Non-compliant packaging and illicit smokeless tobacco in Bangladesh, India and Pakistan: findings of a pack analysis

INTRODUCTION

Illicit smokeless tobacco (ST) trade has seldom been documented despite ST use in at least 127 countries across the world. Based on non-compliance with packaging regulations, we report the proportion of illicit ST products from samples on sale in Bangladesh, India and Pakistan where 85% of global ST users reside.

METHODS

We purchased unique ST products from tobacco sellers in two purposively selected administrative areas (division/district) in each of the three countries. The criteria to determine illicit ST products were based on country-specific legal requirements for ST packaging and labelling. These requirements included: 'market retail price disclosure', 'sale statement disclosure', 'pictorial health warning (PHW) pertinence', 'appropriate textual health warning' and 'using misleading descriptors (MDs)'. Non-compliance with even one of the legal requirements was considered to render the ST product illicit.

RESULTS

Almost all ST products bought in Bangladesh and India were non-compliant with the local packaging requirements and hence potentially illicit, all products in Pakistan lacked desirable features. The most common feature missing was health warnings: 84% packs in Bangladesh, 93% in India, and 100% in Pakistan either did not have PHW or their sizes were too small. In Bangladesh, 61% packs carried MDs. In India and Pakistan, the proportions of such packs were 32% and 42%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Weak and poorly enforced ST control policies may be slowing the progress of tobacco control in South Asia. Standardised regulations are required for packaging and labelling ST. Improving compliance and reducing sale of cheap illicit products may require business licensing and market surveillance.

Is smokeless tobacco use associated with lower health-related quality of life? A cross-sectional survey among women in Bangladesh

INTRODUCTION

Bangladesh has 22 million adult users of smokeless tobacco (ST). The prevalence among women is higher (24.8%). Health-related quality of life outcome (HRQoL) for ST use is little known. We investigated the association between HRQoL and daily ST use among adult women in Bangladesh.

METHODS

Using multi-stage design, a cross-sectional survey was conducted. Adult women (randomly selected) were surveyed from 4 purposively selected divisions (Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna and Rangpur). Female ST users and non-users were compared using HRQoL scores. Self-perceived Visual Analogue Scale (EQ-VAS) values and HRQoL scores were modelled to examine their association with ST use.

RESULTS

A total of 2610 women (1149 users and 1461 non-users) were surveyed. The proportion reported any type of problem in all health dimensions was significantly higher among female ST users than non-users (mobility: 43.3% vs 19.5%, self-care: 29.6% vs 11.9%, usual activities: 48.7% vs 21.8%, pain or discomfort: 69.8% vs 40.6%, and anxiety or depression: 61.3% vs 37.5%). The average HRQoL scores were 0.79 (95% CI: 0.78-0.81) and 0.90 (95% CI: 0.89-0.90) for users and non-users, respectively. Moreover, EQ-VAS average values were significantly higher for non-users [80.7 (95% CI: 79.9-81.6) vs 70.27 (95% CI: 69.2-71.2)]. Controlling the sociodemographics, ST use significantly reduced the HRQoL score by an average of 0.15 points. The EQ-VAS values on average decreased by 0.04 points for ST use.

CONCLUSIONS

ST use is significantly associated with the HRQoL of females in Bangladesh. Considering the higher prevalence of ST, especially among women, HRQoL hazards need to be communicated for awareness building.

Price elasticity of cigarette smoking in Bangladesh: evidence from the Global Adult Tobacco Surveys (GATS)

INTRODUCTION

The overall prevalence of cigarette smoking has not changed significantly for over a decade in Bangladesh. Raising the price of cigarettes through taxation is an important policy instrument for reducing consumption and achieving public health goals. The price elasticity of cigarette demand is an important parameter for evaluating the effectiveness of raising prices through tax increases in reducing cigarette consumption. The objective of the study was to estimate the price elasticity of cigarette demand in Bangladesh using Global Adult Tobacco Survey 2009 and 2017 data.

METHODS

Smoking prevalence and smoking intensity were estimated using a two-part model. Endogeneity of prices was minimised using the average consumption-weighted cigarette price in a cluster, for both smokers and non-smokers residing in a specific cluster.

RESULTS

Cigarette demand was found to be price inelastic and ranged between -0.51 and -0.73. It is also price inelastic across wealth groups and areas of residence in Bangladesh. Although the total price elasticity did not differ considerably between rural and urban locations, it is evident that individuals in the lower-wealth group are more than twice as responsive to price increases as their high-wealth counterparts.

CONCLUSION

A significant increase in cigarette prices through a tax increase would decrease smoking prevalence and increase tax revenue in Bangladesh. The greater price sensitivity among smokers in lower-wealth groups indicates that a tax-induced cigarette price increase would provide more health benefits to them, thereby contributing to improved health equity.

Illicit cigarette trade in the cities of Pakistan: comparing findings between the consumer and waste recycle store surveys

BACKGROUND

Concerns about the magnitude of illicit cigarette trade have prevented the Government of Pakistan from increasing tobacco taxes. We estimated the proportion of illicit cigarettes sold in Pakistani cities. Moreover, we compared two methods for collecting cigarette packs and investigated if the illicit cigarette trade equates to tax evasion.

METHOD

We analysed cigarette packs collected from 10 cities of Pakistan using two methods: consumer survey based on a two-stage random sampling strategy to recruit adult smokers and photograph their cigarette packs and waste recycle store survey to purchase used cigarette packs. Cigarettes were considered illicit if any one of the following was absent from their packs: text and pictorial health warning, underage sale prohibition warning, retail price and manufacturer's name. From the consumer survey, we also estimated the proportion of smokers who purchased loose cigarettes (illegal) and packs below the minimum retail price. Taxation officers (n=4) were consulted to assess their level of confidence in judging tax evasion using the above criteria.

RESULTS

Out of 2416 cigarette packs in the consumer survey, 454 (17.8%; 95% CI 15.4% to 20.2%) were illicit. Similarly, out of 6213 packs from waste recycle shops, 1046 (16.8%; 95% CI 15.9% to 17.7%) were illicit; the difference was not statistically significant (p=0.473). Among consumers, 29.5% bought loose cigarettes and 13.8% paid less than the minimum retail price. The taxation officers considered the manufacturer's name and retail price on cigarette packs as the most relevant criteria to detect tax evasion.

CONCLUSIONS

One in six cigarette packs consumed in Pakistan could be illicit. These figures are far less than those propagated by the tobacco industry. Collecting packs from waste recycle stores is an efficient and valid method to estimate illicit cigarette trade.

'A contradiction between our state and the tobacco company': conflicts of interest and institutional constraints as barriers to implementing Article 5.3 in Bangladesh

INTRODUCTION

Bangladesh has not yet adopted measures to implement Article 5.3 of the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control. The National Tobacco Control Cell (NTCC) has drafted a guideline for implementation, but progress has stalled amid high levels of tobacco industry interference in public policy. This paper examines the barriers to minimising industry interference in a context of close relationships between government officials and tobacco companies.

METHODS

In-depth interviews were conducted with government officials, representatives from civil society, think tank and media organisations, and academic researchers. The data were analysed using a '3 Is' framework developed within the political sciences, emphasising the interactive role of ideas, interests and institutions in policy change.

RESULTS

The findings indicate that policy ideas about protecting public health policy making from tobacco industry interests are largely restricted to the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, and the NTCC specifically. Both individual and institutional conflicts of interest emerge as key barriers to progress to minimising industry interference and for tobacco control governance more broadly. The data also suggest that development of an Article 5.3 guideline has been shaped by the perceived interests of political actors and institutions, and the institutional position of the NTCC, constrained by limits on its resources, authority and isolation from other ministries.

CONCLUSION

NTCC's initiatives towards implementing Article 5.3 constitute an important opportunity to address conflicts of interest that restrict tobacco control in Bangladesh. Progress in minimising industry interference is essential to realising the commitment to being smoke free by 2040.

Advancing whole-of-government approaches to tobacco control: Article 5.3 and the challenge of policy coordination in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, India and Uganda

INTRODUCTION

Despite an extensive evidence base on the diverse economic, environmental and social benefits of tobacco control, difficulties in establishing coordinated national approaches remain a defining challenge for Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) implementation. Minimising tobacco industry interference is seen as key to effective coordination, and this paper analyses implementation of Article 5.3 guidelines, exploring implications for whole-of-government approaches to tobacco control in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, India and Uganda.

METHODS

Based on 131 semistructured interviews with government officials and other key stakeholders, we explore barriers and facilitators for promoting: (1) horizontal coordination across health and other policy spheres, and (2) vertical coordination across national and subnational governments on Article 5.3 implementation.

RESULTS

Our analysis identifies common barriers to coordination across diverse geographical contexts and varying approaches to implementation. They highlight broadly shared experiences of limited understanding and engagement beyond health agencies; restricted responsibility and uncertainty amid conflicting mandates; tensions with wider governance practices and norms; limited capacity and authority of coordination mechanisms; and obstacles to vertical coordination across local, state and national governments. Interview data also indicate important opportunities to advance coordination across sectors and government levels, with Article 5.3 measures capable of informing changes in practices, building support in other sectors, allowing for 'bottom-up' innovation and being shaped by engagement with civil society.

CONCLUSION

Supporting effective implementation of Article 5.3 is key to advancing multisectoral approaches to FCTC implementation and tobacco control's contributions to global health and sustainable development.

Estimating the price elasticity of demand for cigarettes in South Africa using the Deaton approach

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the price elasticity of demand for South Africa and thereby contribute to growing the evidence base of the likely impact of excise taxes on cigarette demand in low-income and middle-income countries.

METHODS

We employ the Deaton method, using wave 5 data from the South African National Income Dynamics Study, to estimate the cigarette price elasticity for South Africa. We used a sample of 6820 households.

RESULTS

Of the 6 820 households in the sample for which we had sufficient data, 1341 (19.7%) spent money on tobacco. The price elasticity of demand for cigarettes is estimated at -0.86 (95% CI -1.37 to -0.35), implying that the demand for cigarettes in South Africa declines by 8.6% for every 10% increase in price.

CONCLUSION

The negative price elasticity estimate for South Africa indicates that increases in the excise tax are particularly effective in controlling cigarette consumption. However, given the presence of a significant illicit tobacco market in the country, it is important that authorities augment tax measures with strategies that curb the illicit trade in cigarettes.

Impact of tobacco price and taxation on affordability and consumption of tobacco products in the South-East Asia Region: A systematic review

INTRODUCTION

The objective of the review was to study the impact of tobacco taxes or prices on affordability and/or consumption of tobacco products in WHO South-East Asia Region (SEAR) countries, overall and by socioeconomic status; and change in consumption of one tobacco product for a given change in price/tax on another tobacco product.

METHODS

The searches were made in five databases (Medline, Embase, Cinahl, EconLit, Tobacconomics) using keywords such as 'tobacco', 'tax', 'price', 'impact' with their synonyms. Additionally, the first 100 articles through google search and e-reports from targeted sources were also reviewed. Studies illustrating the impact of prices/taxes on consumption/affordability of tobacco products in SEAR, in English and with no limitation on year, were included in the review. After two steps of screening, data from 28 studies were extracted using a structured and pre-tested data extraction form.

RESULTS

Of the 28 studies, 12 studies reported an inverse association between price and consumption/affordability, while 11 studies reported no or positive association between price and consumption/affordability of tobacco products. Five studies had unclear interpretations. The majority of studies estimated that the less affluent group were more price responsive compared to the more affluent group. Some studies indicated increased consumption of one product in response to price rise of another product, although, the findings were inconsistent.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of our review support the use of tobacco tax and price measures as effective tools to address the tobacco epidemic. Our findings, however, also emphasize the importance of increasing tobacco product taxes and prices sufficiently to outweigh the effects of income growth, in order for the measures to be effective in reducing the affordability and consumption of tobacco products.

Antibiotic practices among household members and their domestic animals within rural communities in Cumilla district, Bangladesh: a cross-sectional survey

Background

Antibiotic resistance is a global threat to human health, and inappropriate use of antibiotics in humans and animals is widely considered to be a key driver of antibiotic resistant infections. Antibiotic use in humans and animals is growing rapidly in low- and, particularly, middle-income countries. However, there is little detailed understanding about practices related to the use of antibiotics in humans and animals within community settings in such countries. Here we aimed to understand the antibiotic practices of rural households across Cumilla district, Bangladesh, in relation to household members and their domestic animals.

Methods

In 2018 we conducted a cross-sectional survey using representative cluster sampling methods. We collected self-reported information from 682 female and 620 male household heads, with women also asked about their children’s antibiotic practices.

Results

Only 48% (95% CI: 40, 56%) of women and men had heard of antibiotics, and among those women and men who were aware of antibiotics and the children of those women 70% (95% CI: 64, 76%) reported having previously taken antibiotics, while among these individuals who reported previously taking antibiotics 21% (95% CI: 18, 25%) said they had done so most recently within the last month. Risky/inappropriate antibiotic practices in humans and animals were often reported. For example, among women and men who were aware of antibiotics and the children of those women 52% (95% CI: 40, 63%) reported previously taking antibiotics for a “cough/cold”, despite antibiotics being typically inappropriate for use against viral upper respiratory tract infections. Among poultry-owning respondents who were aware of antibiotics 11% (95% CI: 8, 15%) reported previously giving healthy poultry antibiotics, mainly for growth/prophylaxis, while among cattle-owning respondents who were aware of antibiotics and reported previously giving their cattle feed 20% (95% CI: 9, 37%) said the feed had contained antibiotics at least sometimes.

Conclusions

Our results highlight the need for context-adapted interventions at both the community level and the health systems level to reduce inappropriate antibiotic use among humans and domestic animals in rural Bangladesh. Successfully reducing inappropriate use of antibiotics among humans and animals is a required and critical step in tackling antimicrobial resistance.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-021-10457-w.

Smoking behaviours and indoor air quality: a comparative analysis of smoking-permitted versus smoke-free homes in Dhaka, Bangladesh

INTRODUCTION

Exposure to secondhand smoke (SHS) is a health risk to non-smokers. Indoor particulate matter (PM_2.5) is associated with SHS exposure and is used as a proxy measure. However, PM_2.5 is non-specific and influenced by a number of environmental factors, which are subject to geographical variation. The nature of association between SHS exposure and indoor PM_2.5-studied primarily in high-income countries (HICs) context-may not be globally applicable. We set out to explore this association in a low/middle-income country setting, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted among households with at least one resident smoker. We inquired whether smoking was permitted inside the home (smoking-permitted homes, SPH) or not (smoke-free homes, SFH), and measured indoor PM_2.5 concentrations using a low-cost instrument (Dylos DC1700) for at least 22 hours. We describe and compare SPH and SFH and use multiple linear regression to evaluate which variables are associated with PM_2.5 level among all households.

RESULTS

We surveyed 1746 households between April and August 2018; 967 (55%) were SPH and 779 (45%) were SFH. The difference between PM_2.5 values for SFH (median 27 µg/m³, IQR 25) and SPH (median 32 µg/m³, IQR 31) was 5 µg/m³ (p<0.001). Lead participant's education level, being a non-smoker, having outdoor space and smoke-free rule at home and not using kerosene oil for cooking were significantly associated with lower PM_2.5.

CONCLUSIONS

We found a small but significant difference between PM_2.5 concentrations in SPH compared with SFH in Dhaka, Bangladesh-a value much lower than observed in HICs.

Prevalence and detail morphological identification of helminths of murine rodents in Dhaka city, Bangladesh

Rodents are common pests that transmit various deadly pathogens to humans. Here we have studied the helminth parasites of rodents from different ecological niches in Dhaka city, Bangladesh. The gastrointestinal helminths were investigated from a total of 70 rodents, namely Bandicota bengalensis (20), Rattus rattus (15), Rattus norvegicus (25) and Mus musculus (10). The rodents were live-captured from houses in the slum areas (20), stationary shops (20), residential buildings (15) and rice fields (15). The overall prevalence of helminth infection was 71.43%. The highest prevalence was found in R. norvegicus (84%), followed by B. bengalensis (75%), R. rattus (66.66%) and M. musculus (40%). Among different areas of Dhaka city, the highest prevalence recorded in slum areas (85%). Out of 50 rodents, 36 (72%) had mixed endoparasitic infection whereas only 14 (28%) rodents had single infection. The prevalence of endoparasitic infection in male (66%) rodents was higher than that of female (34%). The parasites detected from the rodents were Heterakis spumosa (60%), Hymenolepis diminuta (47.14%), Moniliformis moniliformis (42.85%), Taenia taeniaeformis (35%) and Gongylonema neoplasticum (34.28%). To the best of our knowledge, G. neoplasticum is going to be reported for the first time from rodents in Bangladesh. Except H. spumosa, all the parasites recovered have public health significance. Therefore, proper attention needs to be paid for the prevention of rodent borne zoonosis through the control of rodents.

Estimating the Magnitude of Illicit Cigarette Trade in Bangladesh: Protocol for a Mixed-Methods Study

The illicit tobacco trade undermines the effectiveness of tobacco tax policies; increases the availability of cheap cigarettes, which, in turn, increases tobacco use and tobacco related deaths; and causes huge revenue losses to governments. There is limited evidence on the extent of illicit tobacco trade particularly cigarettes in Bangladesh. The paper presents the protocol for a mixed-methods study to estimate the extent of illicit cigarette trade in Bangladesh. The study will address three research questions: (a) What proportion of cigarettes sold as retail are illicit? (b) What are the common types of tax avoidance and tax evasion? (c) Can pack examination from the trash recycle market be considered as a new method to assess illicit trade in comparison to that from retailers and streets? Following an observational research method, data will be collected utilizing empty cigarette packs from three sources: (a) retailers; (b) streets; and (c) trash recycle market. In addition, a structured questionnaire will be used to collect information from retailers selling cigarettes. We will select post codes as Primary Sampling Unit (PSU) using a multi-stage random sampling technique. We will randomly select eight districts from eight divisions stratified by those with land border and non-land border; and within each district, we will randomly select ten postcodes, stratified by rural (five) and urban (five) PSU to ensure maximum geographical variation, leading to a total of eighty post codes from eight districts. The analysis will report the proportions of packs that do not comply with the study definition of illicit. Independent estimates of illicit tobacco are rare in low- and middle-income countries such as Bangladesh. Findings will inform efforts by revenue authorities and others to address the effects of illicit trade and counter tobacco industry claims.

Compliance of smokeless tobacco supply chain actors and products with tobacco control laws in Bangladesh, India and Pakistan: protocol for a multicentre sequential mixed-methods study

INTRODUCTION

South Asia is home to more than 300 million smokeless tobacco (ST) users. Bangladesh, India and Pakistan as signatories to the Framework Convention for Tobacco Control (FCTC) have developed policies aimed at curbing the use of tobacco. The objective of this study is to assess the compliance of ST point-of-sale (POS) vendors and the supply chain with the articles of the FCTC and specifically with national tobacco control laws. We also aim to assess disparities in compliance with tobacco control laws between ST and smoked tobacco products.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

The study will be carried out at two sites each in Bangladesh, India and Pakistan. We will conduct a sequential mixed-methods study with five components: (1) mapping of ST POS, (2) analyses of ST samples packaging, (3) observation, (4) survey interviews of POS and (5) in-depth interviews with wholesale dealers/suppliers/manufacturers of ST. We aim to conduct at least 300 POS survey interviews and observations, and 6-10 in-depth interviews in each of the three countries. Data collection will be done by trained data collectors. The main statistical analysis will report the frequencies and proportions of shops that comply with the FCTC and local tobacco control policies, and provide a 95% CI of these estimates. The qualitative in-depth interview data will be analysed using the framework approach. The findings will be connected, each component informing the focus and/or design of the next component.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Ethical approvals for the study have been received from the Health Sciences Research Governance Committee at the University of York, UK. In-country approvals were taken from the National Bioethics Committee in Pakistan, the Bangladesh Medical Research Council and the Indian Medical Research Council. Our results will be disseminated via scientific conferences, peer-reviewed research publications and press releases.

Is health care a necessary or luxury product for Asian countries? An answer using panel approach

A number of studies have estimated the income elasticity of health care expenditure to identify whether health care is a necessary or luxury product. However, the issue has received less attention in developing countries, especially in Asian economies. The current study for the first time has used the panel data covering 36 Asian countries for the period 1995-2013 for revealing the nature of health care as a product. Along with conventional econometric techniques we have addressed the issue of cross section dependence and used Westerlund (2007) panel cointegration test which is robust against cross section dependence and heterogeneity for detecting the presence of panel cointegration. By applying Fully Modified OLS (FMOLS) and Dynamic OLS (DOLS) it was found that the long run elasticity of Health Care Expenditure (HCE) with Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is less than unit implying that the health care can be regarded as necessary in nature for these countries.

Partial Cricotracheal Resection (PCTR), a Rewarding Outcome for Paediatric Subglottic Stenosis: An Early Experience

This is a retrospective study examining the outcome of paediatric patients with subglottic stenosis who underwent partial cricotracheal resection (PCTR) as a primary open procedure from 2004 to 2012. There were 5 patients identified aged from 3 to 18 years old. All the subglottic stenosis were acquired type. All of them were secondary to prolonged intubation. Three patients were classified as Myer-Cotton grade III and the other two were Myer-Cotton grade IV. Two of the patients had concomitant bilateral vocal cord immobility. All patients underwent two staged PCTR . All patients underwent two staged PCTR, and one patient underwent posterior cordectomy apart from partial CTR at different setting. All patients were successfully decannulated at various durations postoperatively. Although this is an early experience in our institution, PCTR has shown to be effective and safe procedure in patients with subglottic stenosis especially those with Myer-Cotton grade III and IV.

A prospective evaluation of the effect of atazanavir on the QTc interval and QTc dispersion in HIV-positive patients

BACKGROUND

Atazanavir (ATV), an HIV protease inhibitor (PI) that may be preferred for the treatment of HIV-infected patients with cardiovascular comorbidities because of its favourable effects on plasma lipids, has been associated with cardiac rhythm disturbances.

OBJECTIVE

To quantify the effect of ATV on corrected QT (QTc) and QTc dispersion (QTd), markers of the potential for cardiac dysrhythmia, in patients switching from other PIs to ATV.

METHODS

In this prospective, single-centre, open-label study, 12-lead electrocardiograms were performed for subjects at baseline, 2 h after the first dose of ATV, and 1 month after initiation of ATV.

RESULTS

Twenty-one patients (19 received ritonavir-boosted ATV) completed the study. There was a trend towards an increase in the QTc at 2 h after the first dose [mean+/-standard deviation 3.19+/-8.0 ms; 95% confidence interval (CI) -0.47 to 6.85 ms; P=0.084]. There was no difference between QTc values at baseline and at 1 month (-1.5+/-8.75 ms; 95% CI -5.50 to 2.46; P=0.43). There was a nonsignificant decrease in the QTd between baseline and 2 h (-5.1+/-15.19 ms; 95% CI -13.22 to 2.96; P=0.197) and between baseline and 1 month (-0.61+/-15.04 ms; 95% CI -8.1 to 6.87; P=0.865). A significant increase in the PR interval (7.4+/-10.7 ms; 95% CI 2.5 to 12.25 ms; P=0.005) was observed at 1 month.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of ATV did not result in increases in the QTc interval or QTd. However, PR interval monitoring may be warranted in patients with underlying heart block or those treated with atrioventricular nodal blocking agents.

The use of IR, magnetism, reflectance, and mass spectra together with thermal analyses in structure investigation of codeine phosphate complexes of d-block elements

Codeine is an analgesic with uses similar to morphines, but it is of much less effect, i.e., it had a mild sedative effect; codeine is usually used as the phosphate form (Cod.P) and is often administrated by mouth with aspirin of paracetamol. Due to its serious use, if it is in large dose, attention is paid in this research to the synthesis and stereochemistry of new iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, and zinc complexes of this drug in both solution and the solid states. The spectra of these complexes in solution and the study of their stoichiometry refer to the formation of 1:1 ratio of metal (M) to ligand (L). The steriochemical structures of the solid complexes were studied on the basis of their analytical, spectroscopic, magnetic, and thermal data. Infrared spectra proved the presence of MO bonds. Magnetic susceptibility and solid reflectance spectral measurements were used to infer the structures. The prepared complexes were found to have the general formulae [ML(OH)(x)(H2O)(y)](H2O)(z)H3PO4, M: Co(II), Ni(II), and Cu(II), x = 1, y = 0, z = 0; M: Fe(II), x = 1, y = 2, z = 1; Fe(III), x = 2, y = 1, z = 0; Co(III), x = 0, y = 2, z = 1; Zn(II), x = 1, y = 0, z = 3; and L: (Cod.P) of the general formula C18H24NO7P (anhydrate). Octahedral, tetrahedral, and square planer structures were proposed for these complexes depending upon the magnetic and reflectance data and were confirmed by detailed mass and thermal analyses comparative studies.

The influence of the mass administration of diethylcarbamazine, alone or with albendazole, on the prevalence of filarial antigenaemia

The current Indian campaign for the elimination of lymphatic filariasis is largely based on mass drug administration (MDA). As part of this campaign, villagers in the Tirukoilur and Mugaiyur 'blocks' (i.e. revenue units) of Villupuram district, in Tamil Nadu, India, were treated with diethylcarbamazine (DEC), either alone (Mugaiyur) or with albendazole (Tirukoilur), in March 2001. The efficacy of treatment, in each of the two treatment arms, was evaluated by determining the percentages of the subjects who were carrying antigen from adult Wuchereria bancrofti before, 6 months and 12 months after the MDA. In a cross-sectional survey at each time-point, commercial, immunochromatographic tests were used to check 1000-1200, randomly selected, young residents (aged 2-25 years) of 18 index villages for the antigen; at least 300 villagers aged 2-9 years and at least 170 aged 10-25 years from each treatment arm were screened in each survey. Before the MDA, 12.7% of the subjects aged 2-9 years and 23.6% of those aged 10-25 years were found to be positive for the filarial antigen. Although only about 50% of villagers aged 2-9 years were successfully treated, MDA (with DEC alone or DEC plus albendazole) led to a significant (28.7%) reduction in the prevalence of antigenaemia in this age-group 6 months later (P<0.05). Although, the prevalences of antigenaemia among those aged 2-9 years were higher 12 months post-treatment than 6 months post-treatment, they were still lower (by 16%-23%) than those observed pre-treatment. The addition of albendazole to the DEC treatment appeared to offer no additional benefit in terms of the prevalence of antigenaemia in children aged <10 years; in fact, the use of DEC alone produced a slightly greater reduction in the prevalence of antigenaemia than the use of both DEC and albendazole. In the block given MDA based on both DEC and albendazole, the prevalences of antigenaemia among the villagers aged 10-25 years were 19.4% and 16.6% lower 6 and 12 months post-treatment, respectively, than observed pre-treatment. Curiously, in the block given DEC alone, the prevalences in this age-group were higher at both post-treatment follow-ups (by 17.4% at 6 months and 35.1% at 12 months) than observed pre-treatment. In concurrent experimental studies, high drug compliance (90%) among young children (aged 2-5 years) led to a pronounced (62.6%) reduction in the prevalence of antigenaemia after one MDA. In follow-up studies of those found antigen-positive, 40% of those aged 2-9 years but only 23% of those aged 10-25 years cleared their antigenaemias after three (annual) MDA. To maximize the benefits of MDA, greater efforts should be made to increase treatment coverage among young children.

Comparison of different staining procedures for the flow cytometric analysis of U-937 cells infected with different Leishmania-species

The human macrophage cell line U-937 infected with different Leishmania species, Leishmania mexicana amazonensis (Lma), Leishmania donovani (Ld) and Leishmania infantum (Li), was analyzed by flow cytometry (FCM). Leishmania spp. were labeled with different stains prior to the infection of the U-937 cells (BCECF-Am, PKH2-GL and SYTO 17) or after the infection (AO, FITC-conjugated monoclonal antibodies, PI). Infected cells were analyzed by flow cytometry, fluorescence microscopy and in parallel microscopically after Giemsa staining. The data obtained by these two methods were compared to decide which method is mostly appropriate for detection and estimation of the infection rate. Three fluorescent stains were suitable: BCECF-Am, SYTO 17 and FITC-conjugated MoAb with 0.02% digitonin. None of the vital stains gave evaluable results after 3 days of incubation.

Mixed infection of human U-937 cells by two different species of Leishmania

Mixed infections by different Leishmania species could explain differences in the clinical course of these infections. Moreover, mixed infections of the same macrophage could be the basis for parasite recombination. We stained three strains of Leishmania (L. mexicana amazonensis, L. donovani DD8, and L. infantum D2, respectively) with different fluorescent dyes and analyzed them using a fluorescence-activated cell scanner. The simultaneous infection of one cell by Leishmania belonging to two different species was demonstrated. In additional experiments, cells with mixed infections were separated by a fluorescence-activated cell sorter and monitored for 24 hr. Preinfecting human monocytic U-937 cells with one Leishmania species did not exclude a second species added after 3 hr.

Regulatory segments of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases

Catalytic cores of skeletal and smooth muscle myosin light chain kinases and Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II are regulated intrasterically by different regulatory segments containing autoinhibitory and calmodulin-binding sequences. The functional properties of these regulatory segments were examined in chimeric kinases containing either the catalytic core of skeletal muscle myosin light chain kinase or Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II with different regulatory segments. Recognition of protein substrates by the catalytic core of skeletal muscle myosin light chain kinase was altered with the regulatory segment of protein kinase II but not with smooth muscle myosin light chain kinase. Similarly, the catalytic properties of the protein kinase II were altered with regulatory segments from either myosin light chain kinase. All chimeric kinases were dependent on Ca2+/calmodulin for activity. The apparent Ca2+/calmodulin activation constant was similarly low with all chimeras containing the skeletal muscle catalytic core. The activation constant was greater with chimeric kinases containing the catalytic core of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II with its endogenous or myosin light chain kinase regulatory segments. Thus, heterologous regulatory segments affect substrate recognition and kinase activity. Furthermore, the sensitivity to calmodulin activation is determined primarily by the respective catalytic cores, not the calmodulin-binding sequences.