Recovery Effects of Foam Rolling on Psychophysiological Responses in Thai National Male Ice Hockey Players

We examined the short-term effects of foam rolling (FR), dynamic stretching (DS), and passive rest (PR) following simulated ice hockey exercise (IHE) on heart rate (HR), blood lactate (BL), leg choice reaction time (CRTleg), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and global rating of change (GRC) in elite ice hockey players. The study followed a randomized cross-over design. Fifteen national male ice hockey players were assigned to the FR, DS, or PR interventions for 10 mins following 35- min of simulated IHE. HR and BL were obtained at 0-, 5- and 10-min post-intervention. CRTleg and RPE were assessed pre-and post-intervention. GRC was evaluated post-intervention. The PR decreased HR faster than the DS at 5-min of post-treatment. Whereas the FR and DS reduced BL levels faster than the PR at 5- and 10-min post-treatment. There was no difference in CRTleg among the FR, DS, and PR. The FR had lower RPE scores compared to the DS and PR post-treatment. As perceptual aspects, the FR was the most preferred treatment by ice hockey athletes. The FR and DS exerted more beneficial effects on BL but not on HR by the passive rest. The FR showed the most effective treatment on the psychological demands by improving RPE and perceptual responses over the DS and PR. Thus, the FR could be used as a choice for post-game recovery treatment on improving physiological and perceptual responses following an intense match-play in ice hockey players.

Moderate continuous- and high-intensity interval training elicit comparable cardiovascular effect among middle-aged men regardless of recovery mode

To assess the effect of active and passive intra-interval recovery modes in time-efficient high-intensity interval training (HIT) on cardiorespiratory fitness, autonomic function, and endothelial function in sedentary middle-aged men.Participants (n = 62; age: 49.5 ± 5.8 y; BMI: 29.7 ± 3.7 kg·m^-2) completed the assessments of cardiorespiratory fitness, flow-mediated dilation (FMD) and heart rate variability before being randomly allocated to control (CON; n = 14), moderate intensity continuous training (MICT; n = 15), HIT with passive (P-HIT; n-15), or active recovery (A-HIT; n = 15). Participants performed thrice weekly exercise sessions for 12 weeks. MICT completed 50-60 min of continuous cycling at 60-70% heart rate (HR) maximum. HIT completed 30-s work intervals (∼85% HR) interspaced with 2.5 min of active or passive recovery.All exercise modalities increased oxygen uptake (V̇O₂) (MD: ≥ 3.1 ml·kg^-1·min^-1, 95%CI: 1.5-4.7 ml·kg^-1·min^-1; P < 0.001), power output (MD: ≥ 26 W, 95%CI: 15-37 W; P < 0.001) and cycle duration (MD: ≥ 62 s, 95%CI: 36-88 s; P < 0.001) at 85% HRM. Significant pre-to-post differences were observed among all exercise groups for FMD (MD: ≥ 3.4%, 95%CI: 0.3-6.5%; P < 0.05), while MICT and P-HIT significantly increased the standard deviation of all NN intervals (SDNN) pre-to-post intervention (MD: ≥ 7 ms, 2-13 ms; P ≤ 0.05).Time-efficient HIT elicits significant improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness, FMD and autonomic modulation following a thrice weekly 12-week exercise intervention among sedentary middle-aged men. Active recovery between successive high-intensity intervals provided no additional benefit among this deconditioned cohort.

Comparison of 4 Different Cooldown Strategies on Lower-Leg Temperature, Blood Lactate Concentration, and Fatigue Perception After Intense Running

CONTEXT

Although active recovery (AR) and cold application is recommended, many people take a shower after exercise. Therefore, a direct comparison between a shower and other recommended methods (AR and/or cold-water immersion) is necessary. To compare immediate effects of 4 postexercise cooldown strategies after running.

DESIGN

A crossover design.

METHODS

Seventeen young, healthy males (23 y; 174 cm; 73 kg) visited on 4 different days and performed a 10-minute intense treadmill run (5 km/h at a 1% incline, then a belt speed of 1 km/h, and an incline of 0.5% were increased every minute). Then, subjects randomly experienced 4 different 30-minute cooldown strategies each session-AR (10-min treadmill walk + 10-min static stretch + 10-min shower), cold-water walk (10-min shower + 20-min walk in cold water), cold-water sit (10-min shower + 20-min sit in cold water), and passive recovery (10-min shower + 20-min passive recovery). Across the cooldown conditions, the water temperatures for immersion and shower were set as 18 °C and 25 °C, respectively. Lower-leg muscle temperature, blood lactate concentration, and fatigue perception were statistically compared (P < .001 for all tests) and effect sizes (ES) were calculated.

RESULTS

The cold-water walk condition (F135,2928 = 69.29, P < .0001) was the most effective in reducing muscle temperature after running (-11.6 °C, ES = 9.46, P < .0001), followed by the cold-water sit (-8.4 °C, ES = 8.61, P < .0001), passive recovery (-4.5 °C, ES = 4.36, P < .0001), and AR (-4.0 °C, ES = 4.29, P < .0001) conditions. Blood lactate concentration (F6,176 = 0.86, P = .52) and fatigue perception (F6,176 = 0.18, P = .98) did not differ among the 4 conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

While the effect of lowering the lower-leg temperature was different, the effect of reducing blood lactate concentration and fatigue perception were similar in the 4 cooldown strategies. We suggest selecting the appropriate method while considering the specific goal, available time, facility, and accessibility.

Effects of a Cool-Down after Supramaximal Interval Exercise on Autonomic Modulation

Supramaximal interval exercise alters measures of autonomic modulation, while a cool-down may speed the recovery of vagal modulation. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of a cool-down (pedaling a cycle ergometer at 50 rpm against a resistance of 45 W) versus passive recovery (no pedaling) after supramaximal interval exercise on autonomic modulation. Sixteen moderately active individuals (Mean ± SD: 23 ± 3 years (men: n = 10; women: n = 6) were assessed for autonomic modulation at Rest, and 15 (R15), 30 (R30), 45 (R45) and 60 (R60) min following supramaximal interval exercise. Linear measures of autonomic modulation included natural log (ln) total power (lnTP), high-frequency power (lnHF), the ratio of low frequency (LF) to HF ln(LF/HF) ratio, root mean square of successive differences between normal heartbeats (lnRMSSD), while non-linear measures included sample entropy (SampEn) and Lempel–Ziv entropy (LZEn). Two-way repeated ANOVAs were used to evaluate the main effects of condition (cool-down, passive recovery) across time (Rest, and R15, R30, R45 and R60). There were significant (p ≤ 0.05) condition by time interactions for SampEn and LZEn, such that they decreased at 15, 30, 45 and 60 min during passive recovery compared to Rest, with the recovery of SampEn and LZEn by 60 and 45 min, respectively, during cool-down. There were significant (p ≤ 0.05) main effects of time for lnTP, lnHF and lnRMSSD, such that lnTP, lnHF and lnRMSSD were attenuated, and lnLF/HF ratio was augmented, at all recovery times compared to Rest. These data demonstrate that a cool-down increases the recovery of nonlinear measures of vagal modulation within 45–60 min after supramaximal interval exercise, compared to passive recovery in moderately active individuals.

The Efficacy of Re-Warm-Up Practices during Half-Time: A Systematic Review

Background and Objectives: The passive nature of rest breaks in sport could reduce athletes’ performance and even increase their risk of injury. Re-warm-up activities could help avoid these problems, but there is a lack of research on their efficacy. This systematic review aimed at analyzing the results of those randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that provided information on the effects of re-warm-up strategies. Materials and Methods: Four electronic databases (Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, and SPORTDiscus) were searched from their inception to January 2021, for RCTs on the effects of re-warm-up activities on sports performance. Interventions had to be implemented just after an exercise period or sports competition. Studies that proposed activities that were difficult to replicate in the sport context or performed in a hot environment were excluded. Data were synthesized following PRISMA guidelines, while the risk of bias was assessed following the recommendations of the Cochrane Collaboration. Results: A total of 14 studies (178 participants) reporting data on acute or short-term effects were analyzed. The main outcomes were grouped into four broad areas: physiological measures, conditional abilities, perceptual skills, and sport efficiency measures. The results obtained indicated that passive rest decreases physiological function in athletes, while re-warm-up activities could help to improve athletes’ conditional abilities and sporting efficiency, despite showing higher fatigue levels in comparison with passive rest. The re-warm-up exercise showed to be more effective than passive rest to improve match activities and passing ability. Conclusions: Performing re-warm-up activities is a valuable strategy to avoid reducing sports performance during prolonged breaks. However, given that the methodological quality of the studies was not high, these relationships need to be further explored in official or simulated competitions.

Perceptual and Biochemical Responses in Relation to Different Match-Day +2 Training Interventions in Soccer Players

The aim of this study was to examine the impact of two different post-match training interventions on the subsequent recovery of perceptual and biochemical parameters after the game. In a crossover design, eight sub-elite players underwent a soccer-specific training (SST) and an active recovery (AR) regimen on the second day after a match (+48 h). Muscle soreness as well as muscle damage (creatine kinase, CK), inflammatory (C-reactive protein and interleukin 6), immunological (e.g., lymphocytes, neutrophils, and monocytes), and endocrine (cortisol) markers were obtained at baseline (-72 h), immediately after (0 h), and 72 h post-match (+72 h). AR promoted a higher restoration of muscle soreness values (P = 0.004, η2 p = 0.49) together with a better restoration of CK within 72 h post-match compared with SST (P = 0.04, η2 p = 0.36). Conversely, no significant (P > 0.05, η2 p < 0.91) differences were observed in the recovery timeframe of inflammatory, immunological, and endocrine responses between SST and AR. Overall, AR elicited a quicker muscle soreness and CK restoration compared to SST intervention at 72 h post-match. Such information provides novel evidence-based findings on the appropriateness of different recovery strategies and may aid to improve the practitioners' decision-making process when two consecutive games are played within 3 days.

The Effects of L-Citrulline on Blood-Lactate Removal Kinetics Following Maximal-Effort Exercise

The accumulation of lactate in muscle and blood during high-intensity exercise is negatively correlated with the duration exercise can be sustained. Removal of lactate is a key component of acute recovery between consecutive bouts of such exercise. Low-intensity exercise enhances recovery by accelerating lactate turnover in metabolically active tissues, largely mediated by blood flow to these tissues. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to clarify if L-citrulline, a nutritional supplement purported to promote vasodilation via enhanced nitric oxide availability, would augment the removal of blood lactate during active recovery (AR). L-citrulline ingestion will augment the rate of blood lactate concentration decrease during AR, reduce the oxygen-cost of submaximal exercise, and increase time-to-exhaustion and peak oxygen uptake (V̇O2peak) during a test of maximal aerobic power. Healthy university students (five males & five females) participated in this double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Participants exercised on a cycle ergometer at submaximal steady-state intensities followed by progressively increasing intensity to exhaustion, 10 min of AR, and then supramaximal intensity exercise to exhaustion. Oxygen uptake was measured throughout the trial and blood lactate was sampled repeatedly during AR. The protocol elicited very high peak blood lactate concentrations after exercise (11.3 + 1.3 mmol/L). L-citrulline supplementation did not significantly alter blood lactate kinetics during AR, the oxygen cost of exercise, V̇O2peak, or time-to-exhaustion. Despite a strong theoretical basis by which L-citrulline could augment lactate removal from the blood, L-citrulline supplementation showed no effect as an exercise-recovery supplement.

Preventive measures for the critical postexercise period in sickle cell trait and disease

The immediate postexercise/physical activity period is critical for sickle cell trait (SCT) carriers and disease (SCD) patients. Exercise-related blood acidosis is known to trigger the cascade of HbS deoxygenation and polymerization, leading to red blood cell sickling and subsequent complications. Unfortunately, two facts worsen exercise-related blood acidosis during the initial postexercise period: First, blood lactate and H⁺ concentrations continue to increase for several minutes after exercise completion, exacerbating blood acidosis. Second, blood lactate concentration remains elevated and pH altered for 20-45 min during inactivity after intense exercise, keeping acid/base balance disturbed for a long period after exercise. Therefore, the risk of complications (including vasoocclusive crises and even sudden death) persists and even worsens several minutes after intense exercise completion in SCT carriers or SCD patients. Light physical activity following intense exercise (namely, active recovery) may, by accelerating lactate removal and acid/base balance restoration, reduce the risk of complications. Scientific evidence suggests that light exercise at or below the first lactate threshold is an appropriate strategy.

Effect of the Cooldown Type on Session Rating of Perceived Exertion

PURPOSE

This study investigated the effect of cooldown modality (active vs passive) and duration (5, 10, and 15 min) on session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE). Secondarily, the possible influence of training sessions' demand on this effect was studied.

METHODS

A total of 16 youth male soccer players (15.7 [0.4] y) completed 2 standardized training sessions per week across 6 weeks. During weeks 1 to 2, 3 to 4, and 5 to 6, cooldown lengths of 15, 10, and 5 minutes were studied, respectively. Using a crossover design, players were randomly assigned to 2 groups and each group performed 1 of 2 different cooldown interventions. Passive and active cooldown interventions based on static stretching and running exercises were studied. Heart rate and sRPE were recorded during all training sessions.

RESULTS

The lowest sRPE was observed when passive cooldown was performed. When the hardest training sessions were considered, a significant main effect of cooldown modality (P < .01) and duration (P < .05) and an interaction effect between these variables (P < .05) on sRPE were obtained. The lowest (P < .01) sRPE was observed during the longest cooldown (15 min).

CONCLUSION

The findings suggest that sRPE may be sensitive to the selected cooldown modality and duration, especially following the most demanding training sessions.

Effects of a Short-Term Cycling Interval Session and Active Recovery on Non-Linear Dynamics of Cardiac Autonomic Activity in Endurance Trained Cyclists

Measurement of the non-linear dynamics of physiologic variability in a heart rate time series (HRV) provides new opportunities to monitor cardiac autonomic activity during exercise and recovery periods. Using the Detrended Fluctuation Analysis (DFA) technique to assess correlation properties, the present study examines the influence of exercise intensity and recovery on total variability and complexity in the non-linear dynamics of HRV. Sixteen well-trained cyclists performed interval sessions with active recovery periods. During exercise, heart rate (HR) and beat-to-beat (RR)-intervals were recorded continuously. HRV time domain measurements and fractal correlation properties were analyzed using the short-term scaling exponent alpha1 of DFA. Lactate (La) levels and the rate of perceived exertion (RPE) were also recorded at regular time intervals. HR, La, and RPE showed increased values during the interval blocks (p < 0.05). In contrast, meanRR and DFA-alpha1 showed decreased values during the interval blocks (p < 0.05). Also, DFA-alpha1 increased to the level in the warm-up periods during active recovery (p < 0.05) and remained unchanged until the end of active recovery (p = 1.000). The present data verify a decrease in the overall variability, as well as a reduction in the complexity of the RR-interval-fluctuations, owing to increased organismic demands. The acute increase in DFA-alpha1 following intensity-based training stimuli in active recovery may be interpreted as a systematic reorganization of the organism with increased correlation properties in cardiac autonomic activity in endurance trained cyclists.

Effect of Two Types of Active Recovery on Fatigue and Climbing Performance

Performing intra-session recovery is important in rock climbing due to the multiple efforts that climbers are required to make in competitions, as well as repeated climbing trials that they carry out during training sessions. Active recovery has been shown to be a better option than passive recovery. However, the type of active recovery that should be done and the influence of the type and quantity of muscle mass activated are not clear. The aim of this study was to compare the effects of recovering with easy climbing (CR) or walking (WR) on markers of fatigue and climbing performance. For this purpose, 14 subjects participated in this randomly assigned crossover protocol completing three two-minute climbing trials separated by two minutes of active recovery with the assigned method. Seven days later participants carried out the same protocol with the other recovery method. Blood lactate (La(-)), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and heart rate (HR) were analyzed as markers of fatigue and recovery, while meters climbed (MC) and handgrip force (HF) were analyzed for performance. La- values before the last climbing trial (p < 0.05; d = 0.69) and Peak La- values (p < 0.05; d = 0.77) were lower for CR than for WR. Climbers were able to ascend more meters in the set time when following the CR protocol (p < 0.01; d = 0.6), which shows the important role of the active recovery method carried out on climbing performance. There were no differences in HR, HF or RPE between protocols. A more sport-specific recovery protocol, in addition to moving great muscle mass (e.g. lower limbs), seems to enhance recovery and to facilitate lactate removal. For this reason, CR appears to be a more effective active recovery method than WR in sport rock climbing. Key pointsClimbing recovery improved lactate removal in comparison with walking recovery.Subjects were able to climb more meters in a determined time when easy climbing instead of walking during recoveries.Activating both great muscle mass like that of the lower limbs as well as the main fatigue producing muscles (forearms in climbing) seems more effective for recovering than activating just great muscle mass.

Effects of active recovery on autonomic and haemodynamic responses after aerobic exercise

The aim of this study was to examine the effect of active recovery on autonomic and haemodynamic responses after exercise in healthy adults. Nineteen healthy young male individuals underwent two experimental sessions: exercise with active recovery (AR) and exercise with passive recovery (PR). The exercise sessions comprised three phases: warm-up (5 min), exercise phase (cycle ergometer, 30 min, intensity between 60 and 70% of the heart rate reserve) and recovery (5 min). In the AR, the subjects remained cycling in the recovery phase at intensity between 30% and 35% of heart rate reserve, while in the PR, the subjects stopped the exercise after finishing the exercise phase. Blood pressure and heart rate were measured before and over the 30 min after the interventions. There were no differences for systolic and diastolic blood pressures, heart rate and rate pressure product between active and passive recovery sessions. Also, all heart rate variability parameters changed similarly after exercise with passive or active recovery sessions. In summary, exercise with active recovery does not affect the autonomic and haemodynamic responses after moderate-intensity aerobic exercise in healthy young male individuals.

Heart rate recovery after submaximal exercise in four different recovery protocols in male athletes and non-athletes

The effects of different recovery protocols on heart rate recovery (HRR) trend through fitted heart rate (HR) decay curves were assessed. Twenty one trained male athletes and 19 sedentary male students performed a submaximal cycle exercise test on four occasions followed by 5 min: 1) inactive recovery in the upright seated position, 2) active (cycling) recovery in the upright seated position, 3) supine position, and 4) supine position with elevated legs. The HRR was assessed as the difference between the peak exercise HR and the HR recorded following 60 seconds of recovery (HRR60). Additionally the time constant decay was obtained by fitting the 5 minute post-exercise HRR into a first-order exponential curve. Within- subject differences of HRR60 for all recovery protocols in both groups were significant (p < 0. 001) except for the two supine positions (p > 0.05). Values of HRR60 were larger in the group of athletes for all conditions (p < 0.001). The time constant of HR decay showed within-subject differences for all recovery conditions in both groups (p < 0.01) except for the two supine positions (p > 0.05). Between group difference was found for active recovery in the seated position and the supine position with elevated legs (p < 0.05). We conclude that the supine position with or without elevated legs accelerated HRR compared with the two seated positions. Active recovery in the seated upright position was associated with slower HRR compared with inactive recovery in the same position. The HRR in athletes was accelerated in the supine position with elevated legs and with active recovery in the seated position compared with non-athletes. Key pointsIn order to return to a pre-exercise value following exercise, heart rate (HR) is mediated by changes in the autonomic nervous system but the underlying mechanisms governing these changes are not well understood.Even though HRR is slower with active recovery, lactate elimination after high intensity exercise might be more important for athletes than the de-cline of heart rate.Lying supine during recovery after exercise may be an effective means of transiently restoring HR and vagal modulation and a safe position for prevention of syncope.

Reliability of a contact and non-contact simulated team game circuit

Most team sports are characterised by repeated short maximal sprint efforts interspersed with longer periods of active recovery or rest. Although a variety of testing protocols have been devised to simulate these activity patterns under controlled conditions, a common limitation is the lack of 'body contact' to simulate the tackling efforts seen in contact sports. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess the reliability of a simulated team game protocol with and without 'contact'. Eleven male, team-sport athletes (mean ± SD; age 22 ± 2 yr; BMI 23.0 ± 1.7 kg·m(-2)) completed four separate testing trials; two 'non-contact' trials (NCON) and two 'contact' (CON) trials of a simulated game to determine the reliability of a range of team sport performance indicators including repeated 15-m sprint time, vertical jump height, heart rate response and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE). The team game protocol involved four sets of 15-min of intermittent running around a circuit replicating the movement patterns observed in team sports, either with or without simulated contact. Within-subject reliability of each performance measure was determined by expressing the typical error of measurement as the coefficient of variation, as well as determining intra-class correlations. Both CON and NCON produced reliable results for a variety of team sport performance indicators including repeated 15-m sprint time, vertical jump height, heart rate response and RPE. Repeated sprint and jump performance declined over time throughout the simulated game (p < 0.05), while heart rate and RPE increased. There was no difference in these performance measures between CON and NCON protocols. As such, these simulated game protocols provide reliable options for assessing team game performance parameters in response to training or other interventions under controlled conditions. Key pointsA variety of protocols have been devised to simulate the activity patterns of team sports.The protocol used in the current study is unique in that it includes an aspect of 'contact', which has been lacking from previous protocols.Both the 'contact' and 'non-contact' protocols tested appear reliable for assessing team game performance parametersThese protocols provide a reliable option for assessing team game performance parameters for both contact and non-contact sports.

Effects of Active Recovery on Lactate Concentration, Heart Rate and RPE in Climbing

The performance advantage of active rather than passive recovery during subsequent trials for repeated high intensity short-term exercise is well documented. Research findings suggest that shorter periods of active recovery, than traditionally employed, can be prescribed and still retain performance benefits over passive recoveries in successive exercise trials. The aim of this study was to examine the benefits of a short duration active recovery for repeat climbing trials. Ten recreational climbers volunteered for the study. In this randomly assigned crossover study each climber completed five two-minute climbing trails before a two minute active or passive recovery. This was followed by a one and a half minute passive refocusing period for all climbers before the subsequent climbing trial. Heart rate was monitored continuously, RPE immediately post climbing and fingertip capillary blood samples collected during each refocusing phase. There was a non-significant difference between active and passive recoveries for heart rate during climbing. After the active phase climbers had higher heart rates than when following the passive recovery protocol, however, by the end of the refocusing phase the active recovery protocol led to lower heart rates than for the entirely passive recovery. There was a significant difference between active and passive recovery conditions in lactate concentration (F(1,9) = 18.79, p = 0.002) and RPE (F(1,9) = 6.51, p = 0.031). Lactate concentration and RPE were lower across all five climbing trials for the active recovery protocol. After active recovery climbers started the next trial with a lower arterial lactate concentration than for a passive recovery and indicated lower RPE scores at the end of each climb. The refocusing period following active recovery allowed climbers heart rates to return to a lower level at the start of the next climb than for the passive recovery condition. Key PointsThe three and half minute recovery strategy employed in this study did not allow sufficient time for complete recovery for either the active or passive conditions.The active condition appeared to allow for a more complete recovery after each climbing trial than did the passive recovery.Lactate concentrations and RPE were lower for the active recovery.The use of larger and or alternative muscle groups in the active recovery may benefit lactate clearance.The use of a refocusing passive phase at the end of the active recovery may provide a useful and more ecologically valid mechanism for recovery in an applied sporting context.