Neurotoxic, biotransformation, oxidative stress and genotoxic effects in Astyanax altiparanae (Teleostei, Characiformes) males exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of diclofenac and/or caffeine

The present study evaluated neurotoxic, biotransformation, genotoxic and antioxidant responses to relevant environmental concentrations of diclofenac (0.4 μg L^-1) and caffeine (27.5 μg L^-1), separate and combined, in adult males of the freshwater fish Astyanax altiparanae after a subchronic exposure (14 days). Fish exposed to diclofenac and caffeine, both separate and combined, revealed a neurotoxic effect through the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity in the muscle, while diclofenac alone and in combination caused cyclooxygenase inhibition. Caffeine alone produces genotoxicity on this species but, when combined with diclofenac, it potentiates hepatic lipoperoxidation and the inhibition of oxidative stress enzymes, while diclofenac alone or in combination produces a general inhibition of important enzymes. This study suggests that aquatic contamination produced by these pharmaceuticals has the potential to affect homeostasis and locomotion in A. altiparanae and compromise their immune system and general health.

Polystyrene nanoplastics alter the cytotoxicity of human pharmaceuticals on marine fish cell lines

There is an increasing concern on the consequences of the presence of micro(nano)plastics to marine organisms. The present study aimed to provide information on the effects of polystyrene nanoplastics (PSNPs) to fish cells alone and combined with human pharmaceuticals, other emerging contaminants, using as biological models marine fish cell lines SAF-1 and DLB-1. Cells were exposed for 24 h to 100 nm PSNPs, starting at 0.001 up to 10 mg/L, to assess effects on viability and activity of catalase (antioxidant defense) and glutathione S-transferases (phase II biotransformation and antioxidant defense). The viability of cells was also evaluated after exposure to human pharmaceuticals alone and combined with PSNPs. Overall, PSNPs failed to be cytotoxic but data proved their ability to alter the toxicity of human pharmaceuticals. DLB-1 was the most sensitive cell line to PSNPs. Data support the use of marine fish cell lines in the study of the effects of micro(nano)plastics.

Suspect screening and target quantification of human pharmaceutical residues in the surface water of Wuhan, China, using UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS

In this study we developed a systematic method for suspect screening and target quantification of the human pharmaceutical residues in water, via solid phase extraction (SPE) followed by liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). We then proceeded to study the occurrences and distribution of the pharmaceuticals in the surface waters of Wuhan, China, by analyzing water samples from lakes, rivers and municipal sewage. Initially, 33 human pharmaceuticals were identified from East Lake without using purchasing standards. Of these, 29 were later confirmed by using standards, and quantified using the aforementioned SPE pretreatment method and LC-HRMS analysis in full MS scan mode. The 29 compounds included 8 antibiotics, 9 metabolites, and 12 miscellaneous pharmaceuticals. The highest proportions of pharmaceutical residues were detected downstream of the Yangtze River and in the lakes close to the central city. Metformin, cotinine, and trans-3-hydroxy cotinine, were frequently encountered in all the surface water samples. High concentrations (>120 ng/l) of caffeine, metformin, theobromine, and valsartan were detected in the surface water samples; the removal rates of these compounds in the municipal sewage treatment plant were also high. In contrast, although the concentrations of 4-AAA and metoprolol acid in the surface water were high, the removal rates of these residues in the sewage treatment plant were low.

Significance of metabolites in the environmental risk assessment of pharmaceuticals consumed by human

The purpose of this study is to demonstrate the significance of metabolites to the ERA of human pharmaceuticals. The predicted exposure concentrations (PECs) in surface water were estimated for a total of 24 selected active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and their metabolites using a life cycle based emission estimation model combined with a multimedia fate model with Monte-Carlo calculations. With the eco-toxicity data, the hazard quotients (HQs) of the metabolites were compared with those of individual parents alone. The results showed that PEC or toxicity or both of the metabolites was predicted to be higher than that of their parent APIs, which resulted in a total of 18 metabolites (from 12 parents) that have greater HQs than their parents. This result clearly demonstrated that some metabolites may potentially pose greater risk than their parent APIs in the water environment. Therefore, significance of metabolites should be carefully evaluated for monitoring strategy, priority setting, and scoping of the environmental risk assessment of APIs. The method used in the present work may serve as a pragmatic approach for the purpose of preliminary screening or priority setting of environmental risk posed by both APIs and their metabolites.

Transcriptome analysis of the brain of the sea bream (Sparus aurata) after exposure to human pharmaceuticals at realistic environmental concentrations

Human pharmaceuticals such as Acetaminophen, Atenolol and Carbamazepine are pseudo persistent aquatic pollutants with yet unknown sub-lethal effects at environmentally relevant concentrations. Gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) were exposed to Acetaminophen: 31.90 ± 11.07 μg L^-1; Atenolol: 0.95 ± 0.38 μg L^-1 and Carbamazepine: 6.95 ± 0.13 μg L^-1 in a 28 day flow through experiment to (1) determine whether exposure to low concentrations in the μg·L^-1 range of the pharmaceuticals alters the brain transcriptome and, (2) identify different expression profiles and treatment specific modes of action and pathways. Despite low exposure concentrations, 411, 7 and 612 differently expressed transcripts were identified in the individual treatments with Acetaminophen, Atenolol and Carbamazepine, respectively. Functional analyses of differentially expressed genes revealed a significant over representation of several biological processes, cellular compartment features and molecular functions for both Acetaminophen and Carbamazepine treatments. Overall, the results obtained in seabream brain suggest similar physiological responses to those observed in humans also at environmental concentrations, as well as the existence of treatment specific processes that may be useful for the development of biomarkers of contamination.

Evaluation of gemfibrozil effects on a marine fish (Sparus aurata) combining gene expression with conventional endocrine and biochemical endpoints

The information on the potential hazardous effects of gemfibrozil (GEM) on marine fish is extremely scarce. In the current study, molecular, endocrine and biochemical parameters were assessed in Sparus aurata after 96h waterborne exposure to a GEM concentration range. Hepatic mRNA levels of target genes known to be regulated via peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (pparα) in mammals, such as apolipoprotein AI (apoa1) and lipoprotein (lpl) were significantly increased, without a concomitant activation of the ppar pathways. GEM (15μgL(-1)) induced an upregulation in mRNA levels of interleukin 1β (il1β), tumour necrosis factor-α (tnfα) and caspase 3 (casp3), suggesting an activation of proinflammatory processes in S. aurata liver. However, mRNA levels of genes related with the antioxidant defence system and cell-tissue repair were unaltered under the tested experimental conditions. Higher levels of GEM induced a cortisol rise, an indication that it is recognized as a stressor by S. aurata. Cortisol levels and the mRNA levels of il1β, tnfα and casp3 may be suggested as potential biomarkers of GEM effects in marine fish.

Effects of emerging contaminants on neurotransmission and biotransformation in marine organisms - An in vitro approach

The effects of gold (ionic form and nanoparticles - AuNPs) and pharmaceuticals (carbamazepine and fluoxetine) on enzymes involved in neurotransmission (acetylcholinesterase - AChE) and biotransformation (glutathione S-transferases - GST) were assessed by their incubation with Mytilus galloprovincialis' hemolymph and subcellular fraction of gills, respectively. AuNPs did not alter enzymatic activities unlike ionic gold that inhibited AChE and GST activities at 2.5 and 0.42mg·L(-1), respectively. Carbamazepine inhibited AChE activity at 500mg·L(-1) and fluoxetine at 1000mg·L(-1). GST was inhibited by carbamazepine at 250mg·L(-1) and by fluoxetine at 125mg·L(-1). Increased AChE activity was found in simultaneous exposures to fluoxetine and bovine serum albumin coated AuNPs (BSA-AuNPs). Concerning GST, in the simultaneous exposures, AuNPs revealed protective effects against carbamazepine (citrate and polyvinylpyrrolidone coated) and fluoxetine (citrate and BSA coated) induced inhibition. However, BSA-AuNPs increased the inhibition caused by carbamazepine. AuNPs demonstrated ability to interfere with other chemicals toxicity justifying further studies.

Effects of short-term exposure to fluoxetine and carbamazepine to the collembolan Folsomia candida

Pharmaceuticals, emerging environmental contaminants, have their ecotoxicological effects to non-target organisms in soil largely unknown. This study assessed short-term effects of two human pharmaceuticals, carbamazepine and fluoxetine, to Folsomia candida. Avoidance to spiked soils was assessed after 48 and 96 h exposure and biochemical changes (acetylcholinesterase and glutathione S-transferase activities, and lipid peroxidation levels) after 96 h. F. candida avoided soils spiked with 0.04, 0.4 and 4 mg carbamazepine kg(-1) after 48 h. However, higher number of organisms were found in soils with 40 mg carbamazepine kg(-1), a behavior also displayed for 40 mg fluoxetine kg(-1) spiked soils. After 96 h, F. candida showed avoidance behavior to soils with 4 and 40 mg carbamazepine kg(-1). Acetylcholinesterase activity decreased in 0.4 mg fluoxetine kg(-1) exposed organisms. Peroxidative damages were detected in organisms exposed to 4 and 40 mg kg(-1) carbamazepine and glutathione S-transferase inhibition was observed at 40 mg kg(-1). Data suggests that carbamazepine and fluoxetine may pose risk to soil collembolan.