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Nieves-Cintrón M, Flores-Tamez VA, Le T, Baudel MMA, Navedo MF. Cellular and molecular effects of hyperglycemia on ion channels in vascular smooth muscle. Cell Mol Life Sci 2021; 78:31-61. [PMID: 32594191 PMCID: PMC7765743 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-020-03582-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Revised: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Diabetes affects millions of people worldwide. This devastating disease dramatically increases the risk of developing cardiovascular disorders. A hallmark metabolic abnormality in diabetes is hyperglycemia, which contributes to the pathogenesis of cardiovascular complications. These cardiovascular complications are, at least in part, related to hyperglycemia-induced molecular and cellular changes in the cells making up blood vessels. Whereas the mechanisms mediating endothelial dysfunction during hyperglycemia have been extensively examined, much less is known about how hyperglycemia impacts vascular smooth muscle function. Vascular smooth muscle function is exquisitely regulated by many ion channels, including several members of the potassium (K+) channel superfamily and voltage-gated L-type Ca2+ channels. Modulation of vascular smooth muscle ion channels function by hyperglycemia is emerging as a key contributor to vascular dysfunction in diabetes. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of how diabetic hyperglycemia modulates the activity of these ion channels in vascular smooth muscle. We examine underlying mechanisms, general properties, and physiological relevance in the context of myogenic tone and vascular reactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madeline Nieves-Cintrón
- Department of Pharmacology, University of California Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Víctor A Flores-Tamez
- Department of Pharmacology, University of California Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Thanhmai Le
- Department of Pharmacology, University of California Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | | | - Manuel F Navedo
- Department of Pharmacology, University of California Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
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2
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Ruggeri E, Lira-Albarrán S, Grow EJ, Liu X, Harner R, Maltepe E, Ramalho-Santos M, Donjacour A, Rinaudo P. Sex-specific epigenetic profile of inner cell mass of mice conceived in vivo or by IVF. Mol Hum Reprod 2020; 26:866-878. [PMID: 33010164 PMCID: PMC7821709 DOI: 10.1093/molehr/gaaa064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Revised: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The preimplantation stage of development is exquisitely sensitive to environmental stresses, and changes occurring during this developmental phase may have long-term health effects. Animal studies indicate that IVF offspring display metabolic alterations, including hypertension, glucose intolerance and cardiac hypertrophy, often in a sexual dimorphic fashion. The detailed nature of epigenetic changes following in-vitro culture is, however, unknown. This study was performed to evaluate the epigenetic (using whole-genome bisulfite sequencing (WGBS) and assay for transposase-accessible chromatin using sequencing (ATAC-seq)) and transcriptomic changes (using RNA-seq) occurring in the inner cell mass (ICM) of male or female mouse embryos generated in vivo or by IVF. We found that the ICM of IVF embryos, compared to the in-vivo ICM, differed in 3% of differentially methylated regions (DMRs), of which 0.1% were located on CpG islands. ATAC-seq revealed that 293 regions were more accessible and 101 were less accessible in IVF embryos, while RNA-seq revealed that 21 genes were differentially regulated in IVF embryos. Functional enrichment analysis revealed that stress signalling (STAT and NF-kB signalling), developmental processes and cardiac hypertrophy signalling showed consistent changes in WGBS and ATAC-seq platforms. In contrast, male and female embryos showed minimal changes. Male ICM had an increased number of significantly hyper-methylated DMRs, while only 27 regions showed different chromatin accessibility and only one gene was differentially expressed. In summary, this study provides the first comprehensive analysis of DNA methylation, chromatin accessibility and RNA expression changes induced by IVF in male and female ICMs. This dataset can be of value to all researchers interested in the developmental origin of health and disease (DOHaD) hypothesis and might lead to a better understanding of how early embryonic manipulation may affect adult health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Ruggeri
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
- San Diego Zoo Global, Institute for Conservation Research, Reproductive Sciences, Escondido, CA, 92027, USA
| | - Saúl Lira-Albarrán
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Edward J Grow
- Department of Oncological Sciences and Huntsman Cancer Institute, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Xiaowei Liu
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Royce Harner
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Emin Maltepe
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Miguel Ramalho-Santos
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
- Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, University of Toronto, ON, M5G1X5, Canada
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, ON, M5S1A8, Canada
| | - Annemarie Donjacour
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Paolo Rinaudo
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
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Moreno-Letelier A, Aguirre-Liguori JA, Piñero D, Vázquez-Lobo A, Eguiarte LE. The relevance of gene flow with wild relatives in understanding the domestication process. R Soc Open Sci 2020; 7:191545. [PMID: 32431864 PMCID: PMC7211868 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.191545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
The widespread use of genomic tools has allowed for a deeper understanding of the genetics and the evolutionary dynamics of domestication. Recent studies have suggested that multiple domestications and introgression are more common than previously thought. However, the ability to correctly infer the many aspects of domestication process depends on having an adequate representation of wild relatives. Cultivated maize (Zea mays ssp. mays) is one of the most important crops in the world, with a long and a relatively well-documented history of domestication. The current consensus points towards a single domestication event from teosinte Zea mays ssp. parviglumis from the Balsas Basin in Southwestern Mexico. However, the underlying diversity of teosintes from Z. mays ssp. parviglumis and Zea mays ssp. mexicana was not taken into account in early studies. We used 32 739 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) obtained from 29 teosinte populations and 43 maize landraces to explore the relationship between wild and cultivated members of Zea. We then inferred the levels of gene flow among teosinte populations and maize, the degree of population structure of Zea mays subspecies, and the potential domestication location of maize. We confirmed a strong geographic structure within Z. mays ssp. parviglumis and documented multiple gene flow events with other members of the genus, including an event between Z. mays ssp. mexicana and maize. Our results suggest that the likely ancestor of maize may have been domesticated in Jalisco or in the southern Pacific Coast and not in the Balsas Basin as previously thought. In this context, different populations of both teosinte subspecies have contributed to modern maize's gene pool. Our results point towards a long period of domestication marked by gene flow with wild relatives, confirming domestication as long and ongoing process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandra Moreno-Letelier
- Jardín Botánico, Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Jonás A. Aguirre-Liguori
- Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva, Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Daniel Piñero
- Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva, Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Alejandra Vázquez-Lobo
- Centro de Investigación en Biodiversidad y Conservación, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos. Av. Universidad 1001 Cuernavaca, Morelos, 62209, México
| | - Luis E. Eguiarte
- Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva, Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, México
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Lopez-Ramirez MA, Soto F, Wang C, Rueda R, Shukla S, Silva-Lopez C, Kupor D, McBride DA, Pokorski JK, Nourhani A, Steinmetz NF, Shah NJ, Wang J. Built-In Active Microneedle Patch with Enhanced Autonomous Drug Delivery. Adv Mater 2020; 32:e1905740. [PMID: 31682039 PMCID: PMC7014935 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201905740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Revised: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
The use of microneedles has facilitated the painless localized delivery of drugs across the skin. However, their efficacy has been limited by slow diffusion of molecules and often requires external triggers. Herein, an autonomous and degradable, active microneedle delivery platform is introduced, employing magnesium microparticles loaded within the microneedle patch, as the built-in engine for deeper and faster intradermal payload delivery. The magnesium particles react with the interstitial fluid, leading to an explosive-like rapid production of H2 bubbles, providing the necessary force to breach dermal barriers and enhance payload delivery. The release kinetics of active microneedles is evaluated in vitro by measuring the amount of IgG antibody (as a model drug) that passed through phantom tissue and a pigskin barrier. In vivo experiments using a B16F10 mouse melanoma model demonstrate that the active delivery of anti-CTLA-4 (a checkpoint inhibitor drug) results in greatly enhanced immune response and significantly longer survival. Moreover, spatially resolved zones of active and passive microneedles allow a combinatorial rapid burst response along with slow, sustained release, respectively. Such versatile and effective autonomous dynamic microneedle delivery technology offers considerable promise for a wide range of therapeutic applications, toward a greatly enhanced outcome, convenience, and cost.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Fernando Soto
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Chao Wang
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Ricardo Rueda
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Sourabh Shukla
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Cristian Silva-Lopez
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Daniel Kupor
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - David A McBride
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
- Chemical Engineering Program, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Jonathan K Pokorski
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
- Center for Nano-Immunoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Amir Nourhani
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Nicole F Steinmetz
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
- Center for Nano-Immunoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego, CA, 92093, USA
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego, CA, 92093, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Nisarg J Shah
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
- Chemical Engineering Program, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego, CA, 92093, USA
- Center for Nano-Immunoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego, CA, 92093, USA
- Program in Immunology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Joseph Wang
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
- Center for Nano-Immunoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego, CA, 92093, USA
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Ren L, Nama N, McNeill JM, Soto F, Yan Z, Liu W, Wang W, Wang J, Mallouk TE. 3D steerable, acoustically powered microswimmers for single-particle manipulation. Sci Adv 2019; 5:eaax3084. [PMID: 31692692 PMCID: PMC6814402 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aax3084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 09/13/2019] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The ability to precisely maneuver micro/nano objects in fluids in a contactless, biocompatible manner can enable innovative technologies and may have far-reaching impact in fields such as biology, chemical engineering, and nanotechnology. Here, we report a design for acoustically powered bubble-based microswimmers that are capable of autonomous motion in three dimensions and selectively transporting individual synthetic colloids and mammalian cells in a crowded group without labeling, surface modification, or effect on nearby objects. In contrast to previously reported microswimmers, their motion does not require operation at acoustic pressure nodes, enabling propulsion at low power and far from an ultrasonic transducer. In a megahertz acoustic field, the microswimmers are subject to two predominant forces: the secondary Bjerknes force and a locally generated acoustic streaming propulsive force. The combination of these two forces enables the microswimmers to independently swim on three dimensional boundaries or in free space under magnetical steering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liqiang Ren
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Physics, and Engineering Science and Mechanics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Nitesh Nama
- Department of Surgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Jeffrey M. McNeill
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Fernando Soto
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Zhifei Yan
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Physics, and Engineering Science and Mechanics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Wu Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Physics, and Engineering Science and Mechanics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Wei Wang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
- Corresponding author. (W.W.); (J.W.); (T.E.M.)
| | - Joseph Wang
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
- Corresponding author. (W.W.); (J.W.); (T.E.M.)
| | - Thomas E. Mallouk
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Physics, and Engineering Science and Mechanics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
- Corresponding author. (W.W.); (J.W.); (T.E.M.)
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Mérida-Ortega Á, Rothenberg SJ, Torres-Sánchez L, Schnaas L, Hernández-Alcaraz C, Cebrián ME, García-Hernández RM, Ogaz-González R, López-Carrillo L. Polyunsaturated fatty acids and child neurodevelopment among a population exposed to DDT: a cohort study. Environ Health 2019; 18:17. [PMID: 30819201 PMCID: PMC6396452 DOI: 10.1186/s12940-019-0456-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Accepted: 02/22/2019] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Child neurodevelopment has been positively linked to maternal intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) during pregnancy; however, it is unknown if that relationship persists among populations exposed to environmental neurotoxicants. OBJECTIVE The aim of this work was to assess whether maternal dietary intake of PUFAs during pregnancy is positively associated with child neurodevelopment, whose mothers were environmentally exposed to 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane (DDT). METHODS A prospective cohort study with 276 mother-child pairs was performed in Mexico. Neurodevelopment was assessed by Bayley Scales II from children age 1 to 30 months. Dietary PUFAs intake was estimated by Food Frequency Questionnaire at 1st and 3rd trimester of pregnancy. DDE (1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl) ethylene, the main metabolite of DDT) maternal serum levels were determined by electron capture gas chromatography. Longitudinal multivariate linear mixed-effects analysis, which combines mental (MDI) and motor (PDI) Bayley scales in a single model, were performed. RESULTS Our results show that in a sample environmentally exposed to DDT, maternal ingestion of DPA during the first trimester of pregnancy was positively associated with MDI (β = 0.10, 95% CI 0.02, 0.18) in children from 1 to 30 months. Likewise, our results suggest that dietary ALA may be also related to MDI. CONCLUSION DPA may benefit neurodevelopment even in populations exposed to DDT. Our results strengthen the importance of PUFAs intake during the prenatal period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ángel Mérida-Ortega
- Centro de Investigación en Salud Poblacional, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Av. Universidad 655, Col. Sta. María Ahuacatitlán, 62100 Cuernavaca Morelos, CP Mexico
| | - Stephen J. Rothenberg
- Centro de Investigación en Salud Poblacional, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Av. Universidad 655, Col. Sta. María Ahuacatitlán, 62100 Cuernavaca Morelos, CP Mexico
| | - Luisa Torres-Sánchez
- Centro de Investigación en Salud Poblacional, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Av. Universidad 655, Col. Sta. María Ahuacatitlán, 62100 Cuernavaca Morelos, CP Mexico
| | - Lourdes Schnaas
- Subdirección de Investigación en Intervenciones Comunitarias, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología Isidro Espinosa de los Reyes, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - César Hernández-Alcaraz
- Centro de Investigación en Salud Poblacional, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Av. Universidad 655, Col. Sta. María Ahuacatitlán, 62100 Cuernavaca Morelos, CP Mexico
| | - Mariano E. Cebrián
- Departamento de Toxicología, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Rosa María García-Hernández
- Departamento de Toxicología, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Rafael Ogaz-González
- Centro de Investigación en Salud Poblacional, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Av. Universidad 655, Col. Sta. María Ahuacatitlán, 62100 Cuernavaca Morelos, CP Mexico
| | - Lizbeth López-Carrillo
- Centro de Investigación en Salud Poblacional, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Av. Universidad 655, Col. Sta. María Ahuacatitlán, 62100 Cuernavaca Morelos, CP Mexico
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Long T, Rojo-Arreola L, Shi D, El-Sakkary N, Jarnagin K, Rock F, Meewan M, Rascón AA, Lin L, Cunningham KA, Lemieux GA, Podust L, Abagyan R, Ashrafi K, McKerrow JH, Caffrey CR. Phenotypic, chemical and functional characterization of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) as a potential anthelmintic drug target. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017; 11:e0005680. [PMID: 28704396 PMCID: PMC5526615 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2016] [Revised: 07/25/2017] [Accepted: 06/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Reliance on just one drug to treat the prevalent tropical disease, schistosomiasis, spurs the search for new drugs and drug targets. Inhibitors of human cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (huPDEs), including PDE4, are under development as novel drugs to treat a range of chronic indications including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and Alzheimer's disease. One class of huPDE4 inhibitors that has yielded marketed drugs is the benzoxaboroles (Anacor Pharmaceuticals). METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS A phenotypic screen involving Schistosoma mansoni and 1,085 benzoxaboroles identified a subset of huPDE4 inhibitors that induced parasite hypermotility and degeneration. To uncover the putative schistosome PDE4 target, we characterized four PDE4 sequences (SmPDE4A-D) in the parasite's genome and transcriptome, and cloned and recombinantly expressed the catalytic domain of SmPDE4A. Among a set of benzoxaboroles and catechol inhibitors that differentially inhibit huPDE4, a relationship between the inhibition of SmPDE4A, and parasite hypermotility and degeneration, was measured. To validate SmPDE4A as the benzoxaborole molecular target, we first generated Caenorhabditis elegans lines that express a cDNA for smpde4a on a pde4(ce268) mutant (hypermotile) background: the smpde4a transgene restored mutant worm motility to that of the wild type. We then showed that benzoxaborole inhibitors of SmPDE4A that induce hypermotility in the schistosome also elicit a hypermotile response in the C. elegans lines that express the smpde4a transgene, thereby confirming SmPDE4A as the relevant target. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE The orthogonal chemical, biological and genetic strategies employed identify SmPDE4A's contribution to parasite motility and degeneration, and its potential as a drug target. Transgenic C. elegans is highlighted as a potential screening tool to optimize small molecule chemistries to flatworm molecular drug targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thavy Long
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Liliana Rojo-Arreola
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Da Shi
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Nelly El-Sakkary
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Kurt Jarnagin
- Anacor Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Palo Alto, California, United States of America
| | - Fernando Rock
- Anacor Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Palo Alto, California, United States of America
| | - Maliwan Meewan
- Anacor Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Palo Alto, California, United States of America
| | - Alberto A. Rascón
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Lin Lin
- Department of Physiology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Katherine A. Cunningham
- Department of Physiology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - George A. Lemieux
- Department of Physiology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Larissa Podust
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Ruben Abagyan
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Kaveh Ashrafi
- Department of Physiology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - James H. McKerrow
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Conor R. Caffrey
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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