Minority Student Perceptions of the Impact of Financial Cost of Pharmacy School and Career Choice at a Historically Black College and University (HBCU)

OBJECTIVE

One of the barriers that might prevent an underrepresented minority (URM) individual from pursuing a professional career in the United States is finances. The high disproportionate burden of student debt among URM students further perpetuates the racial wealth gap. Therefore, this study sought to evaluate the extent to which URM students' personal finance perceptions, and current and projected student loan indebtedness affect postgraduation career intentions.

METHODS

A cross-sectional analysis was conducted using data from four cohorts of pharmacy students using a survey from November 2, 2022, to February 1, 2023. The financial perception survey included subscales namely personal finance self-efficacy, debt influence and pressure, and risk mitigation and retirement. Descriptive statistics, simple logistic regression, and multivariate logistic regression analyses were conducted.

RESULTS

In total, 93 students completed the survey and had a mean age of 28.1 ± 5.3 years. Seventy-one percent of the respondents were female, and 67.7 % had completed a 4-year bachelor's degree. There was a significant association between age and the intention to pursue postgraduate training as well as a significant association between risk mitigation and retirement perceptions and intention to pursue postgraduate training after adjusting for other factors.

CONCLUSION

Among students from largely minority backgrounds, age, and confidence in their ability to make wise investment decisions for retirement are associated with a greater likelihood of pursuing postgraduate training opportunities.

Years of Rampant Expansion Have Imposed Darwinian Survival-of-the-Fittest Conditions on US Pharmacy Schools

The number of applicants to US pharmacy schools has been declining since 2013, leading to a national enrollment crisis. Enrollment challenges threaten the viability of many pharmacy programs. Some schools are better equipped than others to confront the risk of having to downsize or close, creating survival-of-the-fittest conditions. Four potential risk factors have been identified based on how applicants might perceive the comparable value of respective programs. Schools with lower risk are public, established before 2000, located within an academic health center, and traditional (ie, four-year) programs. The Academy cannot sustain more than 140 schools much longer. Market forces are establishing a new equilibrium between the number of graduates and the availability of pharmacist jobs. As more jobs become available, more applicants will apply. Until then, the fittest Doctor of Pharmacy programs will thrive, while others might have to downsize to survive, and the weakest will be at risk of extinction.

Challenges and Lessons Amid the COVID-19 Pandemic at One College of Pharmacy

The administrative response to the coronavirus identified in 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic for a variety of units housed in the University of Oklahoma College of Pharmacy is described. Continuity of operations, essential vs nonessential personnel, distance learning, online testing procedures for the Doctor of Pharmacy degree program, and the impact on development are discussed.

Economic Contributions of a College of Pharmacy to the Surrounding Communities and State

Objective. To quantify the monetary value of economic contributions of a state-funded college of pharmacy as it pursues its missions of teaching, research, service, and patient care. Methods. An economic analysis was performed by applying the Impact Analysis for Planning (IMPLAN) Economic Input-Output Model to financial and enrollment data of the University of Tennessee Health Science Center College of Pharmacy. Results. A total of $94.1 million was attributed to the college in fiscal year 2018, which included $50.7 million of total direct expenditures by the college, its students, and visitors; the indirect effect of over $17 million; and the induced effect of $26.4 million. The college directly employed 117 full-time equivalent employees and 39 pharmacy residents, and supported 763 additional jobs through the economic activities it stimulated. In addition, the presence of the college and its economic contribution enabled federal, state, and local taxing authorities to collect $12 million in tax revenues to support government and public programs. Conclusion. Demonstrating the economic value of colleges of pharmacy is critical when seeking support from campus administrators, state legislators, charitable foundations, government agencies, and industry.

Before We Talk About Student Debt Cancelation, Can We Talk About Interest Rates?

Recently, several presidential candidates in the Democratic primary have created media buzz with policy proposals to eliminate debt (either partially, or completely) for millions of Americans.1 Given the rise in tuition prices and growing debt for pharmacy graduates over the past decade, these proposals may offer hope for those still drowning in debt and potentially resentment for others who sacrificed making other investments to pay down student loans.2-4 While bold policy proposals help make great sound bites and campaign ads, they may also divert attention from more pragmatic solutions where a larger majority of people with different political biases could come to consensus. This commentary focuses less on flashy political rhetoric and more on a boring aspect of student loans: the mathematical components of debt. Using the Class of 2017 exiting survey data published by the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP) Office of Institutional Research & Effectiveness,5 this article aims to demonstrate how more moderate steps to reduce interest rates may offer relief for pharmacy graduates while avoiding potential resentment and other unintended consequences.4.

Inclusion of Socioeconomic Status as an Additional Criterion in Holistic Pharmacy School Admission Processes

Objective. To investigate the impact of socioeconomic status as an admissions criterion for pharmacy school admissions. Methods. Using de-identified data from two PharmCAS application cycles (2012-2013 and 2015-2016), a new socio-economic status indicator was crafted based on complex parental education and occupation information provided by applicants. The indicator was calibrated on federal standards to ensure uniform composition regardless of the applicant's location. The indicator was then used to describe acceptance patterns within each pharmacy application cycle, explore correlations with other demographic and academic indicators, and develop a regression model to understand the impact of this indicator on applicants' acceptance into pharmacy school. Results. The new education and occupation (EO) indicator for an applicant's parent(s) provided new insight into complex applicant demographic information. The number of academically qualified applicants that could have received further admission consideration based on identification of a low socioeconomic status for parent one were 2016; n=435, 13%, 2103; n=767, 14%. The EO indicator by itself had limited value for predicting acceptance rates and became less predictive when academic performance variables were incorporated, demonstrating socioeconomic status was not accounted for in admissions. Conclusion. Based on the Accreditation Council of Pharmacy Education Standards 2016, schools are required to admit a diverse group of students. The addition of the EO indicator will be valuable in identifying diverse and promising future pharmacists during each pharmacy school's holistic review process.

Student Pharmacists' Personal Finance Perceptions, Projected Indebtedness Upon Graduation, and Career Decision-making

Objective. To evaluate the extent to which Doctor of Pharmacy students' personal finance perceptions, projected student loan indebtedness, and demographic characteristics predict postgraduation career intentions. Methods. Students at three pharmacy colleges completed a 31-item survey instrument that assessed personal finance perceptions, self-efficacy beliefs, anticipated student loan debt upon graduation, postgraduate intentions, anticipated practice setting upon graduation, and demographic characteristics. Logistic regression models were used to examine the extent to which personal finance perceptions, student loan indebtedness, and demographic characteristics predicted postgraduate intentions and anticipated practice setting. Results. There were 763 usable responses obtained (response rate=90.3%). Students reported an anticipated personal student loan debt at graduation of $162,747 (SD=$87,093) and an estimated 7.4 (SD=5.8) years to pay off non-mortgage debt postgraduation. Fifty-three percent of students reported planning to practice in a community pharmacy setting postgraduation, and 54% indicated they intended to enter practice directly. Student loan indebtedness was not a significant predictor of whether students planned to pursue postgraduate training. There was a significant association between debt influence and pressure perceptions and students' plans to pursue postgraduate training (aOR=0.78; 95% CI=0.65-0.94). The odds of indicating hospital (vs chain community) pharmacy as the anticipated setting decreased 36% with every one point increase in debt influence and pressure perceptions (aOR=0.64; 95% CI=0.50-0.81). Conclusion. Pharmacy students' perceived debt pressure and influence predicted their intention to enter practice directly (vs pursuing postgraduate training) and to select a career in chain community pharmacy (vs hospital pharmacy). Student loan indebtedness was not a significant predictor of postgraduate training intentions. These findings suggest that interventions that equip students to manage the pressure associated with large student loan debts should be explored.

Creating an Arms Race? Examining School Costs and Motivations for Providing NAPLEX and PCOA Preparation

Objective. To examine the extent of financial and faculty resources dedicated to preparing students for NAPLEX and PCOA examinations, and how these investments compare with NAPLEX pass rates. Methods. A 23-item survey was administered to assessment professionals in U.S. colleges and schools of pharmacy (C/SOPs). Institutions were compared by type, age, and student cohort size. Institutional differences were explored according to the costs and types of NAPLEX and PCOA preparation provided, if any, and mean NAPLEX pass rates. Results. Of 134 C/SOPs that received the survey invitation, 91 responded. Nearly 80% of these respondents reported providing some form of NAPLEX preparation. Significantly higher 2015 mean NAPLEX pass rates were found in public institutions, schools that do not provide NAPLEX prep, and schools spending less than $10,000 annually on NAPLEX prep. Only 18 schools reported providing PCOA preparation. Conclusion. Investment in NAPLEX and PCOA preparation resources vary widely across C/SOPs but may increase in the next few years, due to dropping NAPLEX pass rates and depending upon how PCOA data are used.

Associations Between Pharmacy Students' Attitudes Toward Debt, Stress, and Student Loans

Objective. To assess graduating pharmacy students' attitudes toward debt and determine associations with stress, student loan debt, financial need, current employment, post-graduation plans, and expected length of time to repay loans. Methods. Survey was conducted using an attitudes-toward-debt scale (sub-scales: tolerant attitudes toward debt; contemplation and knowledge about loans; fear of debt), Perceived Stress Scale, and questions concerning current employment, estimated total student loan debt, post-graduation plans, and expected length of time to repay loans. Federal loan data were collected using financial aid records. Independent samples t-test, ANOVA, and Pearson's r correlations were conducted. Results. There were 147 students (96.7%) who participated. The majority were female (59.2%), white (69.4%), and had federal student loans (90.5%). Mean total loan amount was $153,276 (SD $59,810), which included federal students loans accumulated before and during pharmacy school. No significant differences were noted on attitudes toward debt or stress based on whether respondents had federal student loans. Greater "fear of debt" was correlated with increased stress, estimated total student loan debt, total federal loan debt, and pharmacy school loan debt. Greater "contemplation and knowledge about loans" was correlated with lower estimated total student loan debt, total federal loan amount, and pharmacy school loan amount. Students with higher "contemplation and knowledge" scores expected to repay loans within a shorter time frame than students with lower scores. Conclusion. Increased fear of debt was related to greater perceived stress and higher student loan amounts borrowed, while increased contemplation and knowledge about loans was associated with lower amounts borrowed. Educational programming concerning loans, debt, and personal financial management may help reduce stress and amount borrowed.

Evaluating the Changing Financial Burdens for Graduating Pharmacists

Objective. To compare new practitioners in 2009 and 2014 by modeling net income from available salary, expenditure, and student loan data. Methods. A Monte Carlo simulation with probabilistic sensitivity analysis was conducted to model net income for graduating pharmacists in 2009 and 2014. Mean and standard deviations were recorded for each model parameter. Student t-tests were used to compare the mean differences between 2009 and 2014 cohorts. Results. Pharmacist salary and disposable income were higher on average in 2014 compared with 2009. Consumer expenditures were higher in 2014, offsetting the higher salary resulting in a 2014 discretionary income that was less than in 2009 [95% CI: -$2,336, -$1,587]. Net income decreased from 2009 to 2014 for all pharmacy school types. Conclusion. Regardless of loan payment strategy, net incomes for pharmacists graduating from public and private institutions were less in 2014 compared with 2009.

Net Income of Pharmacy Faculty Compared to Community and Hospital Pharmacists

Objective. To compare the net cumulative income of community pharmacists, hospital pharmacists, and full-time pharmacy faculty members (residency-trained or with a PhD after obtaining a PharmD) in pharmacy practice, medicinal chemistry, pharmaceutics, pharmacology, and social and administrative sciences. Methods. Markov modeling was conducted to calculate net projected cumulative earnings of career paths by estimating the costs of education, including the costs of obtaining degrees and student loans. Results. The economic model spanned 49 years, from ages 18 to 67 years. Earning a PharmD and pursuing an academic career resulted in projected net cumulative lifetime earnings ranging from approximately $4.7 million to $6.3 million. A pharmacy practice faculty position following public pharmacy school and one year of residency resulted in higher net cumulative income than community pharmacy. Faculty members with postgraduate year 1 (PGY1) training also had higher net income than other faculty and hospital pharmacy career paths, given similar years of prepharmacy education and type of pharmacy school attended. Faculty members with either a PharmD or PhD in the pharmacology discipline may net as much as $5.9 million and outpace all other PhD graduates by at least $75 000 in lifetime earnings. Projected career earnings of postgraduate year 2 (PGY2) trained faculty and PharmD/PhD faculty members were lower than those of community pharmacists. Findings were more variable when comparing pharmacy faculty members and hospital pharmacists. Conclusion. With the exception of PGY1 trained academic pharmacists, faculty projected net cumulative incomes generally lagged behind community pharmacists, likely because of delayed entry into the job market as a result of advanced training/education. However, nonsalary benefits such as greater flexibility and autonomy may enhance the desirability of academic pharmacy as a career path.

Factors Associated with Student Pharmacist Philanthropy to the College Before and After Graduation

Objective. To examine the early stages of a student giving program, to evaluate the program's influence on college donations, and to evaluate other factors that may affect student and year-one postgraduation giving at a college or school of pharmacy. Methods. A review of student records for graduates of 2013 and 2014 was conducted. Data included student characteristics, scholarship support, international program participation, senior class gift participation, and postgraduation giving. Mann-Whitney U, Kruskal-Wallis, Wilcoxon signed-rank, and Chi-square analyses were performed. Results. Of 273 graduates, the majority were female (57.1%) and white (74%). Class of 2014 contributed a higher amount to the class gift than the prior class. In 2014, those who received scholarships gave higher amounts to the class gift. For the combined classes, there was an association between the number of students who gave pregraduation and the number who gave postgraduation. In the 2013 class, individuals gave greater amounts postgraduation compared to pregraduation, and a higher percentage of alumni (8%) gave postgraduation compared to alumni from the previous class (<1%). Conclusion. Participation in year-one postgraduation giving increased after implementation of the senior class gift program. Receiving scholarships influenced giving to the class gift but was not associated with postgraduation giving. Future studies are needed to develop a more comprehensive understanding of student and alumni philanthropy.

Status of pharmacy practice experience education programs

OBJECTIVE

To assess financial, personnel, and curricular characteristics of US pharmacy practice experiential education programs and follow-up on results of a similar survey conducted in 2001.

METHODS

Experiential education directors at 118 accredited US pharmacy colleges and schools were invited to participate in a blinded, Web-based survey in 2011. Aggregate responses were analyzed using descriptive statistics and combined with data obtained from the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy to assess program demographics, faculty and administrative organizational structure, and financial support.

RESULTS

The number of advanced pharmacy practice experience (APPE) sites had increased by 24% for medium, 50% for large, and 55% for very large colleges and schools. Introductory pharmacy practice experience (IPPE) sites outnumbered APPEs twofold. The average experiential education team included an assistant/associate dean (0.4 full-time equivalent [FTE]), a director (1.0 FTE), assistant/associate director (0.5 FTE), coordinator (0.9 FTE), and multiple administrative assistants (1.3 FTE). Most faculty members (63%-75%) were nontenure track and most coordinators (66%) were staff members. Estimated costs to operate an experiential education program represented a small percentage of the overall expense budget of pharmacy colleges and schools.

CONCLUSION

To match enrollment growth, pharmacy practice experiential education administrators have expanded their teams, reorganized responsibilities, and found methods to improve cost efficiency. These benchmarks will assist experiential education administrators to plan strategically for future changes.

Pharmacoeconomics education in US colleges and schools of pharmacy

OBJECTIVE

To determine the extent of pharmacoeconomics education in US colleges and schools of pharmacy provided to doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) students in 2011.

METHODS

E-mails requesting syllabi and information about courses covering pharmacoeconomic topics were sent to all US colleges and schools of pharmacy from which PharmD students had graduated in 2011 (n=103).

RESULTS

Of 87 responding pharmacy colleges and schools, 85 provided pharmacoeconomics education in 2011. The number of hours dedicated to pharmacoeconomic-related topics varied from 2 to 60 per year (mean=20). CONCLUSIONS. Pharmacoeconomics education is provided at almost all US colleges and schools of pharmacy; however, variation in the number of teaching hours and topics covered demonstrates a lack of standardization in the PharmD curriculum. Pharmacy administrators and educators should invest more resources and tools to standardize training in this area.

Pharmacoeconomic education in Egyptian schools of pharmacy

OBJECTIVE. To investigate the status of pharmacoeconomics education in Egyptian schools of pharmacy and compile and construct recommendations on how Egypt and similar countries could improve their educational infrastructure in pharmacoeconomics. METHODS. A modified version of a published survey instrument was sent to all schools of pharmacy in Egypt (n= 24). The data were assessed to identify associations between offering pharmacoeconomics education and school characteristics. RESULTS. Usable responses were obtained from 20 schools (response rate: 83%). Only 7 schools offered pharmacoeconomics education, with a median of 20 teaching hours per semester. Among respondents, 4 schools had instructors with some training in pharmacoeconomics and only 1 school had a faculty member with PhD-level training. Only 4 schools offered graduate-level courses in pharmacoeconomics. Eight additional schools expressed interest in teaching pharmacoeconomics in the near future. Having 1 or more faculty members with training in pharmacoeconomics was significantly associated with offering pharmacoeconomics education (p = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS. Pharmacoeconomics education in Egypt is still in its infancy and there exists a unique opportunity for well-trained instructors and researchers to fill this gap. Providing structured pharmacoeconomics education to student pharmacists, researchers, and stakeholders can help countries establish an integrated scientific community that can start applying pharmacoeconomic evidence to healthcare decision-making.

College and school of pharmacy characteristics associated with US News and World Report rankings

OBJECTIVE. To determine the association between characteristics of colleges and schools of pharmacy and their rankings according to US News and World Report. METHODS. The 2008 US News and World Report, mean ranking scores (ranging from 2.0 to 5.0) for 78 US colleges and schools of pharmacy were compared with college and school characteristics, including academic program, students, faculty, and scholarship. The adjusted difference in mean ranking score associated with each characteristic was determined using a multivariate mixed linear regression model. RESULTS. The most powerful identified predictors of mean ranking score included the amount of grant funding (National Institutes of Health [NIH] and non-NIH funding) a college or school of pharmacy received and the yearly publication rates of its department of pharmacy (p≤0.001 for both). The adjusted mean ranking scores for colleges and schools receiving >$5 million and $1 million to $5 million in scholarly grant funding were respectively 0.77 and 0.26 points higher than those receiving none. Adjusted mean ranking scores for colleges and schools whose departments of pharmacy practice had publishing rates of >20 papers and 11 to 20 papers were respectively 0.40 and 0.17 points higher than those publishing ≤10 (p<0.05 for both). CONCLUSION. The characteristic of colleges and schools of pharmacy most associated with US News and World Report rankings appears to be their scholarly productivity.

Redesign of a pediatric pharmacotherapy elective course to accommodate budget reductions

OBJECTIVE

To redesign a pediatric elective pharmacotherapy course and determine whether the redesign resulted in changes in outcome measures.

DESIGN

Active learning activities were moved to an online format. Prerecorded lectures continued to be used. Peer evaluation was incorporated to give the students more feedback on their performance. ASSESSMENT; Presentation grades, average examination grades, course grades, and evaluation scores from each student who completed University course evaluations were documented for students during the 2 semesters before and the 2 semesters after the course redesign. Although for undetermined reasons a drop in examination grades occurred after the course redesign, no significant differences in presentation grades, final grades, or course evaluation grades occurred.

CONCLUSIONS

A strategic course redesign successfully reduced the costs and faculty time required to offer an elective course viewed as essential to the curriculum, allowing the course to be continued in the face of state budget cuts.

Benchmarking in academic pharmacy departments

Benchmarking in academic pharmacy, and recommendations for the potential uses of benchmarking in academic pharmacy departments are discussed in this paper. Benchmarking is the process by which practices, procedures, and performance metrics are compared to an established standard or best practice. Many businesses and industries use benchmarking to compare processes and outcomes, and ultimately plan for improvement. Institutions of higher learning have embraced benchmarking practices to facilitate measuring the quality of their educational and research programs. Benchmarking is used internally as well to justify the allocation of institutional resources or to mediate among competing demands for additional program staff or space. Surveying all chairs of academic pharmacy departments to explore benchmarking issues such as department size and composition, as well as faculty teaching, scholarly, and service productivity, could provide valuable information. To date, attempts to gather this data have had limited success. We believe this information is potentially important, urge that efforts to gather it should be continued, and offer suggestions to achieve full participation.

The status of US multi-campus colleges and schools of pharmacy

OBJECTIVE

To assess the current status of multi-campus colleges and schools of pharmacy within the United States.

METHODS

Data on multi-campus programs, technology, communication, and opinions regarding benefits and challenges were collected from Web sites, e-mail, and phone interviews from all colleges and schools of pharmacy with students in class on more than 1 campus.

RESULTS

Twenty schools and colleges of pharmacy (18 public and 2 private) had multi-campus programs; 16 ran parallel campuses and 4 ran sequential campuses. Most programs used synchronous delivery of classes. The most frequently reported reasons for establishing the multi-campus program were to have access to a hospital and/or medical campus and clinical resources located away from the main campus and to increase class size. Effectiveness of distance education technology was most often sited as a challenge.

CONCLUSION

About 20% of colleges and schools of pharmacy have multi-campus programs most often to facilitate access to clinical resources and to increase class size. These programs expand learning opportunities and face challenges related to technology, resources, and communication.

Mobile computing initiatives within pharmacy education

OBJECTIVES

To identify mobile computing initiatives within pharmacy education, including how devices are obtained, supported, and utilized within the curriculum.

METHODS

An 18-item questionnaire was developed and delivered to academic affairs deans (or closest equivalent) of 98 colleges and schools of pharmacy.

RESULTS

Fifty-four colleges and schools completed the questionnaire for a 55% completion rate. Thirteen of those schools have implemented mobile computing requirements for students. Twenty schools reported they were likely to formally consider implementing a mobile computing initiative within 5 years.

CONCLUSIONS

Numerous models of mobile computing initiatives exist in terms of device obtainment, technical support, infrastructure, and utilization within the curriculum. Responders identified flexibility in teaching and learning as the most positive aspect of the initiatives and computer-aided distraction as the most negative, Numerous factors should be taken into consideration when deciding if and how a mobile computing requirement should be implemented.

The economic impact of a college of pharmacy

OBJECTIVES

To quantify the dollar value of economic returns to a community when a college of pharmacy attains its fourfold mission of research, service, patient care, and education.

METHODS

United States Bureau of Economic Analyses (BEA) RIMS II input/output analysis and data from student and faculty surveys were used to quantify the economic impact of the University of Tennessee's College of Pharmacy (UTCOP).

RESULTS

The UTCOP's revenue of $22.4 million resulted in an indirect output impact of over $29.2 million, for a total impact of nearly $51.6 million in output (production of goods and services), while supporting 617.4 jobs and total earnings of $18.5 million during the 2004-2005 school year.

CONCLUSIONS

Demonstrating the economic value of colleges of pharmacy is critical when seeking support from state legislators, foundations, government agencies, professional associations, and industry. Based on this study, UTCOP was able to report that every dollar the state invests in UTCOP yields an estimated net return on investment of $27.90.

Status of PharmD/PhD programs in colleges of pharmacy: the University of Tennessee dual PharmD/PhD program

OBJECTIVES

To describe the University of Tennessee PharmD/PhD program and assess the prevalence and characteristics of PharmD/PhD programs in the United States.

METHODS

Survey instruments were mailed in May 2004 to UT dual-degree program participants and deans of US colleges and schools of pharmacy.

RESULTS

University of Tennessee PharmD/PhD students completed more than 30 hours of graduate credit before obtaining their PharmD and 72.2% agreed or strongly agreed that the program met their professional goals. More than 40% of US pharmacy colleges and schools have or plan to have PharmD/PhD programs. A wide variation exists in the level of integration, PhD concentrations offered, entrance requirements, and student benefits. Most schools with PharmD/PhD programs had few students enrolled in the program, but attrition rates were low (<20%) for 69% of the schools.

CONCLUSIONS

Dual-degree programs attract and retain pharmacy students in research programs and 47.6% of graduates entered academia and industry.

Economic justification for a public school of pharmacy: lessons for Nevada

There is a nationally recognized shortage of pharmacists in the United States that is more pronounced in the West. This shortage will worsen with the rapid growth and aging of the population. Demand for traditional pharmaceutical care services has grown faster in the last decade than predicted and is projected to outpace the entry of pharmacists into the workforce. The growth of direct patient care roles for pharmacists, together with the increasing need for pharmacist services in the management of health care, threatens to overpower the present capacity of pharmaceutical education. Healthcare officials and consumers alike are becoming increasingly concerned about the pressure on pharmacist services leading to decreased access to pharmaceutical care and an increase in the frequency of medication errors both having a major impact on the health of patients. While the impact of the pharmacist shortage on the quality of pharmaceutical care has been the subject of recent concern, the role of pharmacists in economic development has not been adequately addressed. In this review, we examine the impact of the shortage of pharmacists and apply economic principals to the impact created by the addition to a state economy of a public school of pharmacy. We apply this analysis to the proposed addition of a public school of pharmacy in Nevada, the fastest growing state in the nation, which currently has a single, private pharmacy school.

College of pharmacy-teaching hospital relationships: report of a survey

The results of surveys conducted by the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP) and the American Society of Hospital Pharmacists (ASHP) to investigate the extent and causes of problems in relationships between colleges of pharmacy and the pharmacy departments in their affiliated teaching hospitals are presented. For the AACP study, questionnaires were mailed to either the dean or the pharmacy practice department chairman of all 72 colleges, and a telephone interview was subsequently conducted with most of them. For the ASHP study, interviews were conducted with 67 directors of pharmacy in the colleges' principal affiliated teaching hospitals. Problems identified by the colleges related to quality or extent of services and finances. Most directors of pharmacy stated that they derived benefit from their affiliation with a college of pharmacy. The relationship between colleges of pharmacy and their teaching hospitals is relatively healthy and generally better than expected.