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Peterson M, Prigge MBD, Floris DL, Bigler ED, Zielinski BA, King JB, Lange N, Alexander AL, Lainhart JE, Nielsen JA. Reduced lateralization of multiple functional brain networks in autistic males. J Neurodev Disord 2024; 16:23. [PMID: 38720286 PMCID: PMC11077748 DOI: 10.1186/s11689-024-09529-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Autism spectrum disorder has been linked to a variety of organizational and developmental deviations in the brain. One such organizational difference involves hemispheric lateralization, which may be localized to language-relevant regions of the brain or distributed more broadly. METHODS In the present study, we estimated brain hemispheric lateralization in autism based on each participant's unique functional neuroanatomy rather than relying on group-averaged data. Additionally, we explored potential relationships between the lateralization of the language network and behavioral phenotypes including verbal ability, language delay, and autism symptom severity. We hypothesized that differences in hemispheric asymmetries in autism would be limited to the language network, with the alternative hypothesis of pervasive differences in lateralization. We tested this and other hypotheses by employing a cross-sectional dataset of 118 individuals (48 autistic, 70 neurotypical). Using resting-state fMRI, we generated individual network parcellations and estimated network asymmetries using a surface area-based approach. A series of multiple regressions were then used to compare network asymmetries for eight significantly lateralized networks between groups. RESULTS We found significant group differences in lateralization for the left-lateralized Language (d = -0.89), right-lateralized Salience/Ventral Attention-A (d = 0.55), and right-lateralized Control-B (d = 0.51) networks, with the direction of these group differences indicating less asymmetry in autistic males. These differences were robust across different datasets from the same participants. Furthermore, we found that language delay stratified language lateralization, with the greatest group differences in language lateralization occurring between autistic males with language delay and neurotypical individuals. CONCLUSIONS These findings evidence a complex pattern of functional lateralization differences in autism, extending beyond the Language network to the Salience/Ventral Attention-A and Control-B networks, yet not encompassing all networks, indicating a selective divergence rather than a pervasive one. Moreover, we observed an association between Language network lateralization and language delay in autistic males.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madeline Peterson
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 1070 KMBL, 84602, USA
| | - Molly B D Prigge
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, USA
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53705, USA
| | - Dorothea L Floris
- Methods of Plasticity Research, Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Erin D Bigler
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 1070 KMBL, 84602, USA
- Neuroscience Center, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84604, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Brandon A Zielinski
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, USA
- Division of Pediatric Neurology, Departments of Pediatrics, Neurology, and Neuroscience, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Florida, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Jace B King
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, USA
| | - Nicholas Lange
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Andrew L Alexander
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53705, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53719, USA
- Department of Medical Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53705, USA
| | - Janet E Lainhart
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53705, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53719, USA
| | - Jared A Nielsen
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 1070 KMBL, 84602, USA.
- Neuroscience Center, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84604, USA.
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Peterson M, Prigge MBD, Floris DL, Bigler ED, Zielinski B, King JB, Lange N, Alexander AL, Lainhart JE, Nielsen JA. Reduced Lateralization of Multiple Functional Brain Networks in Autistic Males. bioRxiv 2023:2023.12.15.571928. [PMID: 38187671 PMCID: PMC10769214 DOI: 10.1101/2023.12.15.571928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2024]
Abstract
Background Autism spectrum disorder has been linked to a variety of organizational and developmental deviations in the brain. One such organizational difference involves hemispheric lateralization, which may be localized to language-relevant regions of the brain or distributed more broadly. Methods In the present study, we estimated brain hemispheric lateralization in autism based on each participant's unique functional neuroanatomy rather than relying on group-averaged data. Additionally, we explored potential relationships between the lateralization of the language network and behavioral phenotypes including verbal ability, language delay, and autism symptom severity. We hypothesized that differences in hemispheric asymmetries in autism would be limited to the language network, with the alternative hypothesis of pervasive differences in lateralization. We tested this and other hypotheses by employing a cross-sectional dataset of 118 individuals (48 autistic, 70 neurotypical). Using resting-state fMRI, we generated individual network parcellations and estimated network asymmetries using a surface area-based approach. A series of multiple regressions were then used to compare network asymmetries for eight significantly lateralized networks between groups. Results We found significant group differences in lateralization for the left-lateralized Language (d = -0.89), right-lateralized Salience/Ventral Attention-A (d = 0.55), and right-lateralized Control-B (d = 0.51) networks, with the direction of these group differences indicating less asymmetry in autistic individuals. These differences were robust across different datasets from the same participants. Furthermore, we found that language delay stratified language lateralization, with the greatest group differences in language lateralization occurring between autistic individuals with language delay and neurotypical individuals. Limitations The generalizability of our findings is restricted due to the male-only sample and greater representation of individuals with high verbal and cognitive performance. Conclusions These findings evidence a complex pattern of functional lateralization differences in autism, extending beyond the Language network to the Salience/Ventral Attention-A and Control-B networks, yet not encompassing all networks, indicating a selective divergence rather than a pervasive one. Furthermore, a differential relationship was identified between Language network lateralization and specific symptom profiles (namely, language delay) of autism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madeline Peterson
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84602, USA
| | - Molly B. D. Prigge
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, USA
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53705, USA
| | - Dorothea L. Floris
- Methods of Plasticity Research, Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Erin D. Bigler
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84602, USA
- Neuroscience Center, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84604, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Brandon Zielinski
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, USA
- Division of Pediatric Neurology, Departments of Pediatrics, Neurology, and Neuroscience, College of Medicine, University of Florida, FL, 32610, United States
| | - Jace B. King
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, USA
| | - Nicholas Lange
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Andrew L. Alexander
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53705, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53719, USA
- Department of Medical Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53705, USA
| | - Janet E. Lainhart
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53705, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53719, USA
| | - Jared A. Nielsen
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84602, USA
- Neuroscience Center, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84604, USA
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Prigge MBD, Bigler ED, Lange N, Morgan J, Froehlich A, Freeman A, Kellett K, Kane KL, King CK, Taylor J, Dean DC, King JB, Anderson JS, Zielinski BA, Alexander AL, Lainhart JE. Longitudinal Stability of Intellectual Functioning in Autism Spectrum Disorder: From Age 3 Through Mid-adulthood. J Autism Dev Disord 2022; 52:4490-4504. [PMID: 34677753 PMCID: PMC9090201 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-021-05227-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Intelligence (IQ) scores are used in educational and vocational planning for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) yet little is known about the stability of IQ throughout development. We examined longitudinal age-related IQ stability in 119 individuals with ASD (3-36 years of age at first visit) and 128 typically developing controls. Intelligence measures were collected over a 20-year period. In ASD, Full Scale (FSIQ) and Verbal (VIQ) Intelligence started lower in childhood and increased at a greater rate with age relative to the control group. By early adulthood, VIQ and working memory stabilized, whereas nonverbal and perceptual scores continued to change. Our results suggest that in individuals with ASD, IQ estimates may be dynamic in childhood and young adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly B D Prigge
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Radiology Research, University of Utah, 729 Arapeen Drive, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, USA.
| | - Erin D Bigler
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Center, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Nicholas Lange
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jubel Morgan
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Radiology Research, University of Utah, 729 Arapeen Drive, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, USA
| | - Alyson Froehlich
- Department of Psychology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Abigail Freeman
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Kristina Kellett
- Department of Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Karen L Kane
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Carolyn K King
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Radiology Research, University of Utah, 729 Arapeen Drive, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, USA
| | - June Taylor
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Radiology Research, University of Utah, 729 Arapeen Drive, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, USA
| | - Douglas C Dean
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Medical Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Jace B King
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Radiology Research, University of Utah, 729 Arapeen Drive, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, USA
| | - Jeff S Anderson
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Radiology Research, University of Utah, 729 Arapeen Drive, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, USA
| | - Brandon A Zielinski
- Department of Neurology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Andrew L Alexander
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Medical Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Janet E Lainhart
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
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Peterson M, Prigge MBD, Bigler ED, Zielinski B, King JB, Lange N, Alexander A, Lainhart JE, Nielsen JA. Evidence for normal extra-axial cerebrospinal fluid volume in autistic males from middle childhood to adulthood. Neuroimage 2021; 240:118387. [PMID: 34260891 PMCID: PMC8485737 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Revised: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder has long been associated with a variety of organizational and developmental abnormalities in the brain. An increase in extra-axial cerebrospinal fluid volume in autistic individuals between the ages of 6 months and 4 years has been reported in recent studies. Increased extra-axial cerebrospinal fluid volume was predictive of the diagnosis and severity of the autistic symptoms in all of them, irrespective of genetic risk for developing the disorder. In the present study, we explored the trajectory of extra-axial cerebrospinal fluid volume from childhood to adulthood in both autism and typical development. We hypothesized that an elevated extra-axial cerebrospinal fluid volume would be found in autism persisting throughout the age range studied. We tested the hypothesis by employing an accelerated, multi-cohort longitudinal data set of 189 individuals (97 autistic, 92 typically developing). Each individual had been scanned between 1 and 5 times, with scanning sessions separated by 2-3 years, for a total of 439 T1-weighted MRI scans. A linear mixed-effects model was used to compare developmental, age-related changes in extra-axial cerebrospinal fluid volume between groups. Inconsistent with our hypothesis, we found no group differences in extra-axial cerebrospinal fluid volume in this cohort of individuals 3 to 42 years of age. Our results suggest that extra-axial cerebrospinal fluid volume in autistic individuals is not increased compared with controls beyond four years of age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madeline Peterson
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84602, United States
| | - Molly B D Prigge
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, United States; Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53705, United States
| | - Erin D Bigler
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84602, United States; Neuroscience Center, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84604, United States; Department of Neurology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, United States; Department of Neurology, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA United States
| | - Brandon Zielinski
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, United States; Department of Neurology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, United States; Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, United States
| | - Jace B King
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, United States
| | - Nicholas Lange
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, United States
| | - Andrew Alexander
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53705, United States; Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53719, United States; Department of Medical Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53705, United States
| | - Janet E Lainhart
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53705, United States; Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53719, United States
| | - Jared A Nielsen
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84602, United States; Neuroscience Center, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84604, United States.
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Prigge MBD, Lange N, Bigler ED, King JB, Dean DC, Adluru N, Alexander AL, Lainhart JE, Zielinski BA. A 16-year study of longitudinal volumetric brain development in males with autism. Neuroimage 2021; 236:118067. [PMID: 33878377 PMCID: PMC8489006 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2020] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with unknown brain etiology. Our knowledge to date about structural brain development across the lifespan in ASD comes mainly from cross-sectional studies, thereby limiting our understanding of true age effects within individuals with the disorder that can only be gained through longitudinal research. The present study describes FreeSurfer-derived volumetric findings from a longitudinal dataset consisting of 607 T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans collected from 105 male individuals with ASD (349 MRIs) and 125 typically developing male controls (258 MRIs). Participants were six to forty-five years of age at their first scan, and were scanned up to 5 times over a period of 16 years (average inter-scan interval of 3.7 years). Atypical age-related volumetric trajectories in ASD included enlarged gray matter volume in early childhood that approached levels of the control group by late childhood, an age-related increase in ventricle volume resulting in enlarged ventricles by early adulthood and reduced corpus callosum age-related volumetric increase resulting in smaller corpus callosum volume in adulthood. Larger corpus callosum volume was related to a lower (better) ADOS score at the most recent study visit for the participants with ASD. These longitudinal findings expand our knowledge of volumetric brain-based abnormalities in males with ASD, and highlight the need to continue to examine brain structure across the lifespan and well into adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly B D Prigge
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.
| | - Nicholas Lange
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Erin D Bigler
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Center, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA; Department of Neurology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT USA; Department of Neurology, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA USA
| | - Jace B King
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Douglas C Dean
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA; Department of Medical Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Nagesh Adluru
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Andrew L Alexander
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA; Department of Medical Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Janet E Lainhart
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Brandon A Zielinski
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA; Department of Neurology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
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Green RR, Bigler ED, Froehlich A, Prigge MBD, Zielinski BA, Travers BG, Anderson JS, Alexander A, Lange N, Lainhart JE. Beery VMI and Brain Volumetric Relations in Autism Spectrum Disorder. J Pediatr Neuropsychol 2020; 5:77-84. [PMID: 32953403 DOI: 10.1007/s40817-019-00069-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Although diminished proficiency on tasks that require visual-motor integration (VMI) has been reported in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), very few studies have examined the association between VMI performance and neuroanatomical regions of interest (ROI) involved in motor and perceptual functioning. To address these issues, the current study included an all-male sample of 41 ASD (ages 3-23 years) and 27 typically developing (TD) participants (ages 5-26 years) who completed the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (Beery VMI) as part of a comprehensive neuropsychological battery. All participants underwent 3.0 T magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with image quantification (FreeSurfer software v5.3). The groups were statistically matched on age, handedness, and intracranial volume (ICV). ASD participants performed significantly lower on VMI and IQ measures compared with the TD group. VMI performance was significantly correlated with FSIQ and PIQ in the TD group only. No pre-defined neuroanatomical ROIs were significantly different between groups. Significant correlations were observed in the TD group between VMI and total precentral gyrus gray matter volume (r = .51, p = .006) and total frontal lobe gray matter volume (r = .46, p = .017). There were no significant ROI correlations with Beery VMI performance in ASD participants. At the group level, despite ASD participants exhibiting reduced visuomotor abilities, no systematic relation with motor or sensory-perceptual ROIs was observed. In the TD group, results were consistent with the putative role of the precentral gyrus in motor control along with frontal involvement in planning, organization, and execution monitoring, all essential for VMI performance. Given that similar associations between VMI and ROIs were not observed in those with ASD, neurodevelopment in ASD group participants may not follow homogenous patterns making correlations in these brain regions unlikely to be observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan R Green
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, 1001 SWKT, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Erin D Bigler
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, 1001 SWKT, Provo, UT 84602, USA.,Neuroscience Center, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,Department of Neurology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Alyson Froehlich
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Molly B D Prigge
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Brandon A Zielinski
- Department of Neurology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Brittany G Travers
- Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behavior, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.,Occupational Therapy Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | | | - Andrew Alexander
- Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behavior, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.,Department of Medical Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Nicholas Lange
- Departments of Psychiatry and Biostatistics, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA.,Neurostatistics Laboratory, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, USA
| | - Janet E Lainhart
- Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behavior, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
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King JB, Prigge MBD, King CK, Morgan J, Weathersby F, Fox JC, Dean DC, Freeman A, Villaruz JAM, Kane KL, Bigler ED, Alexander AL, Lange N, Zielinski B, Lainhart JE, Anderson JS. Generalizability and reproducibility of functional connectivity in autism. Mol Autism 2019; 10:27. [PMID: 31285817 PMCID: PMC6591952 DOI: 10.1186/s13229-019-0273-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Accepted: 04/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Autism is hypothesized to represent a disorder of brain connectivity, yet patterns of atypical functional connectivity show marked heterogeneity across individuals. Methods We used a large multi-site dataset comprised of a heterogeneous population of individuals with autism and typically developing individuals to compare a number of resting-state functional connectivity features of autism. These features were also tested in a single site sample that utilized a high-temporal resolution, long-duration resting-state acquisition technique. Results No one method of analysis provided reproducible results across research sites, combined samples, and the high-resolution dataset. Distinct categories of functional connectivity features that differed in autism such as homotopic, default network, salience network, long-range connections, and corticostriatal connectivity, did not align with differences in clinical and behavioral traits in individuals with autism. One method, lag-based functional connectivity, was not correlated to other methods in describing patterns of resting-state functional connectivity and their relationship to autism traits. Conclusion Overall, functional connectivity features predictive of autism demonstrated limited generalizability across sites, with consistent results only for large samples. Different types of functional connectivity features do not consistently predict different symptoms of autism. Rather, specific features that predict autism symptoms are distributed across feature types. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13229-019-0273-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jace B King
- 1Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84108 USA.,2Interdepartmental Program in Neuroscience, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112 USA
| | - Molly B D Prigge
- 3Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84108 USA.,4Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705 USA
| | - Carolyn K King
- 1Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84108 USA.,3Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84108 USA
| | - Jubel Morgan
- 1Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84108 USA.,3Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84108 USA.,4Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705 USA
| | - Fiona Weathersby
- 1Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84108 USA.,5Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112 USA
| | - J Chancellor Fox
- 1Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84108 USA
| | - Douglas C Dean
- 4Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705 USA
| | - Abigail Freeman
- 4Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705 USA.,6Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53719 USA
| | | | - Karen L Kane
- 4Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705 USA
| | - Erin D Bigler
- 7Psychology Department and Neuroscience Center, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84604 USA
| | - Andrew L Alexander
- 4Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705 USA.,6Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53719 USA.,8Department of Medical Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705 USA
| | - Nicholas Lange
- 9McLean Hospital and Department of Psychiatry, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02478 USA
| | - Brandon Zielinski
- 3Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84108 USA.,10Department of Neurology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84132 USA
| | - Janet E Lainhart
- 4Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705 USA.,6Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53719 USA
| | - Jeffrey S Anderson
- 1Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84108 USA.,2Interdepartmental Program in Neuroscience, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112 USA.,5Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112 USA
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Prigge MBD, Bigler ED, Travers BG, Froehlich A, Abildskov T, Anderson JS, Alexander AL, Lange N, Lainhart JE, Zielinski BA. Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) in Relation to Longitudinal Cortical Thickness Changes in Autism Spectrum Disorder. J Autism Dev Disord 2018; 48:3319-3329. [PMID: 29728946 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-018-3566-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The relationship between brain development and clinical heterogeneity in autism (ASD) is unknown. This study examines the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) in relation to the longitudinal development of cortical thickness. Participants (N = 91 ASD, N = 56 TDC; 3-39 years at first scan) were scanned up to three times over a 7-year period. Mixed-effects models examined cortical thickness in relation to SRS score. ASD participants with higher SRS scores showed regionally increased age-related cortical thinning. Regional thickness differences and reduced age-related cortical thinning were found in predominantly right lateralized regions in ASD with decreasing SRS scores over time. Our findings emphasize the importance of examining clinical phenotypes in brain-based studies of ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly B D Prigge
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA. .,Department of Radiology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA. .,Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA. .,University of Utah, 417 Wakara Way, Suite 3111, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, USA.
| | - Erin D Bigler
- Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA
| | - Brittany G Travers
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.,Occupational Therapy Program in Kinesiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Alyson Froehlich
- Department of Psychology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Tracy Abildskov
- Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA
| | - Jeffrey S Anderson
- Department of Radiology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,Department of Bioengineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Andrew L Alexander
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Nicholas Lange
- McLean Hospital and Department of Psychiatry, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Janet E Lainhart
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Brandon A Zielinski
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,Department of Neurology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
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9
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King JB, Prigge MBD, King CK, Morgan J, Dean DC, Freeman A, Villaruz JAM, Kane KL, Bigler ED, Alexander AL, Lange N, Zielinski BA, Lainhart JE, Anderson JS. Evaluation of Differences in Temporal Synchrony Between Brain Regions in Individuals With Autism and Typical Development. JAMA Netw Open 2018; 1:e184777. [PMID: 30646371 PMCID: PMC6324391 DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.4777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Despite reports of widespread but heterogeneous atypicality of functional connectivity in individuals with autism, little is known regarding the temporal dynamics of functional brain connections and how they relate to autistic traits. OBJECTIVE To investigate differences in temporal synchrony between brain regions in individuals with autism and those with typical development. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS This cohort study, conducted at the University of Utah, included 90 adolescent and adult male participants. A larger sample from the multisite Autism Brain Imaging Data Exchange (ABIDE) was also used as a replication sample. The study includes data acquired between December 2016 and April 2018. Aggregate data included in the replication sample were released to the public in August 2012 (ABIDE I) and June 2016 (ABIDE II). Data analysis were conducted between January 2018 and April 2018. EXPOSURES Male individuals diagnosed as having autism (n = 52) and typically developing male individuals (n = 38). MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES Long duration (30 minutes/individual) of multiband, multiecho functional magnetic resonance imaging was acquired to estimate functional connectivity between brain regions. Sustained connectivity, a measure of functional connectivity duration, as well as lagged temporal dynamics related to functional connectivity, were compared between groups for 361 gray matter regions of interest and a 17-network parcellation. Lagged findings were replicated in the larger ABIDE sample (n = 1402). Sustained connectivity findings were also associated with behavioral and cognitive variables. RESULTS In 52 males with autism (mean [SD] age, 27.73 [8.66] years) and 38 control males with typical development (mean [SD] age, 27.09 [7.49] years), increases in both sustained and functional connectivity at several lags were found in individuals with autism compared with the control group. Group differences in functional connectivity were replicated in the larger ABIDE data set at a 6-second lag. Measures of symptom severity in individuals with autism were positively associated with sustained connectivity values. In the control group, sustained connectivity was negatively associated with cognitive processing. A replication sample (n = 1402) composed of 579 individuals with autism (80 female and 499 male; mean [SD] age, 15.08 [6.89] years) and 823 in the control group (211 female and 612 male; mean [SD] age, 15.06 [6.79] years) from the ABIDE data set was also analyzed. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Whereas the magnitude of functional connectivity in autism is variable across brain regions, participant samples, and development, prolonged temporal synchrony of functional connections is reproducibly observed in autism, suggesting a potential mechanism for core symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jace B. King
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City
- Interdepartmental Program in Neuroscience, University of Utah, Salt Lake City
| | - Molly B. D. Prigge
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison
| | - Carolyn K. King
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City
| | - Jubel Morgan
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison
| | | | - Abigail Freeman
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison
| | | | - Karen L. Kane
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison
| | - Erin D. Bigler
- Psychology Department and Neuroscience Center, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
| | - Andrew L. Alexander
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison
- Department of Medical Physics, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison
| | - Nicholas Lange
- McLean Hospital and Department of Psychiatry, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Brandon A. Zielinski
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City
- Department of Neurology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City
| | - Janet E. Lainhart
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison
| | - Jeffrey S. Anderson
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City
- Interdepartmental Program in Neuroscience, University of Utah, Salt Lake City
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City
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10
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Lalani SJ, Duffield TC, Trontel HG, Bigler ED, Abildskov TJ, Froehlich A, Prigge MBD, Travers BG, Anderson JS, Zielinski BA, Alexander A, Lange N, Lainhart JE. Auditory attention in autism spectrum disorder: An exploration of volumetric magnetic resonance imaging findings. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2017; 40:502-517. [PMID: 29072106 DOI: 10.1080/13803395.2017.1373746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Studies have shown that individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) tend to perform significantly below typically developing individuals on standardized measures of attention, even when controlling for IQ. The current study sought to examine within ASD whether anatomical correlates of attention performance differed between those with average to above-average IQ (AIQ group) and those with low-average to borderline ability (LIQ group) as well as in comparison to typically developing controls (TDC). Using automated volumetric analyses, we examined regional volume of classic attention areas including the superior frontal gyrus, anterior cingulate cortex, and precuneus in ASD AIQ (n = 38) and LIQ (n = 18) individuals along with 30 TDC. Auditory attention performance was assessed using subtests of the Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL) compared among the groups and then correlated with regional brain volumes. Analyses revealed group differences in attention. The three groups did not differ significantly on any auditory attention-related brain volumes; however, trends toward significant size-attention function interactions were observed. Negative correlations were found between the volume of the precuneus and auditory attention performance for the AIQ ASD group, indicating larger volume related to poorer performance. Implications for general attention functioning and dysfunctional neural connectivity in ASD are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanam J Lalani
- a Department of Psychology , Brigham Young University , Provo , UT , USA
| | - Tyler C Duffield
- a Department of Psychology , Brigham Young University , Provo , UT , USA
| | - Haley G Trontel
- a Department of Psychology , Brigham Young University , Provo , UT , USA
| | - Erin D Bigler
- a Department of Psychology , Brigham Young University , Provo , UT , USA.,b Neuroscience Center , Brigham Young University , Provo , UT , USA.,c Department of Psychology , University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA.,d Department of Pediatrics , University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA
| | - Tracy J Abildskov
- a Department of Psychology , Brigham Young University , Provo , UT , USA
| | - Alyson Froehlich
- c Department of Psychology , University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA
| | - Molly B D Prigge
- d Department of Pediatrics , University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA
| | - Brittany G Travers
- e Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behavior , University of Wisconsin-Madison , Madison , WI , USA.,f Department of Kinesiology , University of Wisconsin-Madison , Madison , WI , USA
| | - Jeffrey S Anderson
- g Department of Radiology , University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA
| | - Brandon A Zielinski
- d Department of Pediatrics , University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA.,h Department of Neurology, School of Medicine , University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA
| | - Andrew Alexander
- e Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behavior , University of Wisconsin-Madison , Madison , WI , USA.,i Department of Medical Physics , University of Wisconsin-Madison , Madison , WI , USA.,j Department of Psychiatry , University of Wisconsin-Madison , Madison , WI , USA
| | - Nicholas Lange
- k Department of Psychiatry , Harvard Medical School , Boston , MA , USA.,l Neurostatistics Laboratory , McLean Hospital , Belmont , MA , USA
| | - Janet E Lainhart
- e Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behavior , University of Wisconsin-Madison , Madison , WI , USA.,j Department of Psychiatry , University of Wisconsin-Madison , Madison , WI , USA
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11
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Trontel HG, Duffield TC, Bigler ED, Abildskov TJ, Froehlich A, Prigge MBD, Travers BG, Anderson JS, Zielinski BA, Alexander AL, Lange N, Lainhart JE. Mesial temporal lobe and memory function in autism spectrum disorder: an exploration of volumetric findings. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2015; 37:178-92. [PMID: 25749302 DOI: 10.1080/13803395.2014.997677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Studies have shown that individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) tend to perform significantly below typical developing individuals on standardized measures of memory, even when not significantly different on measures of IQ. The current study sought to examine within ASD whether anatomical correlates of memory performance differed between those with average-to-above-average IQ (AIQ group) and those with low-average to borderline ability (LIQ group) as well as in relations to typically developing comparisons (TDC). Using automated volumetric analyses, we examined regional volume of classic memory areas including the hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus, entorhinal cortex, and amygdala in an all-male sample AIQ (n = 38) and LIQ (n = 18) individuals with ASD along with 30 typically developing comparisons (TDC). Memory performance was assessed using the Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL) compared among the groups and then correlated with regional brain volumes. Analyses revealed group differences on almost all facets of memory and learning as assessed by the various subtests of the TOMAL. The three groups did not differ on any region of interest (ROI) memory-related brain volumes. However, significant size-memory function interactions were observed. Negative correlations were found between the volume of the amygdala and composite, verbal, and delayed memory indices for the LIQ ASD group, indicating larger volume related to poorer performance. Implications for general memory functioning and dysfunctional neural connectivity in ASD are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haley G Trontel
- a Department of Psychology , Brigham Young University , Provo , UT , USA
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12
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Green RR, Bigler ED, Froehlich A, Prigge MBD, Travers BG, Cariello AN, Anderson JS, Zielinski BA, Alexander A, Lange N, Lainhart JE. Beery VMI performance in autism spectrum disorder. Child Neuropsychol 2015; 22:795-817. [PMID: 26292997 DOI: 10.1080/09297049.2015.1056131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Few studies have examined the visuomotor integration (VMI) abilities of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). An all-male sample consisting of 56 ASD participants (ages 3-23 years) and 36 typically developing (TD) participants (ages 4-26 years) completed the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (Beery VMI) as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. Participants were also administered standardized measures of intellectual functioning and the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS), which assesses autism and autism-like traits. The ASD group performed significantly lower on the Beery VMI and on all IQ measures compared to the TD group. VMI performance was significantly correlated with full scale IQ (FSIQ), performance IQ (PIQ), and verbal IQ (VIQ) in the TD group only. However, when FSIQ was taken into account, no significant Beery VMI differences between groups were observed. Only one TD participant scored 1.5 standard deviations (SDs) below the Beery VMI normative sample mean, in comparison to 21% of the ASD sample. As expected, the ASD group was rated as having significantly higher levels of social impairment on the SRS compared to the TD group across all major domains. However, level of functioning on the SRS was not associated with Berry VMI performance. These findings demonstrate that a substantial number of individuals with ASD experience difficulties compared to TD in performing VMI-related tasks, and that VMI is likely affected by general cognitive ability. The fact that lowered Beery VMI performance occurred only within a subset of individuals with ASD and did not correlate with SRS would indicate that visuomotor deficits are not a core feature of ASD, even though they present at a higher rate of impairment than observed in TD participants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan R Green
- a Department of Psychology , Brigham Young University , Provo , UT , USA
| | - Erin D Bigler
- a Department of Psychology , Brigham Young University , Provo , UT , USA.,b Neuroscience Center , Brigham Young University , Provo , UT , USA.,c Department of Psychiatry , University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA
| | - Alyson Froehlich
- c Department of Psychiatry , University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA
| | - Molly B D Prigge
- c Department of Psychiatry , University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA
| | - Brittany G Travers
- d Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behavior , University of Wisconsin , Madison , WI , USA
| | - Annahir N Cariello
- c Department of Psychiatry , University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA
| | - Jeffrey S Anderson
- e Department of Radiology , University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA
| | - Brandon A Zielinski
- f Department of Pediatrics and Neurology, School of Medicine , University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA
| | - Andrew Alexander
- d Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behavior , University of Wisconsin , Madison , WI , USA.,g Department of Medical Physics , University of Wisconsin , Madison , WI , USA.,h Department of Psychiatry , University of Wisconsin , Madison , WI , USA
| | - Nicholas Lange
- i Departments of Psychiatry and Biostatistics , Harvard University , Boston , MA , USA.,j Neurostatistics Laboratory , McLean Hospital , Belmont , MA , USA
| | - Janet E Lainhart
- d Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behavior , University of Wisconsin , Madison , WI , USA.,h Department of Psychiatry , University of Wisconsin , Madison , WI , USA
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13
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Jantz PB, Bigler ED, Froehlich AL, Prigge MBD, Cariello AN, Travers BG, Anderson J, Zielinski BA, Alexander AL, Lange N, Lainhart JE. WIDE RANGE ACHIEVEMENT TEST IN AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER: TEST-RETEST STABILITY. Psychol Rep 2015; 116:674-84. [PMID: 25871566 DOI: 10.2466/03.15.pr0.116k24w8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The principal goal of this descriptive study was to establish the test-retest stability of the Reading, Spelling, and Arithmetic subtest scores of the Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT-3) across two administrations in individuals with autism spectrum disorder. Participants (N = 31) were males ages 6-22 years (M = 15.2, SD = 4.0) who were part of a larger ongoing longitudinal study of brain development in children and adults with autism spectrum disorder (N = 185). Test-retest stability for all three subtests remained consistent across administration periods (M = 31.8 mo., SD = 4.1). Age at time of administration, time between administrations, and test form did not significantly influence test-retest stability. Results indicated that for research involving individuals with autism spectrum disorder with a full scale intelligence quotient above 75, the WRAT-3 Spelling and Arithmetic subtests have acceptable test-retest stability over time and the Reading subtest has moderate test-retest stability over time.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Erin D Bigler
- 2 Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University
| | | | - Molly B D Prigge
- 4 Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behavior, University of Wisconsin-Madison
| | | | - Brittany G Travers
- 6 Occupational Therapy Program, Department of Kinesiology, Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behavior, University of Wisconsin-Madison
| | - Jeffrey Anderson
- 7 Departments of Radiology and Bioengineering, University of Utah
| | - Brandon A Zielinski
- 8 Department of Pediatrics and Neurology, School of Medicine, University of Utah
| | - Andrew L Alexander
- 9 Department of Medical Physics, Department of Psychiatry, Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behavior, University of Wisconsin-Madison
| | - Nicholas Lange
- 10 Departments of Psychiatry and Biostatistics, Harvard University, Neurostatistics Laboratory, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA
| | - Janet E Lainhart
- 11 Department of Psychiatry, Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behavior, University of Wisconsin-Madison
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14
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Travers BG, Tromp DPM, Adluru N, Lange N, Destiche D, Ennis C, Nielsen JA, Froehlich AL, Prigge MBD, Fletcher PT, Anderson JS, Zielinski BA, Bigler ED, Lainhart JE, Alexander AL. Atypical development of white matter microstructure of the corpus callosum in males with autism: a longitudinal investigation. Mol Autism 2015; 6:15. [PMID: 25774283 PMCID: PMC4359536 DOI: 10.1186/s13229-015-0001-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2014] [Accepted: 01/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The corpus callosum is the largest white matter structure in the brain, and it is the most consistently reported to be atypical in diffusion tensor imaging studies of autism spectrum disorder. In individuals with typical development, the corpus callosum is known to undergo a protracted development from childhood through young adulthood. However, no study has longitudinally examined the developmental trajectory of corpus callosum in autism past early childhood. METHODS The present study used a cohort sequential design over 9 years to examine age-related changes of the corpus callosum in 100 males with autism and 56 age-matched males with typical development from early childhood (when autism can first be reliably diagnosed) to mid-adulthood (after development of the corpus callosum has been completed) (3 to 41 years of age). RESULTS The group with autism demonstrated a different developmental trajectory of white matter microstructure in the anterior corpus callosum's (genu and body) fractional anisotropy, which suggests atypical brain maturation in these regions in autism. When analyses were broken down by age group, atypical developmental trajectories were present only in the youngest participants (10 years of age and younger). Significant main effects for group were found in terms of decreased fractional anisotropy across all three subregions of the corpus callosum (genu, body, and splenium) and increased mean diffusivity, radial diffusivity, and axial diffusivity in the posterior corpus callosum. CONCLUSIONS These longitudinal results suggest atypical early childhood development of the corpus callosum microstructure in autism that transitions into sustained group differences in adolescence and adulthood. This pattern of results provides longitudinal evidence consistent with a growing number of published studies and hypotheses regarding abnormal brain connectivity across the life span in autism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany G Travers
- />Occupational Therapy Program, Department of Kinesiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI USA
- />Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53705 USA
| | - Do P M Tromp
- />Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53705 USA
- />Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI USA
| | - Nagesh Adluru
- />Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53705 USA
| | - Nicholas Lange
- />Department of Psychiatry, Harvard School of Medicine, Boston, MA USA
- />Neurostatistics Laboratory, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA USA
| | - Dan Destiche
- />Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53705 USA
| | - Chad Ennis
- />Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53705 USA
| | - Jared A Nielsen
- />Interdepartmental Program in Neuroscience, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT USA
| | - Alyson L Froehlich
- />Scientific Computing and Imaging Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT USA
| | - Molly B D Prigge
- />Department of Radiology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT USA
- />Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah and Primary Children’s Medical Center, Salt Lake City, UT USA
| | - P Thomas Fletcher
- />Scientific Computing and Imaging Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT USA
- />School of Computing, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT USA
| | - Jeffrey S Anderson
- />Interdepartmental Program in Neuroscience, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT USA
- />Department of Radiology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT USA
| | - Brandon A Zielinski
- />Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah and Primary Children’s Medical Center, Salt Lake City, UT USA
- />Department of Neurology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT USA
| | - Erin D Bigler
- />Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT USA
- />Neuroscience Center, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602 USA
| | - Janet E Lainhart
- />Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53705 USA
- />Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI USA
| | - Andrew L Alexander
- />Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53705 USA
- />Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI USA
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15
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Lange N, Travers BG, Bigler ED, Prigge MBD, Froehlich AL, Nielsen JA, Cariello AN, Zielinski BA, Anderson JS, Fletcher PT, Alexander AA, Lainhart JE. Longitudinal volumetric brain changes in autism spectrum disorder ages 6-35 years. Autism Res 2014; 8:82-93. [PMID: 25381736 DOI: 10.1002/aur.1427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2013] [Accepted: 09/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Since the impairments associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) tend to persist or worsen from childhood into adulthood, it is of critical importance to examine how the brain develops over this growth epoch. We report initial findings on whole and regional longitudinal brain development in 100 male participants with ASD (226 high-quality magnetic resonance imaging [MRI] scans; mean inter-scan interval 2.7 years) compared to 56 typically developing controls (TDCs) (117 high-quality scans; mean inter-scan interval 2.6 years) from childhood into adulthood, for a total of 156 participants scanned over an 8-year period. This initial analysis includes between one and three high-quality scans per participant that have been processed and segmented to date, with 21% having one scan, 27% with two scans, and 52% with three scans in the ASD sample; corresponding percentages for the TDC sample are 30%, 30%, and 40%. The proportion of participants with multiple scans (79% of ASDs and 68% of TDCs) was high in comparison to that of large longitudinal neuroimaging studies of typical development. We provide volumetric growth curves for the entire brain, total gray matter (GM), frontal GM, temporal GM, parietal GM, occipital GM, total cortical white matter (WM), corpus callosum, caudate, thalamus, total cerebellum, and total ventricles. Mean volume of cortical WM was reduced significantly. Mean ventricular volume was increased in the ASD sample relative to the TDCs across the broad age range studied. Decreases in regional mean volumes in the ASD sample most often were due to decreases during late adolescence and adulthood. The growth curve of whole brain volume over time showed increased volumes in young children with autism, and subsequently decreased during adolescence to meet the TDC curve between 10 and 15 years of age. The volume of many structures continued to decline atypically into adulthood in the ASD sample. The data suggest that ASD is a dynamic disorder with complex changes in whole and regional brain volumes that change over time from childhood into adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Lange
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; Neurostatistics Laboratory, McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts
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Zielinski BA, Prigge MBD, Nielsen JA, Froehlich AL, Abildskov TJ, Anderson JS, Fletcher PT, Zygmunt KM, Travers BG, Lange N, Alexander AL, Bigler ED, Lainhart JE. Longitudinal changes in cortical thickness in autism and typical development. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 137:1799-812. [PMID: 24755274 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awu083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 251] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
The natural history of brain growth in autism spectrum disorders remains unclear. Cross-sectional studies have identified regional abnormalities in brain volume and cortical thickness in autism, although substantial discrepancies have been reported. Preliminary longitudinal studies using two time points and small samples have identified specific regional differences in cortical thickness in the disorder. To clarify age-related trajectories of cortical development, we examined longitudinal changes in cortical thickness within a large mixed cross-sectional and longitudinal sample of autistic subjects and age- and gender-matched typically developing controls. Three hundred and forty-five magnetic resonance imaging scans were examined from 97 males with autism (mean age = 16.8 years; range 3-36 years) and 60 males with typical development (mean age = 18 years; range 4-39 years), with an average interscan interval of 2.6 years. FreeSurfer image analysis software was used to parcellate the cortex into 34 regions of interest per hemisphere and to calculate mean cortical thickness for each region. Longitudinal linear mixed effects models were used to further characterize these findings and identify regions with between-group differences in longitudinal age-related trajectories. Using mean age at time of first scan as a reference (15 years), differences were observed in bilateral inferior frontal gyrus, pars opercularis and pars triangularis, right caudal middle frontal and left rostral middle frontal regions, and left frontal pole. However, group differences in cortical thickness varied by developmental stage, and were influenced by IQ. Differences in age-related trajectories emerged in bilateral parietal and occipital regions (postcentral gyrus, cuneus, lingual gyrus, pericalcarine cortex), left frontal regions (pars opercularis, rostral middle frontal and frontal pole), left supramarginal gyrus, and right transverse temporal gyrus, superior parietal lobule, and paracentral, lateral orbitofrontal, and lateral occipital regions. We suggest that abnormal cortical development in autism spectrum disorders undergoes three distinct phases: accelerated expansion in early childhood, accelerated thinning in later childhood and adolescence, and decelerated thinning in early adulthood. Moreover, cortical thickness abnormalities in autism spectrum disorders are region-specific, vary with age, and may remain dynamic well into adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon A Zielinski
- 1 Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA2 Department of Neurology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA3 Primary Children's Medical Centre, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Molly B D Prigge
- 1 Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA4 Department of Radiology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Jared A Nielsen
- 4 Department of Radiology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | | | | | - Jeffrey S Anderson
- 4 Department of Radiology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA7 Interdepartmental Program in Neuroscience, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - P Thomas Fletcher
- 8 Scientific Computing and Imaging Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA9 School of Computing, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Kristen M Zygmunt
- 8 Scientific Computing and Imaging Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Brittany G Travers
- 10 Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behaviour, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Nicholas Lange
- 11 Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA12 Department of Biostatistics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA13 Neurostatistics Laboratory, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, USA
| | - Andrew L Alexander
- 10 Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behaviour, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA14 Department of Medical Physics, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA15 Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Erin D Bigler
- 6 Neuroscience Centre, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA16 Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA
| | - Janet E Lainhart
- 10 Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behaviour, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA15 Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
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Travers BG, Bigler ED, Tromp DPM, Adluru N, Froehlich AL, Ennis C, Lange N, Nielsen JA, Prigge MBD, Alexander AL, Lainhart JE. Longitudinal processing speed impairments in males with autism and the effects of white matter microstructure. Neuropsychologia 2014; 53:137-45. [PMID: 24269298 PMCID: PMC3946881 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2013] [Revised: 11/12/2013] [Accepted: 11/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The present study used an accelerated longitudinal design to examine group differences and age-related changes in processing speed in 81 individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) compared to 56 age-matched individuals with typical development (ages 6-39 years). Processing speed was assessed using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-3rd edition (WISC-III) and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-3rd edition (WAIS-III). Follow-up analyses examined processing speed subtest performance and relations between processing speed and white matter microstructure (as measured with diffusion tensor imaging [DTI] in a subset of these participants). After controlling for full scale IQ, the present results show that processing speed index standard scores were on average 12 points lower in the group with ASD compared to the group with typical development. There were, however, no significant group differences in standard score age-related changes within this age range. For subtest raw scores, the group with ASD demonstrated robustly slower processing speeds in the adult versions of the IQ test (i.e., WAIS-III) but not in the child versions (WISC-III), even though age-related changes were similar in both the ASD and typically developing groups. This pattern of results may reflect difficulties that become increasingly evident in ASD on more complex measures of processing speed. Finally, DTI measures of whole-brain white matter microstructure suggested that fractional anisotropy (but not mean diffusivity, radial diffusivity, or axial diffusivity) made significant but small-sized contributions to processing speed standard scores across our entire sample. Taken together, the present findings suggest that robust decreases in processing speed may be present in ASD, more pronounced in adulthood, and partially attributable to white matter microstructural integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany G Travers
- Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behavior, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53705, USA.
| | - Erin D Bigler
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Center, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA; The Brain Institute of Utah, University of Utah, 36 South Wasatch Drive, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of Utah, 501 Chipeta Way, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA
| | - Do P M Tromp
- Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behavior, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Nagesh Adluru
- Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behavior, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Alyson L Froehlich
- Department of Radiology, University of Utah, 30 North 1900 East #1A071, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Chad Ennis
- Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behavior, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Nicholas Lange
- Departments of Psychiatry and Biostatistics, Harvard University, 677 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Neurostatistics Laboratory, McLean Hospital, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA 02478, USA
| | - Jared A Nielsen
- Interdepartmental Program in Neuroscience, University of Utah, 401 MREB, 20 North 1900 East, Salt Lake City, UT 84132, USA
| | - Molly B D Prigge
- Department of Radiology, University of Utah, 30 North 1900 East #1A071, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Andrew L Alexander
- Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behavior, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53705, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 6001 Research Park Blvd., Madison, WI 53719, USA; Department of Medical Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1111 Highland Avenue, Room 1005 Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Janet E Lainhart
- Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behavior, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53705, USA
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Zielinski BA, Anderson JS, Froehlich AL, Prigge MBD, Nielsen JA, Cooperrider JR, Cariello AN, Fletcher PT, Alexander AL, Lange N, Bigler ED, Lainhart JE. scMRI reveals large-scale brain network abnormalities in autism. PLoS One 2012. [PMID: 23185305 PMCID: PMC3504046 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0049172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Autism is a complex neurological condition characterized by childhood onset of dysfunction in multiple cognitive domains including socio-emotional function, speech and language, and processing of internally versus externally directed stimuli. Although gross brain anatomic differences in autism are well established, recent studies investigating regional differences in brain structure and function have yielded divergent and seemingly contradictory results. How regional abnormalities relate to the autistic phenotype remains unclear. We hypothesized that autism exhibits distinct perturbations in network-level brain architecture, and that cognitive dysfunction may be reflected by abnormal network structure. Network-level anatomic abnormalities in autism have not been previously described. We used structural covariance MRI to investigate network-level differences in gray matter structure within two large-scale networks strongly implicated in autism, the salience network and the default mode network, in autistic subjects and age-, gender-, and IQ-matched controls. We report specific perturbations in brain network architecture in the salience and default-mode networks consistent with clinical manifestations of autism. Extent and distribution of the salience network, involved in social-emotional regulation of environmental stimuli, is restricted in autism. In contrast, posterior elements of the default mode network have increased spatial distribution, suggesting a ‘posteriorization’ of this network. These findings are consistent with a network-based model of autism, and suggest a unifying interpretation of previous work. Moreover, we provide evidence of specific abnormalities in brain network architecture underlying autism that are quantifiable using standard clinical MRI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon A Zielinski
- Departments of Pediatrics and Neurology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.
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Prigge MBD, Lange N, Bigler ED, Merkley TL, Neeley ES, Abildskov TJ, Froehlich AL, Nielsen JA, Cooperrider JR, Cariello AN, Ravichandran C, Alexander AL, Lainhart JE. Corpus Callosum Area in Children and Adults with Autism. Res Autism Spectr Disord 2012; 7:221-234. [PMID: 23130086 PMCID: PMC3487714 DOI: 10.1016/j.rasd.2012.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Despite repeated findings of abnormal corpus callosum structure in autism, the developmental trajectories of corpus callosum growth in the disorder have not yet been reported. In this study, we examined corpus callosum size from a developmental perspective across a 30-year age range in a large cross-sectional sample of individuals with autism compared to a typically developing sample. Midsagittal corpus callosum area and the 7 Witelson subregions were examined in 68 males with autism (mean age 14.1 years; range 3-36 years) and 47 males with typical development (mean age 15.3 years; range 4-29 years). Controlling for total brain volume, increased variability in total corpus callosum area was found in autism. In autism, increased midsagittal areas were associated with reduced severity of autism behaviors, higher intelligence, and faster speed of processing (p=0.003, p=0.011, p=0.013, respectively). A trend toward group differences in isthmus development was found (p=0.029, uncorrected). These results suggest that individuals with autism benefit functionally from increased corpus callosum area. Our cross-sectional examination also shows potential maturational abnormalities in autism, a finding that should be examined further with longitudinal datasets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly B. D. Prigge
- Interdepartmental Program in Neuroscience, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Nicholas Lange
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Biostatistics, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
- Neurostatistics Laboratory, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, USA
| | - Erin D. Bigler
- The Brain Institute at the University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA
- Neuroscience Center, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA
| | | | | | - Tracy J. Abildskov
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA
- Neuroscience Center, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA
| | - Alyson L. Froehlich
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Jared A. Nielsen
- Interdepartmental Program in Neuroscience, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Jason R. Cooperrider
- Interdepartmental Program in Neuroscience, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Annahir N. Cariello
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | | | - Andrew L. Alexander
- Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behavior, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Medical Physics, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Janet E. Lainhart
- Interdepartmental Program in Neuroscience, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
- The Brain Institute at the University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
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