregulation of Notch1, Hes1 and Hey1 genes. In contrast treatment of mice with CIS alone (6 mg/kg) had opposite effect on those cells. Increase in cells expressing CSC markers and Notch1 signaling pathway in tumors exposed to CIS may explain recurrence of cancer in patients treated with carboplatin and paclitaxel. Since, WFA alone or in combination with CIS eliminates putative CSCs, we conclude that WFA in combination with CIS may present more efficacious therapy for ovarian cancer.

Clone lineages of grape phylloxera differ in their performance on Vitis vinifera

Grape phylloxera, Daktulosphaira vitifoliae Fitch, is an important pest of grapevines (Vitis vinifera L.) (Vitaceae). The distribution and frequency of phylloxera clone lineages vary within infested regions of Australia, suggesting the introduction of separate lineages of D. vitifoliae with host associations. Virulence levels of particular phylloxera clones may vary on V. vinifera, but much of this evidence is indirect. In this study, we directly tested the performance of phylloxera clones on V. vinifera using an established excised root assay and a new glasshouse vine assessment. In the root assay, grape phylloxera clones differed in egg production and egg to adult survivorship. In the vine assay, clones differed in the number of immature and adult life stages on roots. In addition vine characteristics, including mean stem weight, root weight, leaf chlorophyll and leaf area, were affected by different phylloxera clones. The two most widespread clones displayed high levels of virulence. These results point to only some phylloxera clones being highly virulent on V. vinifera, helping to explain patterns of field damage, phylloxera distributions and continued survival and production of V. vinifera vines in some infested areas.

Consequences of Transferring Three Sorghum Genes for Secondary Metabolite (Cyanogenic Glucoside) Biosynthesis to Grapevine Hairy Roots

A multigenic trait (biosynthesis of the secondary metabolite, dhurrin cyanogenic glucoside) was engineered de novo in grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.). This follows a recent report of transfer of the same trait to Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) using three genetic sequences from sorghum (Sorghum bicolor): two cytochrome P450-encoding cDNAs (CYP79A1 and CYP71E1) and a UDPG-glucosyltransferase-encoding cDNA (sbHMNGT). Here we describe the two-step process involving whole plant transformation followed by hairy root transformation, which was used to transfer the same three sorghum sequences to grapevine. Transgenic grapevine hairy root lines that accumulated transcript from none, one (sbHMNGT), two (CYP79A1 and CYP71E1) or all three transgenes were recovered and characterisation of these lines provided information about the requirements for dhurrin biosynthesis in grapevine. Only lines that accumulated transcripts from all three transgenes had significantly elevated cyanide potential (up to the equivalent of about 100 mg HCN kg(-1) fresh weight), and levels were highly variable. One dhurrin-positive line was tested and found to release cyanide upon maceration and can therefore be considered 'cyanogenic'. In in vitro dual co-culture of this cyanogenic hairy root line or an acyanogenic line with the specialist root-sucking, gall-forming, aphid-like insect, grapevine phylloxera (Daktulosphaira vitifoliae, Fitch), there was no evidence for protection of the cyanogenic plant tissue from infestation by the insect. Consistently high levels of dhurrin accumulation may be required for this to occur. The possibility that endogenous grapevine gene expression is modulated in response to engineered dhurrin biosynthesis was investigated using microarray analysis of 1225 grapevine ESTs, but differences in patterns of gene expression associated with dhurrin-positive and dhurrin-negative phenotypes were not identified.

The making and breaking of the endoplasmic reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a dynamic organelle central to many essential cellular functions. It is an important calcium store, which functions in cellular signal transduction cascades. It is also the site of entry for secreted proteins into the secretory pathway. Lumenal enzymes will fold and glycosylate these proteins, and if a protein is destined to be secreted, it will be packaged into membrane vesicles that bud off from the ER. The ER is also the site where most cellular lipids are synthesized. It is contiguous with the nuclear envelope, which serves as a diffusion barrier to control entry into and out of the nucleus. In the life cycle of a cell, the ER is in a constant flux of membrane traffic. What maintains the ER in the shape of an intact reticulum among this constant flux of material? We discuss the mechanisms that contribute to the biogenesis of the ER, the maintenance of the organelle, as well as processes that give the ER its characteristic shape and pattern of inheritance.

Expression of snowdrop lectin (GNA) in transgenic rice plants confers resistance to rice brown planthopper

Snowdrop lectin (Galanthus nivalis agglutinin; GNA) has been shown previously to be toxic towards rice brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens; BPH) when administered in artificial diet. BPH feeds by phloem abstraction, and causes 'hopper burn', as well as being an important virus vector. To evaluate the potential of the gna gene to confer resistance towards BPH, transgenic rice (Oryza sativa L.) plants were produced, containing the gna gene in constructs where its expression was driven by a phloem-specific promoter (from the rice sucrose synthase RSs1 gene) and by a constitutive promoter (from the maize ubiquitin ubi1 gene). PCR and Southern analyses on DNA from these plants confirmed their transgenic status, and that the transgenes were transmitted to progeny after self-fertilization. Western blot analyses revealed expression of GNA at levels of up to 2.0% of total protein in some of the transgenic plants. GNA expression driven by the RSs1 promoter was tissue-specific, as shown by immunohistochemical localization of the protein in the non-lignified vascular tissue of transgenic plants. Insect bioassays and feeding studies showed that GNA expressed in the transgenic rice plants decreased survival and overall fecundity (production of offspring) of the insects, retarded insect development, and had a deterrent effect on BPH feeding. gna is the first transgene to exhibit insecticidal activity towards sap-sucking insects in an important cereal crop plant.

Production and purification of active snowdrop lectin in Escherichia coli

Recombinant snowdrop lectin was produced in Escherichia coli from a cDNA clone encoding mature Galanthus nivalis agglutinin. After induction with isopropylthio-beta-D-galactoside, inclusion bodies from E. coli were solubilised and the G. nivalis agglutinin purified by metal-affinity chromatography using a carboxy-terminal hexahistidine tag. The protein was refolded on the metal-affinity column prior to elution. After purification, the recombinant G. nivalis agglutinin agglutinated rabbit erythrocytes to a dilution similar to that determined for 'native' lectin purified from snowdrop, and showed similar specific binding to mannose. The toxicity of the recombinant G. nivalis agglutinin towards rice brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens) was shown to be similar to that of 'native' G. nivalis agglutinin when incorporated into an artificial diet. The recombinant G. nivalis agglutinin is thus functionally similar to 'native' snowdrop lectin.

Aspirating gastric residuals causes occlusion of small-bore feeding tubes

A frequent mechanical problem encountered with small-bore feeding tubes is lumenal obstruction of the tube. A number of studies have described methods to prevent tube occlusion and restore patency once the tube becomes occluded. It has been observed that most intact protein formulas will clot when acidified to a pH of less than 5.0. This study evaluated the question of whether gastric feeding tubes occlude more frequently when they are used for checking gastric residuals by aspirating acidic gastric juices into the tube than when gastric residuals are not checked. Patients who were fed intragastrically via a small-bore feeding tube with intact protein formulas were divided into two groups. Gastric residuals were checked in group A patients every 4 hours, whereas no residuals were checked in group B patients. Fifteen patients in group A were followed for a total of 138 patient days and 13 patients in group B were followed for 154 patient days. Ten occlusive episodes occurred in the group A patients, whereas only one occlusive episode occurred in the group B patients. This difference was statistically significant (p = .0171). We concluded that small-bore feeding tubes occlude more frequently when used to aspirate gastric residuals.

Organization within the cranial IX-X complex in ranid frogs: a horseradish peroxidase transport study

Cranial nerves IX and X in frogs have been described as originating from a nuclear group referred to as the IX-X complex. We studied the central nervous system components of this complex in Rana pipiens and R. catesbiana by labeling peripheral branches of cranial nerves IX and X and identifying the central nervous system contributions of these branches. Various peripheral nerves (IX and the cardiac, gastric, pulmonary, and laryngeal branches of X) were identified and soaked in horseradish peroxidase (HRP). One to 2 weeks later, the frogs were killed and processed for HRP by the tetramethylbenzidine method. Glossopharyngeal efferents originated from a small ventrolateral cell group found at the level of IX root exit. Vagal efferents formed a single column of cells in a ventrolateral position from the level of the brainstem exist of the vagus nerve (approximately 2,000 micrometers above the obex) to 200 micrometers below the obex (values given are for an 80-g frog). This cell group was separate from and just caudal to efferent cells of the glossopharyngeal nerve. Within the vagal portion of the column, cells projecting through the gastric branch were found throughout the rostral-caudal extent of the nucleus. "Cardiac" cells tended to be more rostral than "pulmonary" cells, and both groups of cells were located in the middle of the nucleus. "Laryngeal" cells were located more caudally in the nucleus. This peripheral representation within the vagal nucleus corresponds more closely to the organization found in the mammalian nucleus ambiguus, rather than to the apparent lack of organization found in the mammalian dorsal motor nucleus. Afferents of IX and X entered slightly rostral to the ventral roots of their respective nerves and descended in two tracts. The majority entered the tractus solitarius and descended in a medial position to cervical spinal cord. A portion of the afferents from the vagus nerve crossed the midline in the lower myelencephalon just dorsal to the central canal and ascended a short distance on the contralateral side. Within the solitary tract, vagal afferents were located in a ventrolateral position as they descended to below the obex. Glossopharyngeal afferents filled the remainder of the tract. A smaller portion of afferents from both IX and X did not enter the solitary tract but descended in the spinal tract of V and the dorsolateral funiculus of the spinal cord (Lissauer's tract) to thoracic levels. Afferents of IX also formed a rostral bundle which extended in the solitary tract to the caudal metencephalon.

Afferent and efferent components of the hypoglossal nerve in the grass frog, Rana pipiens

In amphibians, the spinomedullary region of the central nervous system is compressed rostrocaudally because of the absence of a neck. In Ranid frogs, the hypoglossal nerve emerges as the ventral ramus of the second spinal nerve. The first spinal nerve, though present in tadpoles, is absent as a separate nerve in adults. To investigate the central nervous system components of the hypoglossal nerve in Rana pipiens, we soaked identified, transected branches of this nerve in horseradish peroxidase, a retrograde and anterograde tracer. We found that the hypoglossal nerve in these frogs originates from two efferent nuclei located in the caudal medulla, a medial and a lateral one. Afferent fibers, primarily from the tongue, are also found in the hypoglossal nerve and travel in the dorsolateral funiculus of the spinal cord, descending to thoracic levels of the cord. Efferents to intrinsic tongue muscles and the genioglossus muscle originate in the medial medullary nucleus. Efferents to the sternohyoid muscle, which travel through the hypoglossal nerve, originate in the lateral medullary nucleus. Since in mammals the sternohyoid muscle is innervated by the first spinal nerve, we have obtained experimental evidence that the hypoglossal nerve in Rana pipiens contains components of this spinal nerve.

Cardiac vagal preganglionic fibers in neonatal rats: a comparison with cervical vagal components

Origins of cardiac innervation were determined by injection of horseradish peroxidase (HRP) into the myocardium of rats. Bilaterally labeled efferent cells in the brainstem were found in the rostral nucleus ambiguus (NA) with fewer cells in the dorsal motor nucleus (DMN). No afferent labeling was seen. In young rats, but not in adults, there was labeling in the ventral horn of the cervical spinal cord. A unilateral vagotomy prior to the HRP injection resulted in labeled cells in the brainstem contralateral to the vagotomy while cells in the spinal cord remained bilateral. Thus the label in these spinal cord cells may represent HRP uptake by fibers of passage. These results were compared to the afferent and efferent vagal components of the entire cervical vagus nerve.

Mental health service priorities and the BSW

New Priorities in mental health service delivery call for the exploration of previously overlooked sources of mental health personnel whose preparation for practice is adapted to historically underserved populations and service delivery approaches geared to their special needs. One such source are baccalaureate level social workers. This exploratory study of 29 purposively selected baccalaureate social work education programs observes and describes their extensive mental health field instruction, in which the predominant student assignments include case management and related functions stressed in current mental health policy. Implications are drawn regarding the allocation of federal training funds and labor force issues.