Lectin-Based Assay for Glycoform-Specific Detection of α2,6-sialylated Transferrin and Carcinoembryonic Antigen in Tissue and Body Fluid

Antibodies are useful for detecting glycoprotein antigens, but a conventional antibody recognizes only a protein epitope rather than a glycan. Thus, glycan isoform detection generally requires time- and labor-consuming processes such as lectin affinity column chromatography followed by sandwich ELISA. We recently found antigen-antibody reactions that were inhibited by lectin binding to glycans on the glycoprotein antigen, leading to a convenient glycoform-specific assay. Indeed, Sambucus sieboldiana agglutinin (SSA) lectin, a binder to sialylα2,6galactose residue, inhibited antibody binding to α2,6-sialylated transferrin (Tf) (SSA inhibition). SSA inhibition was not observed with other glycoforms, such as periodate-treated, sialidase-treated and sialidase/galactosidase-treated Tf, suggesting that the assay was glycoform-specific. SSA inhibition was also applicable for visualizing localization of α2,6-sialylated-Tf in a liver section. This is the first immunohistochemical demonstration of glycoform localization in a tissue section. SSA inhibition was utilized for establishing ELISA to quantify α2,6-sialylated carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), a marker for various cancers. In addition, α2,6-sialylated-CEA was visualized in a colonic adenocarcinoma section by SSA inhibition. The method would further be applicable to a simple and rapid estimation of other α2,6-sialylated glycoproteins and have a potential aid to histopathological diagnosis.

Transferrin-functionalized nanoparticles lose their targeting capabilities when a biomolecule corona adsorbs on the surface

Nanoparticles have been proposed as carriers for drugs, genes and therapies to treat various diseases. Many strategies have been developed to target nanomaterials to specific or over-expressed receptors in diseased cells, and these typically involve functionalizing the surface of nanoparticles with proteins, antibodies or other biomolecules. Here, we show that the targeting ability of such functionalized nanoparticles may disappear when they are placed in a biological environment. Using transferrin-conjugated nanoparticles, we found that proteins in the media can shield transferrin from binding to both its targeted receptors on cells and soluble transferrin receptors. Although nanoparticles continue to enter cells, the targeting specificity of transferrin is lost. Our results suggest that when nanoparticles are placed in a complex biological environment, interaction with other proteins in the medium and the formation of a protein corona can 'screen' the targeting molecules on the surface of nanoparticles and cause loss of specificity in targeting.

Use of spectroscopic, zeta potential and molecular dynamic techniques to study the interaction between human holo-transferrin and two antagonist drugs: comparison of binary and ternary systems

For the first time, the binding of ropinirole hydrochloride (ROP) and aspirin (ASA) to human holo-transferrin (hTf) has been investigated by spectroscopic approaches (fluorescence quenching, synchronous fluorescence, time-resolved fluorescence, three-dimensional fluorescence, UV-vis absorption, circular dichroism, resonance light scattering), as well as zeta potential and molecular modeling techniques, under simulated physiological conditions. Fluorescence analysis was used to estimate the effect of the ROP and ASA drugs on the fluorescence of hTf as well as to define the binding and quenching properties of binary and ternary complexes. The synchronized fluorescence and three-dimensional fluorescence spectra demonstrated some micro-environmental and conformational changes around the Trp and Tyr residues with a faint red shift. Thermodynamic analysis displayed the van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonds interactions are the major acting forces in stabilizing the complexes. Steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence data revealed that the fluorescence quenching of complexes are static mechanism. The effect of the drugs aggregating on the hTf resulted in an enhancement of the resonance light scattering (RLS) intensity. The average binding distance between were computed according to the forster non-radiation energy transfer theory. The circular dichroism (CD) spectral examinations indicated that the binding of the drugs induced a conformational change of hTf. Measurements of the zeta potential indicated that the combination of electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions between ROP, ASA and hTf formed micelle-like clusters. The molecular modeling confirmed the experimental results. This study is expected to provide important insight into the interaction of hTf with ROP and ASA to use in various toxicological and therapeutic processes.

Inhibition of transferrin iron release increases in vitro drug carrier efficacy

Transferrin (Tf) conjugates of CRM107 are currently being tested in clinical trials for treatment of malignant gliomas. However, the rapid cellular recycling of Tf limits its efficiency as a drug carrier. We have developed a mathematical model of the Tf/TfR trafficking cycle and have identified the Tf iron release rate as a previously unreported factor governing the degree of Tf cellular association. The release of iron from Tf is inhibited by replacing the synergistic carbonate anion with oxalate. Trafficking patterns for oxalate Tf and native Tf are compared by measuring their cellular association with HeLa cells. The amount of Tf associated with the cells is an average of 51% greater for oxalate Tf than for native Tf over a two hour period at Tf concentrations of 0.1 nM and 1 nM. Importantly, diphtheria toxin (DT) conjugates of oxalate Tf are more cytotoxic against HeLa cells than conjugates of native Tf. Conjugate IC(50) values were determined to be 0.06 nM for the oxalate Tf conjugate vs. 0.22 nM for the native Tf conjugate. Thus, we show that inhibition of Tf iron release improves the efficacy of Tf as a drug carrier through increased association with cells expressing TfR.

A unique lysophospholipid acyltransferase (LPAT) antagonist, CI-976, affects secretory and endocytic membrane trafficking pathways

Previous studies have shown that inhibition of a Golgi-complex-associated lysophospholipid acyltransferase (LPAT) activity by the drug CI-976 stimulates Golgi tubule formation and subsequent redistribution of resident Golgi proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Here, we show that CI-976 stimulates tubule formation from all subcompartments of the Golgi complex, and often these tubules formed independently, i.e. individual tubules usually did not contain markers from different subcompartments. Whereas the cis, medial and trans Golgi membranes redistributed to the ER, the trans Golgi network (TGN) collapsed back to a compact juxtanuclear position similar to that seen with brefeldin A (BFA) treatment. Also similar to BFA, CI-976 induced the formation of endosome tubules, but unlike BFA, these tubules did not fuse with TGN tubules. Finally, CI-976 produced an apparently irreversible block in the endocytic recycling pathway of transferrin (Tf) and Tf receptors (TfRs) but had no direct effect on Tf uptake from the cell surface. Tf and TfRs accumulated in centrally located, Rab11-positive vesicles indicating that CI-976 inhibits export of cargo from the central endocytic recycling compartment. These results, together with previous studies, demonstrate that CI-976 inhibits multiple membrane trafficking steps, including ones found in the endocytic and secretory pathways, and imply a wider role for lysophospholipid acyltransferases in membrane trafficking.

Identification of small molecule inhibitors that distinguish between non-transferrin bound iron uptake and transferrin-mediated iron transport

Chemical genetics is an emerging field that takes advantage of combinatorial chemical and small molecule libraries to dissect complex biological processes. Here we establish a fluorescence-based assay to screen for inhibitors of iron uptake by mammalian cells. Using this approach, we screened the National Cancer Institute's Diversity Set library for inhibitors of non-transferrin bound iron uptake. This screen identified 10 novel small molecule inhibitors of iron transport with IC(50) values that ranged from 5 to 30 microM. Of these ten compounds, only two blocked uptake of iron mediated by transferrin. Thus, this study characterizes the first small molecule inhibitors that distinguish between different pathways of iron transport.

Transferrin-Modified Liposomes Equipped with a pH-Sensitive Fusogenic Peptide: An Artificial Viral-like Delivery System

Liposomes are one of the most promising systems for selective cellular targeting via introduction of specific ligands for cell-surface receptors. After being taken up by the cells, these liposomes usually follow intracellular pathways of receptor-mediated endocytosis. Control of intracellular trafficking is required for optimized drug delivery. In this study, we elucidated the intracellular fate of transferrin-modified liposomes and succeeded in altering it by introducing the pH-sensitive fusogenic peptide, GALA (WEAALAEALAEALAEHLAEALAEALEALAA). Transferrins that are chemically attached to a liposomal surface (Tf-L) were internalized via receptor-mediated endocytosis more slowly than unmodified transferrins. In contrast to the recyclable nature of transferrin, liposome-attached transferrins together with encapsulated rhodamines were retained in vesicular compartments. When GALA was introduced into liposomal membranes using a cholesteryl moiety for anchoring (Chol-GALA), rhodamines were efficiently released and diffused into the cytosol. The addition of GALA to the Tf-L-containing medium or the encapsulation of GALA in Tf-L did not induce similar effects. These results clearly indicate that GALA must be present on the surface of liposomes to exert its function. In vitro energy transfer and dynamic light scattering experiments suggested that the endosomal escape of the encapsulates in Tf-L equipped with Chol-GALA can be attributed to pH-dependent membrane fusion. With GALA present on the surface, intracellular trafficking of liposomes after receptor-mediated endocytosis could be successfully controlled.

Inhibition of transferrin recycling and endosome tubulation by phospholipase A2 antagonists

We report here that a broad spectrum of phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) antagonists produce a concentration-dependent, differential block in the endocytic recycling pathway of transferrin (Tf) and Tf receptors (TfRs) but have no acute affect on Tf uptake from the cell surface. At low concentrations of antagonists (approximately 1 microm), Tf and TfR accumulated in centrally located recycling endosomes, whereas at higher concentrations (approximately 10 microm), Tf-TfR accumulated in peripheral sorting endosomes. Several independent lines of evidence suggest that this inhibition of recycling may result from the inhibition of tubule formation. First, BFA-stimulated endosome tubule formation was similarly inhibited by PLA(2) antagonists. Second, endocytosed tracers were found in larger spherical endosomes in the presence of PLA(2) antagonists. And third, endosome tubule formation in a cell-free, cytosol-dependent reconstitution system was equally sensitive PLA(2) antagonists. These results are consistent with the conclusion that endosome membrane tubules are formed by the action of a cytoplasmic PLA(2) and that PLA(2)-dependent tubules are involved in intracellular recycling of Tf and TfR. When taken together with previous studies on the Golgi complex, these results also indicate that an intracellular PLA(2) activity provides a novel molecular mechanism for inducing tubule formation from multiple organelles.

Trypanosoma evansi: demonstration of a transferrin receptor derived from expression site-associated genes 6 and 7

In Trypanosoma brucei, uptake of host transferrin is mediated by a heterodimeric, glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored receptor derived from the 2 expression site-associated genes 6 and 7 (ESAG6 and ESAG7). By using specific antibodies, it is shown here that T. evansi, a trypanosome species transmitted mechanically by biting flies, also expresses a transferrin receptor composed of ESAG6 and ESAG7. The cellular uptake of transferrin in T. evansi is completely inhibited with anti-T. brucei (ESAG6/7 heterodimer) antibodies. The demonstration of a functional ESAG6/7 transferrin receptor in T. evansi supports further its close relationship to T. brucei.

Selection of tumor-specific internalizing human antibodies from phage libraries

Antibody internalization into the cell is required for many targeted therapeutics, such as immunotoxins, immunoliposomes, antibody-drug conjugates and for targeted delivery of genes or viral DNA into cells. To generate directly tumor-specific internalizing antibodies, a non-immune single chain Fv (scFv) phage antibody library was selected on the breast tumor cell line SKBR3. Internalized phage were recovered from within the cell and used for the next round of selection. After three rounds of selection, 40 % of clones analyzed bound SKBR3 and other tumor cells but did not bind normal human cells. Of the internalizing scFv identified, two (F5 and C1) were identified as binding to ErbB2, and one (H7) to the transferrin receptor. Both F5 and H7 scFv were efficiently endocytosed into SKBR3 cells, both as phage antibodies and as native monomeric scFv. Both antibodies were able to induce additional functional effects besides triggering endocytosis: F5 scFv induces downstream signaling through the ErbB2 receptor and H7 prevents transferrin binding to the transferrin receptor and inhibits cell growth. The results demonstrate the feasibility of selecting internalizing receptor-specific antibodies directly from phage libraries by panning on cells. Such antibodies can be used to target a variety of molecules into the cell to achieve a therapeutic effect. Furthermore, in some instances endocytosis serves as a surrogate marker for other therapeutic biologic effects, such as growth inhibition. Thus, a subset of selected antibodies will have a direct therapeutic effect.

The acute-phase protein alpha 1-antitrypsin inhibits transferrin-receptor binding and proliferation of human skin fibroblasts

Transferrin (Tf) is required for proliferation of most cells, because cellular iron uptake is mainly mediated by binding of Tf to its specific cell surface receptors (TfR). The acute-phase protein alpha 1-antitrypsin (alpha 1-AT) completely inhibits binding of diferric Tf to TfRs on human skin fibroblasts in a dose-dependent fashion. The inhibition is competitive as proved in equilibrium saturation binding and kinetic studies. In saturation binding experiments alpha 1-AT apparently increased the dissociation constant (KD), but did not change the maximal density of binding sites (Bmax). As shown in kinetic studies, this reduction of the affinity of Tf to its receptor caused by alpha 1-AT was due to a decrease of the association rate constant (k + 1), whereas the dissociation rate constant (k - 1) remained unchanged. Furthermore, alpha 1-AT almost completely prevented internalization of the Tf-TfR complex. These interactions demonstrated biological implication, as alpha 1-AT reduced the proliferation of human fibroblasts up to maximal 30% of control. The inhibitory potency of alpha 1-AT was already seen in physiologic concentrations; the maximal effect, however, was achieved at concentrations above the normal range, which are attained in the course of inflammation and infection. Therefore, we suppose that alpha 1-AT as an endogenous factor modulates the complex mechanism of fibrogenesis not only by its known antiproteolytic function but also by inhibiting the proliferation of fibroblasts.

Proton release from HeLa cells and alkalization of cytoplasm induced by diferric transferrin or ferricyanide and its inhibition by the diarylsulfonylurea antitumor drug N-(4-methylphenylsulfonyl)-N'-(4-cholorophenyl) urea (LY181984)

Proton release from HeLa cells was stimulated by an external oxidant, potassium ferricyanide, or by the growth factor diferric transferrin. This stimulated proton release was inhibited by the antitumor sulfonylurea LY181984 [N-(4-methylphenylsulfonyl)-N'-(4-chlorophenyl)urea] over the concentration range 10 nM to 1 microM. The antitumor-inactive sulfonylurea analog LY181985 [N-(4-methylphenylsulfonyl)-N'-(phenyl)urea] was without effect at 1 microM and required 10-100 microM concentrations to inhibit proton release. Diferric transferrin-induced alkalization of the cytoplasm estimated by BCECF [2',7'-bis(2-carboxyethyl)-5,(and 6)-carboxyfluorescein] fluorescence also was inhibited by 1 microM LY181984 but not by 1 microM LY181985. The inhibited component appeared to be amiloride resistant. The proton release induced by either ferricyanide or diferric transferrin was inhibited by about 35% at a near optimal amiloride concentration of 0.2 mM or at a dimethylamiloride concentration of 0.075 mM. However, the induced proton release was inhibited further by LY181984. Conversely, when proton release was inhibited fully by LY181984 at a near optimal concentration of 10 microM (50% inhibition), increasing concentrations of amiloride or dimethylamiloride resulted in additional inhibitions of 16 and 23%, respectively. However, the inhibitions by LY181984 and the amilorides were additive, suggesting that amiloride and the sulfonylureas may act independently. Evidence for an action of the sulfonylurea in inhibiting proton efflux differently from that of the amilorides came from measurements of sodium uptake either by fluorometry or by direct measurement with 22Na+. Sodium uptake was not inhibited by either LY181984 or LY181985 in HeLa cells at concentrations of LY181984 sufficient to inhibit proton efflux by 80% or more. The results show LY181984 to be a potent inhibitor of diferric transferrin- or ferricyanide-induced proton efflux and cytoplasmic alkalization in HeLa cells and that the inhibition may involve a component of proton transport that is resistant to amiloride.

Transferrin receptor mediates uptake and presentation of hepatitis B envelope antigen by T lymphocytes

Human activated T lymphocytes expressing class II molecules are able to present only complex antigens that bind to their own surface receptors, and thus can be captured, internalized, and processed through the class II major histocompatibility complex processing pathway. We have used the antigen-presenting T cell system to identify the viral receptor used by hepatitis B virus (HBV) to enter cells, as well as the sequence of HB envelope antigen (HBenvAg) involved in this interaction. Results show that both CD4+ and CD8+ T clones can process and present HBenvAg to class II-restricted cytotoxic T lymphocytes and that the CD71 transferrin receptor (TfR) is involved in efficient HBenvAg uptake by T cells. Moreover, we provide evidence that the HBenvAg sequence interacting with the T cell surface is contained within the pre-S2 region. Since TfR is also expressed on hepatocytes, it might represent a portal of cellular entry for HBV infection. This system of antigen presentation by T cells may serve as a model to study both lymphocyte receptors used by lymphocytotropic viruses and viral proteins critical to bind them.

Effects of ethanol on the secretion of hepatic secretory protein in rat alcoholic liver injury

It has been pointed out that one of the pathogenetic causes of alcoholic liver injury is the hepatocytic accumulation of exportable proteins due to a decrease in hepatic microtubules caused by acetaldehyde. To confirm and extend this secretory protein accumulation in the hepatocytes, the effects of alcohol treatment on the intracellular transport of secretory protein in the hepatocyte was studied using radioisotope-labeled leucine and fucose. Acute ethanol administration to rats did not show any effects on intrahepatocytic transport and secretion of transferrin. In alcohol pyrazole hepatitis rats, the secretion of transferrin labeled with both radioactive leucine and fucose into the serum was significantly delayed. Delaying in the secretion of fucose-labeled transferrin was more prominent than in leucine-labeled transferrin. This secretory inhibition was accompanied by a corresponding increase in the hepatic retention of both leucine- and fucose-labeled transferrin. At the time of the maximum inhibition of secretion, radioisotope labeled transferrin mainly retained in the Golgi apparatus. These results indicated that movement of secretory proteins along the secretory pathway impaired in alcoholic liver injury and that accumulation of the secretory proteins might play an important role in the development of alcoholic liver injury.

Absence of Na+,K(+)-ATPase regulation of endosomal acidification in K562 erythroleukemia cells. Analysis via inhibition of transferrin recycling by low temperatures

Transferrin (Tf) acidification has been shown to be limited to pH 6 in murine Balb/c 3T3 fibroblasts, human A549 epidermoid carcinoma cells, and Chinese hamster ovary cells and is followed by alkalinization during recycling. In contrast, Tf acidification in the human erythroleukemic cell line K562 proceeds to below pH 5.5, and alkalinization of internal Tf during recycling is not observed. To explore the regulation of endosomal pH in K562 cells, we determined whether the existence of an early endosome of pH 6 could be demonstrated in K562 cells. The kinetics of Tf internalization, acidification, and recycling were determined at temperatures which block recycling of Tf in 3T3 cells. As in 3T3, Tf recycling in K562 was inhibited at 24 degrees C and below. At these temperatures, Tf internalization and acidification were delayed relative to 37 degrees C, yet the minimum pH achieved was below 5.5. Temperatures at or below 19 degrees C resulted in a complete block in recycling (at least over 40 min), which was rapidly reversible by incubation at 37 degrees C. Ouabain (a specific inhibitor of the Na+,K(+)-ATPase) had no effect on K562 Tf acidification, indicating that K562 endosomal pH is probably not regulated by the Na+,K(+)-ATPase. The results suggest that differentiation of the early endocytic pathway in erythroid cells involves changes such that the pH of Tf-containing compartments is not limited to 6 by the Na+,K(+)-ATPase.

Inhibition of mitogen stimulated growth of human colon cancer cells by interferon

Recombinant human interferon alpha inhibits growth of a human colon cancer cell line, Colo 205. To explore the mechanisms of IFN induced growth inhibition, quiescent Colo 205 cells were stimulated to proliferate in serum-free media by defined growth factors. Addition of insulin, transferrin and selenium (ITS) stimulated DNA synthesis, as measured by 3H-thymidine incorporation, in a dose-dependent manner. IFN-alpha (at concentrations greater than 100 U ml-1) inhibited ITS stimulated DNA synthesis by 63%. Inhibition of cell cycle traverse was confirmed by flow cytometric analysis. Although IFN inhibited growth of ITS-treated cells, steady state levels of c-myc mRNA remained above levels observed in unstimulated cells. IFN inhibited DNA synthesis only when added prior to mitogen stimulation. IFN, added 6 h after exposure of quiescent cells to ITS, failed to inhibit cell growth. Addition of increasing concentrations of ITS failed to overcome the IFN-induced growth inhibition. These results suggest IFN may inhibit cell growth in part by antagonizing the action of growth factors.

The interaction of anions with native and phenylglyoxal-modified human serum transferrin

The interaction of various anions with human serum transferrin was investigated due to the concomitant binding of iron and a synergistic anion to form the transferrin-anion-iron complex. Two tetrahedral oxyanion oxidizing agents, periodate and permanganate, were found to partially inactivate transferrin when used at equimolar ratios of oxidizing agent to protein active sites. Hypochlorite, a strong oxidizing agent with little structural similarity to periodate and permanganate, had little effect on iron-binding activity when used at similar low molar ratios of reagent to transferrin active sites. Transferrin treated with a 3:1 molar ratio of periodate or permanganate to active sites lost 74 or 67% of its iron-binding capacity, respectively. The composition of the buffer affected the extent of transferrin inactivation by periodate and permanganate; for example, the extent of inactivation by periodate was threefold greater in a borate buffer than in a phosphate buffer. Comparative oxidations in buffer systems suggest the following order of affinity of three buffer anions for the apotransferrin metal-binding center: phosphate greater than bicarbonate greater than borate. The interaction of phosphate ions with the iron-transferrin complex was also examined due to the increased susceptibility to periodate inactivation of iron-saturated transferrin in phosphate buffer (M. H. Penner, R. B. Yamasaki, D. T. Osuga, D. R. Babin, C. F. Meares, and R. E. Feeney (1983) Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 225, 740-747). The apparent destabilization of the iron-transferrin complex in phosphate buffer was found to be due to the competitive removal of iron by phosphate from the iron-protein complex. We found that phenylglyoxal-modified Fe-transferrin, with no loss of bound iron, was much more resistant to iron removal by phosphate and other competitive chelators.

Targeted inhibition of transferrin-mediated iron uptake in Hep G2 hepatoma cells

We have used a model system consisting of two human hepatoma cell lines, Hep G2, representing well differentiated normal hepatocytes, and PLC/PRF/5, representing poorly differentiated malignant hepatocytes, to demonstrate that the differential presence of asialoglycoprotein receptor activity in these cell lines can be used to influence transferrin-mediated iron uptake. We based our experiments on the following facts: Hep G2 cells possess receptors that bind, internalize, and degrade galactose-terminal (asialo-)glycoproteins; PLC/PRF/5 cells have barely detectable asialoglycoprotein receptor activity; both cell lines possess active transferrin-mediated iron uptake; transferrin releases iron during acidification of intracellular vesicular compartments; primary amines, e.g. primaquine, inhibit acidification and iron release from transferrin. When added to culture medium, [55Fe]transferrin delivered 55Fe well to both cell lines. As expected, in the presence of [55Fe]transferrin, free primaquine caused a concentration-dependent decrease in 55Fe uptake in both cell lines. To create a targetable conjugate, primaquine was covalently coupled to asialofetuin to form asialofetuin-primaquine. When PLC/PRF/5 (asialoglycoprotein receptor (-)) cells were preincubated with this conjugate, transferrin-mediated 55Fe uptake was unaffected. However, transferrin-mediated 55Fe uptake by Hep G2 (asialoglycoprotein receptor (+)) cells under identical conditions was specifically decreased by 55% compared to control cells incubated without the conjugate.

Complete inhibition of transferrin recycling by monensin in K562 cells

Monensin blocks human transferrin recycling in a dose-dependent and reversible manner in K562 cells, reaching 100% inhibition at a noncytocidal dose of 10(-5) M, whereas transferrin recycling is virtually unaffected by noncytocidal doses of chloroquine. The intracellular pathway of human transferrin in K562 cells, both in the presence and absence of 10(-5) M monensin, was localized by indirect immunofluorescence. Monensin blocks transferrin recycling by causing internalized ligand to accumulate in the perinuclear region of the cell. The effect of 10(-5) M monensin on human transferrin kinetics was quantitatively measured by radioimmunoassay and showed a positive correlation with immunofluorescent studies. Immunoelectron microscopic localization of human transferrin as it cycles through K562 cells reveals the appearance of perinuclear transferrin-positive multivesicular bodies within 3 min of internalization, with subsequent exocytic delivery of the ligand to the cell surface via transferrin-staining vesicles arising from these perinuclear structures within 5 min of internalization. Inhibition of ligand recycling with 10(-5) M monensin causes dilated transferrin-positive multivesicular bodies to accumulate within the cell with no evidence of recycling vesicles. A coordinated interaction between multivesicular bodies and the Golgi apparatus appears to be involved in the recycling of transferrin in K562 cells. Cell-surface-binding sites for transferrin were reduced by 50% with 10(-5) M monensin treatment; however, this effect was not attenuated by 80% protein synthesis inhibition with cycloheximide, supporting the idea that the transferrin receptor is also recycled through the Golgi.

Periodate inactivation of ovotransferrin and human serum transferrin

Azari and Phillips (Azari, P., and Phillips, J. L. 1970 Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 138, 32-38) reported that periodate treatment of iron-free ovotransferrin causes a rapid loss of iron-binding activity and an oxidation of 3 to 5 tyrosines and 1 tryptophan. Rapid inactivation and loss of tyrosine in ovotransferrin has been confirmed, and the work extended to human serum transferrin and effects of denaturing concentrations of urea. Extensive (> 80%) inactivations of both ovotransferrin and human serum transferrin were observed when approximately 4 tyrosines were destroyed. Amino acid analysis and 360-MHz 1H NMR spectra confirmed that tyrosines are the only residues rapidly oxidized; the correlation of tyrosine loss with the loss of iron-binding activity suggests strongly that the tyrosines involved are those that function as ligands to metal ions bound to the protein. NMR spectra also showed that periodate oxidation causes local changes of structure in ovotransferrin (presumably at the metal-binding sites) but does not grossly alter the conformation. The addition of 5 to 8 M urea greatly retarded the inactivation and losses of tyrosine.