Biomonitoring of Indoor Air Fungal or Chemical Toxins with Caenorhabditis elegans nematodes

Bad indoor air quality due to toxins and other impurities can have a negative impact on human well-being, working capacity and health. Therefore, reliable methods to monitor the health risks associated with exposure to hazardous indoor air agents are needed. Here, we have used transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans nematode strains carrying stress-responsive fluorescent reporters and evaluated their ability to sense fungal or chemical toxins, especially those that are present in moisture-damaged buildings. Liquid-based or airborne exposure of nematodes to mycotoxins, chemical agents or damaged building materials reproducibly resulted in time- and dose-dependent fluorescent responses, which could be quantitated by either microscopy or spectrometry. Thus, the C. elegans nematodes present an easy, ethically acceptable and comprehensive in vivo model system to monitor the response of multicellular organisms to indoor air toxicity.

Toxic Indoor Air Is a Potential Risk of Causing Immuno Suppression and Morbidity—A Pilot Study

We aimed to establish an etiology-based connection between the symptoms experienced by the occupants of a workplace and the presence in the building of toxic dampness microbiota. The occupants (5/6) underwent a medical examination and urine samples (2/6) were analyzed by LC-MS/MS for mycotoxins at two time-points. The magnitude of inhaled water was estimated. Building-derived bacteria and fungi were identified and assessed for toxicity. Separate cytotoxicity tests using human THP-1 macrophages were performed from the office’s indoor air water condensates. Office-derived indoor water samples (n = 4/4) were toxic to human THP-1 macrophages. Penicillium, Acremonium sensu lato, Aspergillus ochraceus group and Aspergillus section Aspergillus grew from the building material samples. These colonies were toxic in boar sperm tests (n = 11/32); four were toxic to BHK-21 cells. Mycophenolic acid, which is a potential immunosuppressant, was detected in the initial and follow-up urine samples of (2/2) office workers who did not take immunosuppressive drugs. Their urinary mycotoxin profiles differed from household and unrelated controls. Our study suggests that the presence of mycotoxins in indoor air is linked to the morbidity of the occupants. The cytotoxicity test of the indoor air condensate is a promising tool for risk assessment in moisture-damaged buildings.

Fungal enzyme production and biodegradation of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in contaminated sawmill soil

The current treatment method for PCDD/F-contaminated soil, which fulfils the requirements for POP soils, is incineration at high temperature. In this study, we investigated if bioaugmentation with fungal inoculum or treatment with manganese peroxidase (MnP) enzyme preparation could be used instead. The main source of PCDD/F contamination in Finland has been the national production and use of a chlorophenol containing wood preservative, which contained PCDD/Fs as impurities. Therefore, historically contaminated soils from three sawmill sites were used in the experiments. In bioaugmentation experiments with living fungal mycelia, enzyme production, CO2 production and degradation of chlorinated dioxins were measured. When cell free MnP preparation was added to the soil, it was likewise important to follow how enzyme activity was maintained in the soil. As a result of this study, we showed that fungi were able to efficiently degrade PCDD/F, but surprisingly the addition of MnP preparation did not have any effect to the PCDD/F concentration. However, substantial amounts of MnP activity were found in the soil still after 10d of incubation. Treatment with either Stropharia rugosoannulata or Phanerochaete velutina resulted in 62-64% decrease in WHO-TEQ value in 3months. One critical factor for efficient biodegradation was strong growth of fungal mycelia in non-sterile contaminated soil.

Mycoremediation of wood and soil from an old sawmill area contaminated for decades

We investigated the potential of white-rot and litter-decomposing fungi for the treatment of soil and wood from a sawmill area contaminated with aged chlorinated phenols, dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans (PCDD/F). Eight screening assays with emphasis on application of non-sterile conditions were carried out in order to select the strains with capability to withstand indigenous microbes and contamination. Nine fungi were then selected for degrading pentachlorophenol (PCP), and 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol (2,3,4,6-TeCP) and mineralizing radiolabelled pentachlorophenol ((14)C-PCP) in non-sterile soil or wood during 15 weeks of incubation. Soil indigenous microbes and fungal inoculated soil (fungal inoculum+indigenous microbes) achieved similar degradation of PCP and 2,3,4,6-TeCP and mineralization of (14)C-PCP. However, the mineralization rate of (14)C-PCP by indigenous microbes was much slower than that boosted by fungal inoculum. The litter-decomposing fungus (LDF) Stropharia rugosoannulata proved to be a suitable fungus for soil treatment. This fungus mineralized 26% of (14)C-PCP and degraded 43% of 2,3,4,6-TeCP and 73% of PCP. Furthermore, S. rugosoannulata attained 13% degradation of PCDD/F (expressed as WHO-Toxic Equivalent). In wood, white-rot fungi grew and degraded chlorophenols better than LDF. No efficient indigenous degraders were present in wood. Interestingly, production of toxic chlorinated organic metabolites (anisoles and veratroles) by LDF in wood was negligible.

Bioluminescent yeast assay for detection of organotin compounds

Organotin compounds are toxic and endocrine disrupting compounds, which have been intensively used as antifouling paints for ship hulls and thus are widely spread in the environment. They are suspected to cause imposex, the formation of male characteristics in female gastropods, because of the activation of retinoid X receptor (RXR) at very low environmental concentrations. Here we report the development and optimization of a bioluminescent yeast assay for the detection of organotin compounds based on the interaction with a hybrid RXR and subsequent expression of a reporter luciferase gene. This assay is highly specific toward organotin compounds and natural ligands of the RXR. It detects tributyltin and triphenyltin in nanomolar concentrations (detection limits were found to be 30 nM and 110 nM, respectively) and allows small-scale high-throughput analyses. Furthermore it was possible to measure tributyltin directly in untreated spiked sediments. Thus, the results provided within one working day can be used for the assessment of bioavailability and mixture effect of organotin compounds in environmental samples.

Fate of bisphenol A during treatment with the litter-decomposing fungi Stropharia rugosoannulata and Stropharia coronilla

Bisphenol A is an endocrine disrupting compound, which is ubiquitous in the environment due to its wide use in plastic and resin production. Seven day old cultures of the litter-decomposing fungus Stropharia coronilla removed the estrogenic activity of bisphenol A (BPA) rapidly and enduringly. Treatment of BPA with purified neutral manganese peroxidase (MnP) from this fungus also resulted in 100% reduction of estrogenic activity, as analyzed using a bioluminescent yeast assay, and in the formation of polymeric compounds. In cultures of Stropharia rugosoannulata, estrogenic activity also quickly disappeared but temporarily re-emerged in the further course of cultivation. LC-MS analysis of the extracted estrogenic culture liquid revealed [M-H](-) ions with m/z values of 219 and 235. We hypothesize that these compounds are ring fission products of BPA, which still exhibit one intact hydroxyphenyl group to interact with estrogen receptors displayed by the yeast.

Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) bark composition and degradation by fungi: potential substrate for bioremediation

The composition of Scots pine bark, its degradation, and the production of hydrolytic and ligninolytic enzymes were evaluated during 90 days of incubation with Phanerochaete velutina and Stropharia rugosoannulata. The aim was to evaluate if pine bark can be a suitable fungal substrate for bioremediation applications. The original pine bark contained 45% lignin, 25% cellulose, and 15% hemicellulose. Resin acids were the most predominant lipophilic extractives, followed by sitosterol and unsaturated fatty acids, such as linoleic and oleic acids. Both fungi degraded all main components of bark, specially cellulose (79% loss by P. velutina). During cultivation on pine bark, fungi also degraded sitosterol, produced malic acid, and oxidated unsaturated fatty acids. The most predominant enzymes produced by both fungi were cellulase and manganese peroxidase. The results indicate that Scots pine bark supports enzyme production and provides nutrients to fungi, thus pine bark may be suitable fungal substrate for bioremediation.

Microbial activities in soils of a former sawmill area

To find out microbial metabolic functioning and toxicity in a former sawmill area, carbon dioxide evolution, methane oxidation potential, 10 hydrolytic enzyme activities, Vibrio fischeri test, fluorescein diacetate hydrolysis activity (FDA), soil pH, carbon, nitrogen and pentachlorophenol (PCP) content were measured at four sites. The area is contaminated with aged chlorophenols. Chlorophenol content of soil was analyzed with a novel HPLC-MS technique, which allowed to measure chlorophenols without derivatization. The sites had a pollution gradient from 0.5 to 15 microg PCP g dw of soil(-1). Endogenous carbon dioxide evolution, methane oxidation potential, butyrate-esterase, acetate-esterase, sulphatase and aminopeptidase activities were lower at the site 2 than 3, although the site 2 and 3 had similar content of carbon and nitrogen. The soil was toxic in V. fischeri test at the site 2, which had high content of PCP (3.93+/-1.00 microg PCP g dw of soil(-1)). The results indicated that endogenous carbon dioxide evolution, methane oxidation potential, butyrate-esterase, acetate-esterase, sulphatase and aminopeptidase activities were sensitive to PCP in the soil. The results indicated that alpha-glucosidase, beta-glucosidase, beta-xylosidase, beta-cellobiosidase, phosphomonoesterase, N-acetyl-glucosaminidase activity and FDA hydrolysis activity were not sensitive to PCP in the soil. Soil processes involved in the cycling of carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus were only slightly vulnerable in the former sawmill area and most sensitive microbial species were probably replaced with more tolerant ones to maintain and recover functioning of the former sawmill soils.

Enhancement of bioconversion of high-molecular mass polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in contaminated non-sterile soil by litter-decomposing fungi

With the focus on alternative microbes for soil-bioremediation, 18 species of litter-decomposing basidiomycetous fungi were screened for their ability to grow on different lignocellulosic substrates including straw, flax and pine bark as well as to produce ligninolytic enzymes, namely laccase and manganese peroxidase. Following characteristics have been chosen as criteria for the strain selection: (i) the ability to grow at least on one of the mentioned materials, (ii) production of either of the ligninolytic enzymes and (iii) the ability to invade non-sterile soil. As the result, eight species were selected for a bioremediation experiment with an artificially contaminated soil (total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentration 250 mg/kg soil). Up to 70%, 86% and 84% of benzo(a)anthracene, benzo(a)pyrene, and dibenzo(a,h)anthracene, respectively, were removed in presence of fungi while the indigenous microorganisms converted merely up to 29%, 26% and 43% of these compounds in 30 days. Low molecular-mass PAHs studied were easily degraded by soil microbes and only anthracene degradation was enhanced by the fungi as well. The agaric basidiomycetes Stropharia rugosoannulata and Stropharia coronilla were the most efficient PAH degraders among the litter-decomposing species used.

Validation overview of bio-analytical methods

Several regulatory challenges are encountered when proceeding towards human clinical trials with gene therapy products, one of these relating to the validity of the analytical methods. Many of the analytical methods used in preclinical studies and/or for analysing the gene therapy products are not yet recognized as a standardized pharmacopoeial methods. Thus, their validity should be demonstrated for the regulatory authorities by thorough assay validations, the extent being dependent on the product developmental stage. We hereby provide an overview on the critical parameters that have to be taken into consideration during the optimization and validation of bio-analytical methods such as PCR, enzyme-linked immunospot assay, Microarray and Limulus Amebocyte Lysate analyses.

Influence of Pb contamination in boreal forest soil on the growth and ligninolytic activity of litter-decomposing fungi

Lignin mineralization activity of three basidiomycetous litter-decomposing fungi (LDF) was studied with humus layer samples taken from a boreal forest soil. The total Pb concentration in the samples was 32,000 mg kg(-1) and water soluble Pb 67 mg kg(-1). Synthetic lignin mineralization by Collybia dryophila and Clitocybe (Lepista) nebularis was strongly inhibited, whereas Stropharia coronilla was more tolerant to Pb stress in soil and liquid cultures. Purified laccases maintained their activity and purified MnPs remained partly active up to a concentration of 1450 mg Pb l(-1). High concentrations of Pb inhibited the growth of LDF and affected the activity of ligninolytic enzymes, but the extent of inhibition varied among different LDF species. In consequence, Pb contamination in soil may have a negative impact on recycling of organic carbon.

Modification of humic acids by the compost-dwelling deuteromycete Paecilomyces inflatus

The soil mold Paecilomyces inflatus is capable of modifying and partially mineralizing synthetic and natural humic acids (HAs) in compost environments. HA degradation studies using a synthetic HA (14C-HA) in autoclaved compost microcosms showed that, after 12 weeks of cultivation, P. inflatus mineralized approximately 5% of the 14C-labeled HA to 14CO2, while 6% of the 14C-HA was converted into 14C-labeled water-soluble fragments (fulvic-acid-like fraction). About 40% was still present as NaOH-soluble HA representing unmodified or only slightly modified humic material (compared with 60% in the controls). Modification of natural HAs extracted from compost was followed by their partial decolorization (30%) in liquid cultures of P. inflatus. Bleaching of the medium was accompanied by moderate changes in the molecular mass distribution of both the HA and fulvic-acid fractions, which were analyzed with high-performance size exclusion chromatography. HA modification was most pronounced during the primary growth phase of the fungus and was associated with increased laccase activity.

Priming effect as determined by adding 14C-glucose to modified controlled composting test

The development of new biodegradable packaging materials, especially biodegradable plastics, has created a need for biodegradability testing. The European standard for controlled composting test was used in this study for assessing if the addition of a test material results in excess CO2 production in compost. This effect, designated as the priming effect, would give an erroneous result for biodegradation, which is based on CO2 formation from the test material. Glucose was selected as a test substrate because it is the degradation product of starch and cellulose, which are major compounds of many packaging materials. Both 14C-glucose and non-labelled glucose was applied to nine compost samples of variable stability and age from two weeks to 1.5 years. CO2 and 14CO2 evolution were measured during the incubation. Biodegradation of glucose in unstable composts (age <6 months) was negative and 14CO2 evolution was poor, although the respective composts without glucose produced relatively high amounts of CO2. It was concluded that a negative priming effect was observed in unstable composts, in which glucose remained mostly non-degraded and apparently inhibited the mineralization of native organic matter in the compost. In stable composts (age > or = 6 months), biodegradation of glucose was high and approximately equal to 14C-glucose mineralization, i.e., the composts showed no priming effect. Young composts were unsuitable for controlled composting test due to lack of stability. It is important to ensure that the compost inoculum used for the test is sufficiently stable.

Lignin degradation in a compost environment by the deuteromycete Paecilomyces inflatus

Two strains of the deuteromycete Paecilomyces inflatus were isolated from compost samples consisting of municipal wastes, paper and wood chips. Lignin degradation by P. inflatus was studied following the mineralization of a synthetic (14)C(beta)-labeled lignin (side-chain labeled dehydrogenation polymer, DHP). Approximately 6.5% of the synthetic lignin was mineralized during solid-state cultivation of the fungus in autoclaved compost; and 15.5% was converted into water-soluble fragments. Laccase was the only ligninolytic enzyme detectable when the isolates were grown in autoclaved compost. Production of the enzyme was growth-associated and dependent on the culture conditions. The optimal pH for laccase production was between 4.5 and 5.5 and the optimal temperature was around 30 degrees C. Activity levels of laccase increased in the presence of low-molecular-mass aromatic compounds, such as veratryl alcohol, veratric acid, vanillin and vanillic acid.

Biodegradation of radiolabelled synthetic lignin (14C-DHP) and mechanical pulp in a compost environment

Mineralization of radioactive synthetic lignin (14C-DHP) was studied in a compost environment at 35, 50 and 58 degrees C. Compost samples were successively extracted with water, dioxane and alkali, and the molecular weight distribution of some extracts was determined by gel permeation chromatography (GPC). Biodegradation of lignin-containing spruce groundwood (SGW) and pine sawdust was concurrently determined in controlled composting tests by measuring evolved CO2. The temperatures were the same as in the 14C-DHP mineralization experiment and bleached kraft paper, with a lignin content of 0.2%, was used as a reference. The mineralization of 14C-DHP was relatively high (23-24%) at 35 degrees C and 50 degrees C, although the mixed population of compost obviously lacks the most effective lignin degraders. At 58 degrees C the mineralization of 14C-DHP, as well as the biodegradation of SGW and sawdust, was very low, indicating that the lignin-degrading organisms of compost were inactivated at this temperature. SGW was poorly biodegradable (<40%) in controlled composting tests compared with kraft paper (77-86%) at all temperatures, which means that lignin inhibits the degradation of carbohydrates. During the incubation, water-soluble degradation products, mainly monomers and dimers, and the original 14C-DHP were either mineralized or bound to humic substances. A substantial fraction of 14C-DHP was incorporated into humin or other insolubles.