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Osna NA, Rasineni K, Ganesan M, Donohue TM, Kharbanda KK. Pathogenesis of Alcohol-Associated Liver Disease. J Clin Exp Hepatol 2022; 12:1492-1513. [PMID: 36340300 PMCID: PMC9630031 DOI: 10.1016/j.jceh.2022.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Excessive alcohol consumption is a global healthcare problem with enormous social, economic, and clinical consequences. While chronic, heavy alcohol consumption causes structural damage and/or disrupts normal organ function in virtually every tissue of the body, the liver sustains the greatest damage. This is primarily because the liver is the first to see alcohol absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract via the portal circulation and second, because the liver is the principal site of ethanol metabolism. Alcohol-induced damage remains one of the most prevalent disorders of the liver and a leading cause of death or transplantation from liver disease. Despite extensive research on the pathophysiology of this disease, there are still no targeted therapies available. Given the multifactorial mechanisms for alcohol-associated liver disease pathogenesis, it is conceivable that a multitherapeutic regimen is needed to treat different stages in the spectrum of this disease.
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Key Words
- AA, Arachidonic acid
- ADH, Alcohol dehydrogenase
- AH, Alcoholic hepatitis
- ALD, Alcohol-associated liver disease
- ALDH, Aldehyde dehydrogenase
- ALT, Alanine transaminase
- ASH, Alcohol-associated steatohepatitis
- AST, Aspartate transaminase
- AUD, Alcohol use disorder
- BHMT, Betaine-homocysteine-methyltransferase
- CD, Cluster of differentiation
- COX, Cycloxygenase
- CTLs, Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes
- CYP, Cytochrome P450
- CYP2E1, Cytochrome P450 2E1
- Cu/Zn SOD, Copper/zinc superoxide dismutase
- DAMPs, Damage-associated molecular patterns
- DC, Dendritic cells
- EDN1, Endothelin 1
- ER, Endoplasmic reticulum
- ETOH, Ethanol
- EVs, Extracellular vesicles
- FABP4, Fatty acid-binding protein 4
- FAF2, Fas-associated factor family member 2
- FMT, Fecal microbiota transplant
- Fn14, Fibroblast growth factor-inducible 14
- GHS-R1a, Growth hormone secretagogue receptor type 1a
- GI, GOsteopontinastrointestinal tract
- GSH Px, Glutathione peroxidase
- GSSG Rdx, Glutathione reductase
- GST, Glutathione-S-transferase
- GWAS, Genome-wide association studies
- H2O2, Hydrogen peroxide
- HA, Hyaluronan
- HCC, Hepatocellular carcinoma
- HNE, 4-hydroxynonenal
- HPMA, 3-hydroxypropylmercapturic acid
- HSC, Hepatic stellate cells
- HSD17B13, 17 beta hydroxy steroid dehydrogenase 13
- HSP 90, Heat shock protein 90
- IFN, Interferon
- IL, Interleukin
- IRF3, Interferon regulatory factor 3
- JAK, Janus kinase
- KC, Kupffer cells
- LCN2, Lipocalin 2
- M-D, Mallory–Denk
- MAA, Malondialdehyde-acetaldehyde protein adducts
- MAT, Methionine adenosyltransferase
- MCP, Macrophage chemotactic protein
- MDA, Malondialdehyde
- MIF, Macrophage migration inhibitory factor
- Mn SOD, Manganese superoxide dismutase
- Mt, Mitochondrial
- NK, Natural killer
- NKT, Natural killer T-lymphocytes
- OPN, Osteopontin
- PAMP, Pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- PNPLA3, Patatin-like phospholipase domain containing 3
- PUFA, Polyunsaturated fatty acid
- RIG1, Retinoic acid inducible gene 1
- SAH, S-adenosylhomocysteine
- SAM, S-adenosylmethionine
- SCD, Stearoyl-CoA desaturase
- STAT, Signal transduction and activator of transcription
- TIMP1, Tissue inhibitor matrix metalloproteinase 1
- TLR, Toll-like receptor
- TNF, Tumor necrosis factor-α
- alcohol
- alcohol-associated liver disease
- ethanol metabolism
- liver
- miRNA, MicroRNA
- p90RSK, 90 kDa ribosomal S6 kinase
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia A. Osna
- Research Service, Veterans Affairs Nebraska-Western Iowa Health Care System, Omaha, NE, 68105, USA
- Department of Internal Medicine, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
| | - Karuna Rasineni
- Research Service, Veterans Affairs Nebraska-Western Iowa Health Care System, Omaha, NE, 68105, USA
- Department of Internal Medicine, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
| | - Murali Ganesan
- Research Service, Veterans Affairs Nebraska-Western Iowa Health Care System, Omaha, NE, 68105, USA
- Department of Internal Medicine, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
| | - Terrence M. Donohue
- Research Service, Veterans Affairs Nebraska-Western Iowa Health Care System, Omaha, NE, 68105, USA
- Department of Internal Medicine, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
| | - Kusum K. Kharbanda
- Research Service, Veterans Affairs Nebraska-Western Iowa Health Care System, Omaha, NE, 68105, USA
- Department of Internal Medicine, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
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Jaeschke H, Adelusi OB, Akakpo JY, Nguyen NT, Sanchez-Guerrero G, Umbaugh DS, Ding WX, Ramachandran A. Recommendations for the use of the acetaminophen hepatotoxicity model for mechanistic studies and how to avoid common pitfalls. Acta Pharm Sin B 2021; 11:3740-3755. [PMID: 35024303 PMCID: PMC8727921 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2021.09.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Revised: 08/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Acetaminophen (APAP) is a widely used analgesic and antipyretic drug, which is safe at therapeutic doses but can cause severe liver injury and even liver failure after overdoses. The mouse model of APAP hepatotoxicity recapitulates closely the human pathophysiology. As a result, this clinically relevant model is frequently used to study mechanisms of drug-induced liver injury and even more so to test potential therapeutic interventions. However, the complexity of the model requires a thorough understanding of the pathophysiology to obtain valid results and mechanistic information that is translatable to the clinic. However, many studies using this model are flawed, which jeopardizes the scientific and clinical relevance. The purpose of this review is to provide a framework of the model where mechanistically sound and clinically relevant data can be obtained. The discussion provides insight into the injury mechanisms and how to study it including the critical roles of drug metabolism, mitochondrial dysfunction, necrotic cell death, autophagy and the sterile inflammatory response. In addition, the most frequently made mistakes when using this model are discussed. Thus, considering these recommendations when studying APAP hepatotoxicity will facilitate the discovery of more clinically relevant interventions.
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Key Words
- AIF, apoptosis-inducing factor
- AMPK, AMP-activated protein kinase
- APAP, acetaminophen
- ARE, antioxidant response element
- ATG, autophagy-related genes
- Acetaminophen hepatotoxicity
- Apoptosis
- Autophagy
- BSO, buthionine sulfoximine
- CAD, caspase-activated DNase
- CYP, cytochrome P450 enzymes
- DAMPs, damage-associated molecular patterns
- DMSO, dimethylsulfoxide
- Drug metabolism
- EndoG, endonuclease G
- FSP1, ferroptosis suppressing protein 1
- Ferroptosis
- GPX4, glutathione peroxidase 4
- GSH, glutathione
- GSSG, glutathione disulfide
- Gclc, glutamate–cysteine ligase catalytic subunit
- Gclm, glutamate–cysteine ligase modifier subunit
- HMGB1, high mobility group box protein 1
- HNE, 4-hydroxynonenal
- Innate immunity
- JNK, c-jun N-terminal kinase
- KEAP1, Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1
- LAMP, lysosomal-associated membrane protein
- LC3, light chain 3
- LOOH, lipid hydroperoxides
- LPO, lipid peroxidation
- MAP kinase, mitogen activated protein kinase
- MCP-1, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1
- MDA, malondialdehyde
- MPT, mitochondrial permeability transition
- Mitochondria
- MnSOD, manganese superoxide dismutase
- NAC, N-acetylcysteine
- NAPQI, N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine
- NF-κB, nuclear factor κB
- NQO1, NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1
- NRF2
- NRF2, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2
- PUFAs, polyunsaturated fatty acids
- ROS, reactive oxygen species
- SMAC/DIABLO, second mitochondria-derived activator of caspase/direct inhibitor of apoptosis-binding protein with low pI
- TLR, toll like receptor
- TUNEL, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling
- UGT, UDP-glucuronosyltransferases
- mTORC1, mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1
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Affiliation(s)
- Hartmut Jaeschke
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology & Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA
| | - Olamide B Adelusi
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology & Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA
| | - Jephte Y Akakpo
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology & Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA
| | - Nga T Nguyen
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology & Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA
| | - Giselle Sanchez-Guerrero
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology & Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA
| | - David S Umbaugh
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology & Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA
| | - Wen-Xing Ding
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology & Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA
| | - Anup Ramachandran
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology & Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA
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Yang Z, Cappello T, Wang L. Emerging role of microRNAs in lipid metabolism. Acta Pharm Sin B 2015; 5:145-50. [PMID: 26579440 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2015.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2014] [Revised: 12/24/2014] [Accepted: 01/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
microRNAs (miRNAs or miRs) are small non-coding RNAs that are involved in post-transcriptional regulation of their target genes in a sequence-specific manner. Emerging evidence demonstrates that miRNAs are critical regulators of lipid synthesis, fatty acid oxidation and lipoprotein formation and secretion. Dysregulation of miRNAs disrupts gene regulatory network, leading to metabolic syndrome and its related diseases. In this review, we introduced epigenetic and transcriptional regulation of miRNAs expression. We emphasized on several representative miRNAs that are functionally involved into lipid metabolism, including miR-33/33⁎, miR122, miR27a/b, miR378/378⁎, miR-34a and miR-21. Understanding the function of miRNAs in lipid homeostasis may provide potential therapeutic strategies for fatty liver disease.
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Key Words
- ABCA1, adenosine triphosphate-binding cassette transporter A1
- ABCG1, adenosine triphosphate-binding cassette transporter G1
- AMPKα, AMP-activated protein kinase α
- ATP8B1, aminophospholipid transporter, class I, type 8B, member 1
- Ago2, argonaute 2
- ApoA1, apolipoprotein A1
- BDL, bile-duct ligation
- CPT1A, carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1A
- CRAT, carnitine O-acetyltransferase
- CYP26, cytochrome P450 family 26
- CYP3A4, cytochrome P450 family 3 subfamily A polypeptide 4
- ERRγ, estrogen-related receptor gamma
- FABP7, fatty acid-binding protein 7
- FASN, fatty acid synthase
- FGF21, fibroblast growth factor 21
- FGFR1, fibroblast growth factor receptor 1
- FXR, farnesoid X receptor
- GABPA, GA binding protein transcription factor alpha subunit
- GPC6, glypican 6
- HADHB, hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase/3-ketoacyl-CoA thiolase/enoyl-CoA hydratase trifunctional protein, beta subunit
- HCC, hepatocellular carcinoma
- HCV, hepatitis C virus
- HMGCR, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase
- HMGCS1, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A synthase 1
- HNE, 4-hydroxynonenal
- IGF1R, insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor
- IGFBP3, insulin-like growth factor binding protein 3
- INSIG1, insulin induced gene 1
- LIPE, lipase hormone-sensitive
- LNA, locked nucleic acids
- LNPs, lipid-based nanoparticles
- LPS, lipopolysaccharide
- Lipid metabolism
- MED13, mediator complex subunit 13
- MHV68, murine γ-herpesvirus 68
- MTTP, microsomal TG transfer protein
- NR1D1/REV-ERBα, transcriptional repressor nuclear receptor subfamily 1 group D member 1
- NRs, nuclear receptors
- Nuclear receptors
- PCK1, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 1
- PDCD4, programmed cell death 4
- PGC-1, peroxisone proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator
- PLIN1, perilipin 1
- PNA, peptide nucleic acid
- PNPLA2, patatin-like phospholipase domain containing 2
- PPARγ, peroxisone proliferator-activated receptor gamma
- RTL1, retrotransposon-like 1
- RXRα, retinoid X receptor alpha
- SHP, small heterodimer partner
- SIRT1, sirtuin 1
- SIRT6, sirtuin 6
- TG, triglyceride
- TLR4, toll-like receptor 4
- miRNAs or miRs, microRNAs
- microRNAs
- pre-miRNAs, precursor-miRNAs
- pri-miRNAs, primary-miRNAs
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Giordano S, Darley-Usmar V, Zhang J. Autophagy as an essential cellular antioxidant pathway in neurodegenerative disease. Redox Biol 2013; 2:82-90. [PMID: 24494187 PMCID: PMC3909266 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2013.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 266] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2013] [Revised: 12/15/2013] [Accepted: 12/17/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidative stress including DNA damage, increased lipid and protein oxidation, are important features of aging and neurodegeneration suggesting that endogenous antioxidant protective pathways are inadequate or overwhelmed. Importantly, oxidative protein damage contributes to age-dependent accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria or protein aggregates. In addition, environmental toxins such as rotenone and paraquat, which are risk factors for the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, also promote protein oxidation. The obvious approach of supplementing the primary antioxidant systems designed to suppress the initiation of oxidative stress has been tested in animal models and positive results were obtained. However, these findings have not been effectively translated to treating human patients, and clinical trials for antioxidant therapies using radical scavenging molecules such as α-tocopherol, ascorbate and coenzyme Q have met with limited success, highlighting several limitations to this approach. These could include: (1) radical scavenging antioxidants cannot reverse established damage to proteins and organelles; (2) radical scavenging antioxidants are oxidant specific, and can only be effective if the specific mechanism for neurodegeneration involves the reactive species to which they are targeted and (3) since reactive species play an important role in physiological signaling, suppression of endogenous oxidants maybe deleterious. Therefore, alternative approaches that can circumvent these limitations are needed. While not previously considered an antioxidant system we propose that the autophagy-lysosomal activities, may serve this essential function in neurodegenerative diseases by removing damaged or dysfunctional proteins and organelles. Significant oxidative damage occurs in neurodegenerative disease brains. Effective in animal models with single toxins, antioxidants are ineffective in clinical trials. The failure of antioxidant therapy maybe due to propagation of cellular damage. Autophagic clearance of diverse damaged molecules may provide antioxidant mechanisms. Further mechanistic and translational studies on autophagy therapy are needed.
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Key Words
- 6-OHDA, 6-hydroxydopamine
- Animal models
- Anti-oxidants
- Autophagy
- CBZ, carbamazepine
- Clinical trials
- EGCG, epigallocatechin gallate
- GSH, glutathione
- HIF1α, hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha
- HNE, 4-hydroxynonenal
- LRRK2, leucine-rich repeat kinase 2
- MDA, malondialdehyde
- MPP+, 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium
- MPTP, 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydro pyridine
- MitoQ, mitochondrially-targeted coenzyme Q
- Mitochondrial dysfunction
- MnSOD, manganese superoxide dismutase
- Neurons
- Nrf2, Nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2
- PINK1, PTEN-induced putative kinase 1
- Parkinson’s disease
- Protein aggregation
- ROS/RNS, reactive oxygen and nitrogen species
- Reactive oxygen species
- Redox signaling
- SOD, superoxide dismutase
- Selegiline, N-propargyl-methamphetamine
- Sirt1, NAD-dependent deacetylast sirtuin-1
- TFEB, transcription factor EB
- Toxins
- UCHL1, ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase L1
- UPDRS, Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale
- curcumin, (1E,6E)-1,7-Bis(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-1,6-heptadiene-3,5-dione
- iPSC, induced pluripotent stem cells
- rasagiline, N-propargyl-1-(R)-aminoindan
- the ADAGIO study, the Attenuation of Disease Progression with Azilect Given Once-daily) study
- the DATATOP Study, the Deprenyl and Tocopherol Antioxidative Therapy of Parkinsonism Study
- the NET-PD network, the NINDS Exploratory Trials in Parkinson’s Disease (NET-PD) network
- the TEMPO Study, the TVP-1012 in Early Monotherapy for PD Outpatients Study
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha Giordano
- Center for Free Radical Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, United States ; Department of Pathology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, United States
| | - Victor Darley-Usmar
- Center for Free Radical Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, United States ; Department of Pathology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, United States
| | - Jianhua Zhang
- Center for Free Radical Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, United States ; Department of Pathology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, United States ; Department of Veterans Affairs, Birmingham VA Medical Center, United States
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Chapple SJ, Cheng X, Mann GE. Effects of 4-hydroxynonenal on vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cell redox signaling and function in health and disease. Redox Biol 2013; 1:319-31. [PMID: 24024167 PMCID: PMC3757694 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2013.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 324] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2013] [Accepted: 04/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
4-hydroxynonenal (HNE) is a lipid hydroperoxide end product formed from the oxidation of n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids. The relative abundance of HNE within the vasculature is dependent not only on the rate of lipid peroxidation and HNE synthesis but also on the removal of HNE adducts by phase II metabolic pathways such as glutathione-S-transferases. Depending on its relative concentration, HNE can induce a range of hormetic effects in vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells, including kinase activation, proliferation, induction of phase II enzymes and in high doses inactivation of enzymatic processes and apoptosis. HNE also plays an important role in the pathogenesis of vascular diseases such as atherosclerosis, diabetes, neurodegenerative disorders and in utero diseases such as pre-eclampsia. This review examines the known production, metabolism and consequences of HNE synthesis within vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells, highlighting alterations in mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum function and their association with various vascular pathologies. HNE is a lipid peroxidation endproduct regulating vascular redox signaling. HNE detoxification is tightly regulated in vascular and other cell types. Elevated HNE levels are associated with various vascular diseases.
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Key Words
- 15d-PGJ2, 15-deoxy-Delta (12,14) prostaglandin-J2
- 4-hydroxynonenal
- AP-1, Activator protein-1
- AR, Aldose reductase
- ARE, Antioxidant response element
- ATF6, Activating transcription factor 6
- Akt, Protein kinase B
- BAEC, Bovine aortic endothelial cells
- BH4, Tetrahydrobiopterin
- BLMVEC, Bovine lung microvascular vein endothelial cells
- BPAEC, Bovine pulmonary arterial endothelial cells
- BTB, Broad complex Tramtrack and Bric–brac domain
- CHOP, C/EBP-homologous protein
- CREB, cAMP response element-binding protein
- EGFR, Epidermal growth factor receptor
- ER, Endoplasmic reticulum
- ERAD, Endoplasmic reticulum assisted degradation
- ERK1/2, Extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2
- Elk1, ETS domain-containing protein
- Endothelial cells
- EpRE, Electrophile response element
- FAK, Focal adhesion kinase
- FAP, Familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy
- GCLC, Glutamate cysteine ligase catalytic subunit
- GCLM, Glutamate cysteine ligase modifier subunit
- GS-DHN, Glutathionyl-1,4 dihydroxynonene
- GS-HNE, HNE-conjugates
- GSH, Glutathione
- GST, Glutathione-S-transferase
- GTPCH, Guanosine triphosphate cyclohydrolase I
- HASMC, Human aortic smooth muscle cells
- HCSMC, Human coronary smooth muscle cells
- HERP, Homocysteine inducible ER protein
- HMEC, Human microvascular endothelial cells
- HNE, 4-hydroxynonenal
- HO-1, Heme oxygenase-1
- HUVEC, Human umbilical vein endothelial cells
- Hsp-70/72/90, Heat shock proteins-70/ -72/ -90
- IRE1, Inositol requiring enzyme 1 IRE1
- IVR, Central intervening region
- JNK, c-jun N-terminal kinase
- Keap1, Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1
- MASMC, Mouse aortic smooth muscle cells
- MEK1/2, Mitogen activated protein kinase kinase 1/2
- MMP-1/2, Matrix metalloproteinase-1/ -2
- MPEC, Mouse pancreatic islet endothelial cells
- NAC, N-acetylcysteine
- NFκB, Nuclear factor kappa B
- NO, Nitric oxide
- NQO1, NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase
- Nrf2
- Nrf2, Nuclear factor-E2-related factor 2
- PCEC, Porcine cerebral endothelial cells
- PDGF, Platelet-derived growth factor
- PDI, Protein disulfide isomerases
- PERK, Protein kinase-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase
- PKC, Protein kinase C
- PUFAs, Polyunsaturated fatty acids
- RASMC, Rat aortic smooth muscle cells
- ROS, Reactive oxygen species
- RVSMC, Rat vascular smooth muscle cells
- Redox signaling
- SMC, Smooth muscle cell
- TKR, Tyrosine kinase receptor
- UPR, Unfolded protein response
- Vascular biology
- Vascular smooth muscle cells
- eNOS, Endothelial nitric oxide synthase
- elF2α, Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2α
- iNOS, Inducible nitric oxide synthase
- oxLDL, Oxidized low density lipoprotein
- tBHP, Tert-butylhydroperoxide
- xCT, cystine/glutamate amino acid transporter
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J Chapple
- Cardiovascular Division, British Heart Foundation Centre of Research Excellence, School of Medicine, King's College London, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, U.K
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