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Huesmann LR, Dubow EF, Boxer P, Smith C, Shikaki K, Landau SF, Gvirsman SD. Consequences of Exposure to War Violence: Discriminating Those with Heightened Risk for Aggression from Those with Heightened Risk for Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2023; 20:6067. [PMID: 37372654 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20126067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
Chronic exposure to ethnic-political and war violence has deleterious effects throughout childhood. Some youths exposed to war violence are more likely to act aggressively afterwards, and some are more likely to experience post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTS symptoms). However, the concordance of these two outcomes is not strong, and it is unclear what discriminates between those who are at more risk for one or the other. Drawing on prior research on desensitization and arousal and on recent social-cognitive theorizing about how high anxious arousal to violence can inhibit aggression, we hypothesized that those who characteristically experience higher anxious arousal when exposed to violence should display a lower increase in aggression after exposure to war violence but the same or a higher increase in PTS symptoms compared to those low in anxious arousal. To test this hypothesis, we analyzed data from our 4-wave longitudinal interview study of 1051 Israeli and Palestinian youths (ages at Wave 1 ranged from 8 to 14, and at Wave 4 from 15-22). We used the 4 waves of data on aggression, PTS symptoms, and exposure to war violence, along with additional data collected during Wave 4 on the anxious arousal participants experienced while watching a very violent film unrelated to war violence (N = 337). Longitudinal analyses revealed that exposure to war violence significantly increased both the risk of subsequent aggression and PTS symptoms. However, anxious arousal in response to seeing the unrelated violent film (measured from skin conductance and self-reports of anxiety) moderated the relation between exposure to war violence and subsequent psychological and behavioral outcomes. Those who experienced greater anxious arousal while watching the violent film showed a weaker positive relation between amount of exposure to war violence and aggression toward their peers but a stronger positive relation between amount of exposure to war violence and PTS symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Rowell Huesmann
- Research Center for Group Dynamics, Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan, 426 Thompson St., Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1248, USA
| | - Eric F Dubow
- Research Center for Group Dynamics, Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan, 426 Thompson St., Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1248, USA
- Department of Psychology, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, USA
| | - Paul Boxer
- Research Center for Group Dynamics, Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan, 426 Thompson St., Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1248, USA
- School of Arts and Sciences, Psychology Department, Rutgers University, 101 Warren Street, Newark, NJ 07102, USA
| | - Cathy Smith
- Research Center for Group Dynamics, Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan, 426 Thompson St., Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1248, USA
| | - Khalil Shikaki
- Palestinian Center for Survey and Policy Research, Off Irsal Street, Ramallah P.O. Box 76, Palestine
| | - Simha F Landau
- Faculty of Law, Institute of Criminology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Mt. Scopus, Jerusalem 9190501, Israel
| | - Shira Dvir Gvirsman
- Department of Communication Studies, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel
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2
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Dubow EF, Huesmann LR, Boxer P, Smith C, Landau SF, Dvir Gvirsman S, Shikaki K. Serious violent behavior and antisocial outcomes as consequences of exposure to ethnic-political conflict and violence among Israeli and Palestinian youth. Aggress Behav 2019; 45:287-299. [PMID: 30690775 DOI: 10.1002/ab.21818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Revised: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 12/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
We examine whether cumulative-past and concurrent exposure to ethnic-political violence among Israeli and Palestinian youth predict serious violent behavior and antisocial outcomes toward the in-group and the out-group. We collected four waves of data from 162 Israeli Jewish and 400 Palestinian youths (three age cohorts: 8, 11, and 14 years old) and their parents. The first three waves were consecutive annual assessments, and the fourth was conducted 4 years after the third wave, when the three age cohorts were 14, 17, and 20 years old, respectively. Based on social-cognitive-ecological models of the development of aggression (Dubow et al., 2009, Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 12, 113-126; Huesmann, 1998) and models of the development of beliefs about the "other," (Bar-Tal, 2004, European Journal of Social Psychology, 34, 677-701; Tajfel & Turner, 1986), we predicted that serious violent outcomes directed toward both the in-group and the out-group would be related to both concurrent and to persistent-past exposure to ethnic political violence. Bivariate regression models (prior to including covariates) indicated that both early cumulative exposure to ethnic-political violence during childhood and adolescence and concurrent exposure during late adolescence/early adulthood predicted all six serious violent and antisocial outcomes. When we added to the models the covariates of ethnic subgroup, age, sex, parents' education, and youths' prior physical aggression, concurrent exposure to ethnic-political violence was still significantly associated with a greater likelihood of concurrently perpetrating all six serious violent and nonviolent forms of antisocial behavior, and earlier cumulative exposure remained significantly related to three of these: severe physical aggression, participating in violent demonstrations, and our overall index of violent/antisocial behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric F. Dubow
- Bowling Green State UniversityBowling GreenOhio
- University of MichiganAnn ArborMichigan
| | | | - Paul Boxer
- University of MichiganAnn ArborMichigan
- Rutgers UniversityNewarkNew Jersey
| | | | | | | | - Khalil Shikaki
- Palestinian Center for Policy and Survey ResearchRamallahIsrael
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Niwa EY, Boxer P, Dubow E, Huesmann LR, Shikaki K, Landau S, Gvirsman SD. Growing Up Amid Ethno-Political Conflict: Aggression and Emotional Desensitization Promote Hostility to Ethnic Outgroups. Child Dev 2017; 87:1479-92. [PMID: 27684400 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Ethno-political violence impacts thousands of youth and is associated with numerous negative outcomes. Yet little research examines adaptation to ethno-political violence over time or across multiple outcomes simultaneously. This study examines longitudinal patterns of aggressive behavior and emotional distress as they co-occur among Palestinian (n = 600) youth exposed to ethno-political violence over 3 years in three age cohorts (starting ages: 8, 11, and 14). Findings indicate distinct profiles of aggressive behavior and emotional distress, and unique joint patterns. Furthermore, youth among key joint profiles (e.g., high aggression-emotional desensitization) are more likely to endorse normative beliefs about aggression toward ethnic outgroups. This study offers a dynamic perspective on emotional and behavioral adaptation to ethno-political violence and the implications of those processes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Paul Boxer
- Rutgers University.,The University of Michigan
| | - Eric Dubow
- The University of Michigan.,Bowling Green State University
| | | | | | - Simha Landau
- Institute of Criminology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem.,Yezreel Valley Academic College
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Niwa EY, Boxer P, Dubow EF, Huesmann LR, Landau S, Shikaki K, Gvirsman SD. Negative Stereotypes of Ethnic Out-groups: A Longitudinal Examination Among Palestinian, Israeli Jewish, and Israeli Arab Youth. J Res Adolesc 2016; 26:166-179. [PMID: 27019573 PMCID: PMC4803080 DOI: 10.1111/jora.12180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Ethno-political conflict impacts thousands of youth globally and has been associated with a number of negative psychological outcomes. Extant literature has mostly addressed the adverse emotional and behavioral outcomes of exposure while failing to examine change over time in social-cognitive factors in contexts of ethno-political conflict. Using cohort-sequential longitudinal data, the present study examines ethnic variation in the development of negative stereotypes about ethnic out-groups among Palestinian (n=600), Israeli Jewish (n=451), and Israeli Arab (n=450) youth over three years. Age and exposure to ethno-political violence were included as covariates for these trajectories. Findings indicate important ethnic differences in trajectories of negative stereotypes about ethnic out-groups, as well as variation in how such trajectories are shaped by prolonged ethno-political conflict.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Y. Niwa
- Department of Psychology, Rutgers University (see acknowledgements for additional information regarding current academic affiliation)
| | | | - Eric F. Dubow
- Department of Psychology, Bowling Green State University; Research Center for Group Dynamics, Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan
| | - L. Rowell Huesmann
- Research Center for Group Dynamics, Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan
| | - Simha Landau
- Institute of Criminology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem; Department of Criminology, Emek Yezreel Academic College
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Gvirsman SD, Huesmann LR, Dubow EF, Landau SF, Boxer P, Shikaki K. The Longitudinal Effects of Chronic Mediated Exposure to Political Violence on Ideological Beliefs About Political Conflicts Among Youths. Polit Commun 2015; 33:98-117. [PMID: 26997852 PMCID: PMC4795830 DOI: 10.1080/10584609.2015.1010670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
This study examines the effects of chronic (i.e., repeated and cumulative) mediated exposure to political violence on ideological beliefs regarding political conflict. It centers on these effects on young viewers, from preadolescents to adolescents. Ideological beliefs refers here to support of war, perception of threat to one's nation, and normative beliefs concerning aggression toward the out-group. A longitudinal study was conducted on a sample of Israeli and Palestinian youths who experience the Israeli-Palestinian conflict firsthand (N = 1,207). Two alternative hypotheses were tested: that chronic exposure via the media increases support for war and aggression and elevates feeling of threat, or that chronic exposure via the media strengthens preexisting beliefs. Results demonstrated that higher levels of exposure were longitudinally related to stronger support for war. Regarding normative beliefs about aggression and threat to one's nation, mediated exposure reinforced initial beliefs, rendering the youths more extreme in their attitudes. These results mostly support the conceptualization of the relation between media violence and behaviors as "reciprocally determined" or "reinforcing spirals." The results are also discussed in light of the differences found between the effect of exposure to political violence firsthand and exposure via the media.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Eric F Dubow
- Department of Psychology, Bowling Green State University and the Institute of Research, University of Michigan
| | - Simha F Landau
- Department of Criminology, Academic College of Emek Yezreel and Hebrew University of Jerusalem
| | - Paul Boxer
- Department of Psychology, Rutgers University and the Institute of Social Research, University of Michigan
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Gvirsman SD, Huesmann LR, Dubow EF, Landau SF, Shikaki K, Boxer P. The Effects of Mediated Exposure to Ethnic-Political Violence on Middle East Youth's Subsequent Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms and Aggressive Behavior. Communic Res 2014; 41:961-990. [PMID: 26456988 PMCID: PMC4596244 DOI: 10.1177/0093650213510941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
This study introduces the concept of chronic (i.e., repeated and cumulative) mediated exposure to political violence and investigates its effects on aggressive behavior and post-traumatic stress (PTS) symptoms in young viewers. Embracing the risk-matrix approach, these effects are studied alongside other childhood risk factors that influence maladjustment. A longitudinal study was conducted on a sample of youth who experience the Israeli-Palestinian conflict firsthand (N = 1,207). As hypothesized, higher levels of chronic mediated exposure were longitudinally related to higher levels of PTS symptoms and aggression at peers independently of exposure to violence in other contexts. In the case of aggressive behavior, structural equation analysis (SEM) analyses suggest that, while it is likely there are causal effects in both directions, the bigger effect is probably for exposure to violence stimulating aggression than for aggression stimulating exposure to violence. Both the longitudinal effects on aggression and PTS symptoms were especially strong among youth who demonstrated initially higher levels of the same type of maladjustment. These results support the conceptualization of the relation between media violence and behaviors as "reciprocally determined" or "downward spirals" and highlight the contribution of the risk-matrix approach to the analysis of childhood maladjustment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Eric F. Dubow
- University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA
- Bowling Green State University, OH, USA
| | - Simha F. Landau
- Academic College of Emek Yezreel, Israel
- Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
| | | | - Paul Boxer
- University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA
- Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
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Boxer P, Rowell Huesmann L, Dubow EF, Landau SF, Gvirsman SD, Shikaki K, Ginges J. Exposure to violence across the social ecosystem and the development of aggression: a test of ecological theory in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Child Dev 2012; 84:163-77. [PMID: 22906188 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01848.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Bronfenbrenner's (1979) ecological model proposes that events in higher order social ecosystems should influence human development through their impact on events in lower order social ecosystems. This proposition was tested with respect to ecological violence and the development of children's aggression via analyses of 3 waves of data (1 wave yearly for 3 years) from 3 age cohorts (starting ages: 8, 11, and 14) representing three populations in the Middle East: Palestinians (N = 600), Israeli Jews (N = 451), and Israeli Arabs (N = 450). Results supported a hypothesized model in which ethnopolitical violence increases community, family, and school violence and children's aggression. Findings are discussed with respect to ecological and observational learning perspectives on the development of aggressive behavior.
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Dubow EF, Huesmann LR, Boxer P, Landau S, Dvir S, Shikaki K, Ginges J. Exposure to political conflict and violence and posttraumatic stress in Middle East youth: protective factors. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 2012; 41:402-16. [PMID: 22594697 PMCID: PMC3387283 DOI: 10.1080/15374416.2012.684274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
We examine the role of family- and individual-level protective factors in the relation between exposure to ethnic-political conflict and violence and posttraumatic stress among Israeli and Palestinian youth. Specifically, we examine whether parental mental health (lack of depression), positive parenting, children's self-esteem, and academic achievement moderate the relation between exposure to ethnic-political conflict/violence and subsequent posttraumatic stress (PTS) symptoms. We collected three waves of data from 901 Israeli and 600 Palestinian youths (three age cohorts: 8, 11, and 14 years old; approximately half of each gender) and their parents at 1-year intervals. Greater cumulative exposure to ethnic-political conflict/violence across the first 2 waves of the study predicted higher subsequent PTS symptoms even when we controlled for the child's initial level of PTS symptoms. This relation was significantly moderated by a youth's self-esteem and by the positive parenting received by the youth. In particular, the longitudinal relation between exposure to violence and subsequent PTS symptoms was significant for low self-esteem youth and for youth receiving little positive parenting but was non-significant for children with high levels of these protective resources. Our findings show that youth most vulnerable to PTS symptoms as a result of exposure to ethnic-political violence are those with lower levels of self-esteem and who experience low levels of positive parenting. Interventions for war-exposed youth should test whether boosting self-esteem and positive parenting might reduce subsequent levels of PTS symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric F Dubow
- Department of Psychology, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, USA.
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Dubow EF, Boxer P, Huesmann LR, Landau S, Dvir S, Shikaki K, Ginges J. Cumulative effects of exposure to violence on posttraumatic stress in Palestinian and Israeli youth. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 2012; 41:837-44. [PMID: 22540411 PMCID: PMC3461244 DOI: 10.1080/15374416.2012.675571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
We examine cumulative and prospective effects of exposure to conflict and violence across four contexts (ethnic-political, community, family, school) on posttraumatic stress (PTS) symptoms in Palestinian and Israeli youth. Interviews were conducted with 600 Palestinian and 901 Israeli (Jewish and Arab) children (ages 8, 11, and 14) and their parents once a year for 3 consecutive years. Palestinian children, males, and older youth were generally at greatest risk for exposure to conflict/violence across contexts. Regression analysis found unique effects of exposure to ethnic-political (Palestinian sample), school (Palestinian and Israeli Jewish samples), and family conflict/violence (Israeli Arab sample) during the first 2 years on PTS symptoms in Year 3, controlling for prior PTS symptoms. Cumulative exposure to violence in more contexts during the first 2 years predicted higher subsequent PTS symptoms than did exposure to violence in fewer contexts, and this was true regardless of the youth's level of prior PTS symptoms. These results highlight the risk that ongoing exposure to violence across multiple contexts in the social ecology poses for the mental health of children in contexts of ethnic-political violence. Researchers and mental health professionals working with war-exposed youth in a given cultural context must assess both war- and non-war-related stressors affecting youth. Based on this assessment, interventions may not be limited to individual-based, war-trauma-focused approaches but also may include school-based, community-based, and family-level interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric F Dubow
- Department of Psychology, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, USA.
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Dubow EF, Boxer P, Huesmann LR, Shikaki K, Landau S, Gvirsman SD, Ginges J. Exposure to conflict and violence across contexts: relations to adjustment among Palestinian children. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 2010; 39:103-16. [PMID: 20390802 PMCID: PMC2856124 DOI: 10.1080/15374410903401153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Despite extensive literatures on the impact on children of exposure to violence in families, neighborhoods, and peer groups, there has been relatively little effort evaluating their cumulative impact. There also has been less attention to the effects of exposure to political conflict and violence. We collected data from a representative sample of 600 Palestinian youths (3 age cohorts: 8, 11, and 14 years old) to evaluate the relation of exposure to political conflict and violence, and violence in the family, community, and school, to posttraumatic stress (PTS) symptoms and aggressive behavior. Results highlight the additive effects of exposure to political conflict and violence, suggesting that interventionists should consider the full spectrum of sources of environmental risk for PTS symptoms and aggressive behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric F Dubow
- Research Center for Group Dynamics, Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan, USA.
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Abstract
We report a series of experiments carried out with Palestinian and Israeli participants showing that violent opposition to compromise over issues considered sacred is (i) increased by offering material incentives to compromise but (ii) decreased when the adversary makes symbolic compromises over their own sacred values. These results demonstrate some of the unique properties of reasoning and decision-making over sacred values. We show that the use of material incentives to promote the peaceful resolution of political and cultural conflicts may backfire when adversaries treat contested issues as sacred values.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy Ginges
- *Department of Psychology, New School for Social Research, New York, NY 10003
- To whom correspondence may be addressed. E-mail: or
| | - Scott Atran
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique–Institut Jean Nicod, 1 bis Avenue Lowendal, 75007 Paris, France
- Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
- John Jay School of Criminal Justice, 899 10th Avenue, New York, NY 10019
| | - Douglas Medin
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208; and
- To whom correspondence may be addressed. E-mail: or
| | - Khalil Shikaki
- **Palestinian Center for Policy and Survey Research, Ramallah, Palestine Authority
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