Creating alternative seafood flavour from non-animal ingredients: A review of key flavour molecules relevant to seafood

This review summarises current knowledge of the molecular basis for flavour profiles of popular seafood types (crustacean (crab, lobster, prawn, etc.), mollusc (oyster, squid, etc.), oily fish (salmon, sardine, etc.) and white fish (barramundi, turbot, etc.)), and provides a foundation for formulating improved plant-based seafood alternative (PBSA) flavours. Key odour-active volatile molecules were identified from a systematic review of published olfactometry studies and taste-active compounds and macronutrient profiles of different seafood species and commercial PBSAs from nutrition databases were compared. Ingredients commonly used in commercial BPSAs and new potential sources of flavouring agents are evaluated. While significant challenges in replicating seafood flavour and texture remain, this review provides some insights into how plant-based ingredients could be applied to improve the acceptability of PBSAs.

TFOS Lifestyle: Impact of nutrition on the ocular surface

Nutrients, required by human bodies to perform life-sustaining functions, are obtained from the diet. They are broadly classified into macronutrients (carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins), micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) and water. All nutrients serve as a source of energy, provide structural support to the body and/or regulate the chemical processes of the body. Food and drinks also consist of non-nutrients that may be beneficial (e.g., antioxidants) or harmful (e.g., dyes or preservatives added to processed foods) to the body and the ocular surface. There is also a complex interplay between systemic disorders and an individual's nutritional status. Changes in the gut microbiome may lead to alterations at the ocular surface. Poor nutrition may exacerbate select systemic conditions. Similarly, certain systemic conditions may affect the uptake, processing and distribution of nutrients by the body. These disorders may lead to deficiencies in micro- and macro-nutrients that are important in maintaining ocular surface health. Medications used to treat these conditions may also cause ocular surface changes. The prevalence of nutrition-related chronic diseases is climbing worldwide. This report sought to review the evidence supporting the impact of nutrition on the ocular surface, either directly or as a consequence of the chronic diseases that result. To address a key question, a systematic review investigated the effects of intentional food restriction on ocular surface health; of the 25 included studies, most investigated Ramadan fasting (56%), followed by bariatric surgery (16%), anorexia nervosa (16%), but none were judged to be of high quality, with no randomized-controlled trials.

Molecular Recognition Patterns between Vitamin B12 and Proteins Explored through STD-NMR and In Silico Studies

Ligand-receptor molecular recognition is the basis of biological processes. The Saturation Transfer Difference-NMR (STD-NMR) technique has been recently used to gain qualitative and quantitative information about physiological interactions at an atomic resolution. The molecular recognition patterns between the cyanocobalamin (CNBL)/aqua cobalamin (OHBL) and different plant and animal proteins were investigated via STD-NMR supplemented by molecular docking. This study demonstrates that myoglobin has the highest binding affinity and that gluten has the lowest affinity. Casein also shows a higher binding affinity for cyanocobalamin when compared with that of plant-based proteins. STD-NMR results showed the moderate binding capability of casein with both CNBL and OHBL. Computer simulation confirmed the recognition mode in theory and was compared with the experiments. This work is beneficial for understanding the binding affinity and biological action of cyanocobalamin and will attract researchers to use NMR technology to link the chemical and physiological properties of nutrients.

Vitamin K content of cheese, yoghurt and meat products in Australia

Vitamin K is vital for normal blood coagulation, and may influence bone, neurological and vascular health. Data on the vitamin K content of Australian foods are limited, preventing estimation of vitamin K intakes in the Australian population. We measured phylloquinone (PK) and menaquinone (MK) -4 to -10 in cheese, yoghurt and meat products (48 composite samples from 288 primary samples) by liquid chromatography with electrospray ionisation-tandem mass spectrometry. At least one K vitamer was found in every sample. The greatest mean (± standard deviation for foods sampled in multiple cities) concentrations of PK (4.9 µg/100 g), MK-4 (58 ± 9 µg/100 g) and MK-9 (8 ± 2 µg/100 g) were found in lamb liver, chicken leg meat and Cheddar cheese, respectively. Cheddar cheese (1.1 ± 0.3 µg/100 g) and cream cheese (1.0 µg/100 g) contained MK-5. MK-8 was found in Cheddar cheese only (4 ± 2 µg/100 g). As the K vitamer profile and concentrations appear to vary considerably by geographical location, Australia needs a vitamin K food composition dataset that is representative of foods consumed in Australia.

Dietary and Non-Dietary Determinants Associated with Changes in Red Blood Cell Omega-3-Essential Fatty Acids and Serum Lutein Status in a Selected Adult Population

Objectives

The role of omega-3-essential fatty acids (EFA) in addition to lutein and zeaxanthin in preventing age-related macular degeneration remains unclear. This study assessed factors (dietary and non-dietary) associated with changes in red blood cell membrane (RBCM) omega-3 and serum lutein (L) status in a selected adult population.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted among 33 healthy adults aged 19–29 and 30–52 years. Background (online self-administered) and dietary (Cancer Council's dietary questionnaire) information were obtained. Serum L and RBCM omega-3 status were determined using HPLC and GC-MS. Determinants associated with changes in RBCM omega-3 and serum L status were established using multiple regression, Pearson's, and Spearman's correlation.

Results

Mean RBCM omega-3-EFA and EPA/AA ratio were 9.08 ± 4.09% and 0.09 ± 0.03% respectively. Sixty % of study participants had normal RBCM omega-3-EFA status. Men consumed more omega-3-EFA rich sources in their diet than women (10.06 ± 5.02% vs 6.89 ± 2.02%) (p = 0.02). Participants aged 30–52 years had higher but not significant mean RBCM omega-3-EFA levels compared to those aged 19–29 years (8.64 ± 3.58% vs 8.02 ± 4.38%). Canola oil and other seafoods (excluding fish) were the major rich sources of omega-3-EFA which showed an association with participants’ educational status (p = 0.01). Longer residency status (>10 years) was associated with dietary intakes of omega-3-EFA and reflected in most participants achieving the required omega-3-status (p = 0.04). RBCM omega-3-EFA correlated (r = −0.37, p = 0.04) with dietary lutein (L) + zeaxanthin (Z) and other seafoods (r = 0.43, p = 0.01). Other seafoods and EPA/AA ratio were responsible for observed changes in serum L.

Conclusions

Other seafoods, levels of EPA/AA ratio and longer residency status can positively influence changes in omega-3 and serum L status among healthy Australian adults at risk of AMD.

Funding Sources

No funding sources.

Comparison of Intestinal Iron Uptake From Different Plant and Animal Proteins and Food Matrices: Studies Using an In Vitro Digestion/Caco-2 Cell Culture Model

Objectives

The aim of this study was to assess the effect of cyanocobalamin on intestinal iron uptake in the presence of different plant and animal proteins and food matrices.

Methods

Different proteins and foods with added iron and cyanocobalamin were digested using Infogest digestion protocol with minor changes. Concentrations of added ferrous sulphate (FeSO₄) and B₁₂ was 10 μmol/L and 50 μmol/L in the digesta. Digesta was introduced into Caco-2 cells for 12 hours. Growth medium was removed, and cells were washed twice with ice cold Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). Cells were harvested by adding an aliquot of deionized water, placing them in a sonicator at 4°C for 15 min, then scraped, collected with 2 mL water in each well, stored at −20°C. The harvested cell suspension was used to analyse ferritin and total protein concentrations using ferritin solid-phase sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and Pierce Bicinchoninic acid assay (BCA) respectively. The ratio of ferritin/total protein expressed as ng ferritin/mg protein was used as an index of cellular iron uptake.

Results

Bioavailability of FeSO₄ was higher in the presence of animal proteins (22.20 ± 3.35, 19.77 ± 2.90, 41.52 ± 2.74 ng ferritin/mg protein for casein, egg albumin, myoglobin respectively) when compared with plant proteins (16.47 ± 1.63, 15.84 ± 2.40, 13.37 ± 3.68 ng ferritin/mg protein for gluten, rice, pea protein respectively). Vitamin B₁₂ improved the bioavailability of FeSO₄ in the Caco-2 cell model. With the final concentration of cyanocobalamin at 50 mmol/L, ferritin-protein ratio for casein, egg albumin, myoglobin, gluten, rice, pea protein increased 1.3, 1.3, 1.2, 1.6, 1.5, 1.6 times respectively. Similarly, for milk, yogurt, Indian flat bread, bread, rice pancake and rice-pea pancake, addition of vitamin B12 improved ferritin-protein ratio 1.5, 1.1, 1.4, 1.2, 1.6, 1.5 times respectively compared to only FeSO₄ fortification.

Conclusions

Cyanocobalamin promotes iron uptake from FeSO₄ in presence of different proteins. Whole foods initiate more iron uptake than protein isolates. Among the protein isolates, myoglobin shows highest iron uptake. Yogurt shows highest intestinal iron uptake in the presence of cyanocobalamin and rice-pea mix could be one of the best options for vegan diet in terms of iron bioavailability.

Funding Sources

There was no external funding.

Evaluating Interventions With Special Fortified Products and Complementary Feeding Recommendations to Best Achieve the Nutrient Adequacy in Filipino Complementary Diets

Objectives

The objective of this study was to predict the intervention scenarios that best fulfil the nutrient adequacy in Filipino complementary diets in rural settings using linear programming (LP) analyses of special fortified foods, alone or in combination with complementary feeding recommendations (CFRs).

Methods

A cross-sectional survey was conducted in the municipality of Mercedes, Camarines Norte Province. Dietary intakes of breastfed children 6–8, 9–11 and 12–23 months of age (n = 297) were assessed using a multi-pass 24-hour recall method with 7-day food consumption frequency. Optifood, an LP tool was used to formulate age-specific CFRs and determine the extent to which special fortified foods, namely micronutrient powder (MNP), small-quantity lipid-based nutrient supplements (LNS-SQ) and fortified blended food with micronutrient powder (FBF + MNP), can contribute towards nutrient adequacy in complementary diets.

Results

LP analyses show that for 6–8 and 9–11-month-old infants, requirements for iron will be difficult to meet even with four serves of MNP per week, while for 9–11 and 12–23-month-old young children, calcium adequacy would remain a challenge even with daily serves of LNS-SQ per week. Adequacy for 11 modelled micronutrients could only be achieved if CFRs that modify current dietary patterns were fully adopted along with supplementation of LNS-SQ 5–7 times per week.

Conclusions

Adoption of food-based CFRs with special fortified products is necessary to best fulfil the gaps of essential micronutrients in the diets of rural Filipino children aged 6–23 months. The findings provide insight into the current program in the Philippines. The MNP supplementation with the usual ration of MNP 3 to 4 times per week would not be sufficient to ensure adequacy for iron in 6–8 and 9–11-month-old infants unless the frequency is increased to 5 times per week. Empirical intervention studies are needed to confirm the LP simulations and feasibility of the CFRs.

Funding Sources

The authors received no funding for this work.

Dietary Intakes, Scores and Serum Lutein and Zeaxanthin Levels in Selected Adult Australian Population

Objectives

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is one of the leading causes of blindness in Australia and globally. Many studies have reported dietary and non-dietary risk associated factors to AMD, but few studies have focused on the dietary intakes and relative bioavailability of serum lutein (L) and zeaxanthin (Z). This study aimed to assess the dietary intakes, scores and serum L and Z levels in a selected Australian Adult population.

Methods

A cross-sectional study involving 33 healthy adults aged 19–29 and 30–52 years was carried out. Background demographic information on all participants was obtained using an online self-administered questionnaire while diet intakes were obtained using the USDA's 24 hours recall questionnaire, the Victorian Cancer Council

(Australia) food frequency questionnaire. Serum L and Z levels were determined using HPLC. Dietary intakes, scores against serum L, Z, and L + Z were established using descriptive statistics, Pearson's correlation, and multiple regression.

Results

Mean serum concentration of L + Z were higher in older vs younger adults (49.0 ± 10.0 μg/dL vs 43.0 ± 14.0 μg/dL) whereas dietary intakes were lower (15.7 μg/100 g vs 18.7 μg/100 g). Percentage (%) dietary scores were slightly higher among the older age group (43.0% vs 41.3%). Among women vs men, women had higher scores, dietary intakes of L + Z (19.3 μg/100 g vs 15.0 μg/100 g) and % dietary scores (43.9% vs 40.1%). There was no observed gender difference in serum L + Z levels (46.0 ± 12.0 μg/dL). Serum L + Z levels correlated more with the ethnic group of African descent (P = 0.357, P < 0.022) and duration of residency (>10 years) (P = 0.348, P = 0.025). About 59% of participants had L/Z ratio of either 3 : 1 or 4 : 1. Multivariate regression identified percentage dietary scores, ethnicity, age as major predictors of serum L + Z concentrations (R2 = 0.837).

Conclusions

Established age-specific reference range for dietary intakes and serum L + Z levels is required to determine populations at risk of AMD. Women are making better food choices than men. This was apparent in dietary intakes, scores. Ethnicity and longer residency status in Australia correlated with serum L + Z concentrations.

Funding Sources

None.

Use of Linear Programming to Develop Complementary Feeding Recommendations to Improve Nutrient Adequacy and Dietary Diversity Among Breastfed Children in the Rural Philippines

BACKGROUND

Lack of dietary diversity in complementary feeding contributes to nutrient gaps leading to undernutrition. Food-based strategies have been successfully used to enrich the complementary diets of infants and young children. However, context-specific recommendations based on an objective diet optimization are needed to formulate sound and practical nutritional guidelines.

OBJECTIVES

The present study aimed to identify problem nutrients in complementary diets and formulate complementary feeding recommendations (CFRs) using linear programming analysis for children aged 6 to 23 months in the rural Philippines.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey was conducted in the municipality of Mercedes, Philippines. Dietary intakes of breastfed children 6 to 8, 9 to 11, and 12 to 23 months of age (n = 297) were assessed using a multipass 24-hour recall method with 7-day food consumption frequency. A linear programming tool was used to identify the recommended nutrient intakes that could not be met within the existing local food patterns and develop CFRs that would best fulfill nutrient adequacy for 11 modeled micronutrients.

RESULTS

Problem nutrients in the current diets were iron and calcium in any age-group, zinc for 6 to 8 and 9 to 11 months old, and thiamine and folate for 12 to 23 months old children. Adoption of CFRs with 4 to 5 food groups in the diet would ensure the adequacy of 7 to 8 nutrients, depending on the age-group.

CONCLUSION

Within the boundaries of local dietary patterns, adequacy for most nutrients could be achieved by promoting realistic servings of nutrient-dense foods and food groups. The linear programming results provide an evidence-based strategy in designing interventions to improve the quality of Filipino complementary diets.

The role of food science and technology in humanitarian response

Background

In humanitarian contexts, ensuring access to safe, nutritious, good quality and culturally appropriate food in the right quantity at the right time and place during an emergency or a protracted crisis is an enormous challenge, which is likely to increase given uncertainties such as climate change, global political and economic instability and emerging pandemics like COVID-19. Several international organizations and non-government organizations have well established systems to respond to food security emergencies. However, the role of food science and technology in humanitarian response is not well understood and is seldom considered in humanitarian circles.

Scope and approach

The role of food science and technology in humanitarian response and the importance of addressing the requirements of the local consumers within the local food systems are discussed.

Key findings and conclusions

Humanitarian food aid policies focus on immediate and short-term assistance to save lives. The implementation of emergency programs and projects tends to induce dependency on aid, rather than strengthening local food systems and ensuring resilience. Transformative change must embrace innovation across the whole food system with an increased emphasis on food science and technology that addresses local food security, generates employment and contributes to the local economy. There needs to be a move beyond rehabilitating and increasing agricultural production to addressing the whole food system with a view to link humanitarian assistance and longer-term support to sustainable livelihoods and resilience.

Dietary Lutein, Zeaxanthin and Omega-3- Essential Fatty Acid Intake and Risk of Age-Related Macular Degeneration in a Selected Australian Population

Objectives

The aim of this study was to assess the dietary intakes of lutein, zeaxanthin (L + Z) and omega-3-essential fatty acid(EFA) among a selected population of Australian based adults and to examine the effect of specified risk factors for age-related macular degeneration(AMD) on those levels.

Methods

A cross-sectional study involving 70 adults aged 19–52 years was carried out. Demographic data were obtained using an online self-administered questionnaire while dietary intakes were estimated using USDA's 24 hours recall questionnaire, the Victorian Cancer Council(Australia) food frequency questionnaire and anthropometric characteristics were obtained using a body composition analyzer. Dietary intakes of lutein, zeaxanthin, omega-3-EFA and anthropometric indices against the risk of AMD were established using descriptive statistics and Spearman correlation.

Results

The mean age of the population was 29.9 ± 8.1years with 51% men and 49% women. Women had a higher intake of L + Z (1908.6 μg/day versus 1032.8 μg/day) and alpha-linolenic acid(ALA) compared to men(1.7 ± 1.1 g/day versus 1.6 ± 1.2 g/day). Men consumed more omega-3-EFA than women (433 ± 397.1 mg/day versus 365 ± 210.7 mg/day). L + Z levels were higher among people of Middle Eastern and South Asian origin (>4000 μg/day) in the 19–25years age group. People of Middle Eastern, South East Asian and South Asian had the highest intake of omega-3-EFA(>500 mg/day) at ages 19–25, 26–32 and 34–52years respectively. Women aged 34–52years with a family history of AMD had higher levels of L + Z(>2500 μg/day) while women aged 26–32years with a family history of AMD had higher levels of ALA(>3 g/day). Ethnicity and L + Z were correlated (P = −0.456, P < 0.02). Higher levels of intake of L + Z (>4000 μg/day) were seen in participants aged 34–52years with a 5–10years residence in Australia. Participants who had less than 5–10years of residency had higher levels of omega-3-EFA(>500 mg/day) for ages 26–32years while those aged 34–52years who had less than 5years of residency had higher ALA(>4 g/day).

Conclusions

Intake levels for L + Z vary significantly among participants. Culturally specific dietary habits could feasibly influence the levels of intake of L + Z. Intake levels of omega-3-EFA were met. This study provides detailed intake levels of L + Z and omega-3-EFA for the ‘at-risk’ AMD group.

Funding Sources

No funding source.

Anthocyanin-based sensors derived from food waste as an active use-by date indicator for milk

Active use-by date (AUBD) or freshness indicators hold great potential to reduce food waste. Herein, we develop an anthocyanin AUBD indicator that is capable of discriminating between fresh, spoiling, and spoiled milk. The sensor undergoes a visible blue to purple to pink color change in response to lactic acid, which is an indicator of microbial spoilage in milk. Anthocyanin is cast into a range of materials and the composite's suitability to monitor pH changes (pH 6.8 fresh milk vs pH 4.0 spoiled milk) is assessed. Of the materials studied, an anthocyanin-agarose film is nominated as the optimum materials with the best colorimetric performance. We introduce a new method to quantify anthocyanin color change by measuring red chromatic shift by digital analysis. The anthocyanin sensors will provide a real-time indication of actual milk quality, surpassing the function of traditional date marking tools that provide an indication of the expected shelf life.

The efficiency of ultrasonic-assisted extraction of cyanocobalamin is greater than heat extraction

Cyanocobalamin, like other water-soluble vitamins, is susceptible to degradation due to exposure to heat, UV, oxygen and pH. Built on our previous finding, this study aimed to assess the extraction efficiency of cyanocobalamin from dietary supplements. Particularly, cyanocobalamin extraction in a 100 °C water bath was compared with ultrasonic-assisted extraction, with and without the addition of 1 mg/L sorbitol, xylitol and erythritol. Ground defatted samples of supplement tablets were initially treated for 15 min, centrifuged and filtered before quantitative HPLC analysis. Addition of sorbitol and xylitol significantly minimised the thermal degradation during extraction in a 100 °C water bath, as shown in measured cyanocobalamin (~145 μg/tablet) that was higher than the control (100 μg/tablet, p < 0.05). Despite the addition of sugar alcohols, mean cyanocobalamin in ultrasonic extracted samples (~170 μg/tablet) was not significantly different from those without (p > 0.05). Overall, mean cyanocobalamin in sonicated samples was higher than heat-extracted counterparts, suggesting that extraction in a 100 °C water bath was likely to cause thermal degradation. It was possible that ultrasonic-assisted extraction had no effect on cyanocobalamin stability and would lead to a higher extraction efficiency. Therefore, 15 min extraction in an ultrasonic bath can be suggested to be adequate to release cyanocobalamin before its quantitative determination.

Microbiological Assay-Trienzyme Procedure for Total Folates in Cereals and Cereal Foods: Collaborative Study

In 1996, U.S. Food and Drug Administration regulations mandated the fortification of enriched cereal-grain products with folic acid, thereby emphasizing the need for validated methods for total folates in foods, particularly cereal products. The AOAC Official Methods (944.12, 960.46) currently used for the analysis of folate in foods for compliance purposes are microbiological methods. When the fortification regulations were finalized, no Official AOAC or Approved AACC methods for folate in cereal-grain products were in place. The AOAC Official Method (992.05) for folic acid in infant formula does not incorporate important improvements in the extraction procedure and was not considered suitable for the analysis of folates in foods in general. Amicrobiological assay protocol using a trienzyme extraction procedure was prepared and submitted for comments to 40 laboratories with recognized experience in folate analysis. On the basis of comments, the method was revised to have the conjugase (gamma-glutamyl-carboxy-peptidase) treatment follow a protease treatment, to include the use of cryoprotected inoculum, and to include the spectroscopic standardization of the standard and optional use of microtiter plates. Thirteen laboratories participated in a collaborative study of 10 required and 10 optional cereal-grain products, including flour, bread, cookies, baking mixes, and ready-to-eat breakfast cereals. The majority of the participating laboratories performed the assay by the standard test tube method; others used the microtiter plate modification for endpoint quantitation with equal success. For the required products, the relative standard deviation between laboratories (RSDR) ranged from 7.4 to 21.6% for 8 fortified (or enriched) products compared with expected (Horwitz equation-based) values of 11–20%. RSDR values were higher (22.7–52.9%) for 2 unfortified cereal-grain products. For the optional products, the RSDR ranged from 1.8 to 11.2% for 8 fortified products. RSDR values were higher (27.9–28.7%) for 2 unfortified cereal-grain products. Based on the results of the collaborative study, the microbiological assay with trienzyme extraction is recommended for adoption as Official First Action.

What is the cobalamin status among vegetarians and vegans in Australia?

Water-soluble vitamin B12 (cobalamin) plays a vital role in normal blood function and neurological functioning. Clinical and subclinical B12 deficiency has been notably reported in vegans, vegetarians, the elderly and metformin-treated diabetics. Currently, the prevalence of cobalamin deficiency among vegans and vegetarians in Australia is lacking; data on dietary intake including supplements and nutritional status are also limited. The increasing multiculturalism of Australia has seen an influx of imported foods, of which some may contain considerable vitamin B12. However, values for such foods are not included in the food composition databases. This review highlights the need to update the food composition database with culturally diverse foods containing vitamin B12. Moreover, the need for assessing dietary intakes and status using the most current best evidence and best practice on nutritional indicators (biochemical and functional biomarkers) to estimate the risk of deficiency and/or depletion is discussed.

Co-ingestion of red cabbage with cherry tomato enhances digestive bioaccessibility of anthocyanins but decreases carotenoid bioaccessibility after simulated in vitro gastro-intestinal digestion

The effects of co-digestion of red cabbage with carrot, baby spinach and/or cherry tomato on the bioaccessibility of anthocyanins and carotenoids such as α-carotene, β-carotene, lutein and lycopene were examined using a simulated in vitro gastro-intestinal digestion model. The individual vegetables and their mixtures were digested with and without added a standardised salad dressing. Bioaccessibility of total anthocyanins was enhanced by 10-15% (p < 0.05) when red cabbage was co-digested with the carotenoid-rich vegetables, except with carrot. In contrast, the co-digestion of red cabbage with carrot decreased bioaccessibility of total carotenoids by 21-33% (p < 0.05), and with cherry tomato by 42-56% (p < 0.05). The bioaccessibility of a given carotenoid varied depending on the vegetable matrix. Among the tested vegetable mixtures, red cabbage and baby spinach when co-digested demonstrated that anthocyanins and carotenoids were equally bioaccessible (total anthocyanin bioaccessibility of 62-66% and total carotenoid bioaccessibility of 66%).

Sorbitol enhances the physicochemical stability of B12 vitamers

The stability of B₁₂ vitamers is affected by interaction with other water-soluble vitamins, UV light, heat, and pH. This study compared the degradation losses in cyanocobalamin, hydroxocobalamin and methylcobalamin due to the physicochemical exposure before and after the addition of sorbitol. The degradation losses of cyanocobalamin in the presence of increasing concentrations of thiamin and niacin ranged between 6%-13% and added sorbitol significantly prevented the loss of cyanocobalamin (p<0.05). Hydroxocobalamin and methylcobalamin exhibited degradation losses ranging from 24%-26% and 48%-76%, respectively; added sorbitol significantly minimised the loss to 10% and 20%, respectively (p < 0.05). Methylcobalamin was the most susceptible to degradation when co-existing with ascorbic acid, followed by hydroxocobalamin and cyanocobalamin. The presence of ascorbic acid caused the greatest degradation loss in methylcobalamin (70%-76%), which was minimised to 16% with added sorbitol (p < 0.05). Heat exposure (100 °C, 60 minutes) caused a greater loss of cyanocobalamin (38%) than UV exposure (4%). However, degradation losses in hydroxocobalamin and methylcobalamin due to UV and heat exposures were comparable (>30%). At pH 3, methylcobalamin was the most unstable showing 79% degradation loss, which was down to 12% after sorbitol was added (p < 0.05). The losses of cyanocobalamin at pH 3 and pH 9 (~15%) were prevented by adding sorbitol. Addition of sorbitol to hydroxocobalamin at pH 3 and pH 9 reduced the loss by only 6%. The results showed that cyanocobalamin was the most stable, followed by hydroxocobalamin and methylcobalamin. Added sorbitol was sufficient to significantly enhance the stability of cobalamins against degradative agents and conditions.

Ascorbic Acid Effectively Improved Lutein Extraction Yield from Australian Sweet Lupin Flour

Lutein is a xanthophyll, a bioactive phytochemical that presents itself as colourful pigments in plants. Australian sweet lupin flour has been incorporated as a food ingredient in wheat bread and pasta to improve their sensory property and nutritional quality. However, the amount of lutein in lupin flour has not yet been determined. This is the first study to quantify naturally occurring lutein in Australian sweet lupin flour after the extraction efficiency was optimised. Several organic solvents (acetone, isopropyl alcohol, ethyl acetate and hexane), the use of an ultrasonic bath or a probe, the need for saponification and addition of ascorbic acid (served as antioxidant) were tested to compare the extraction yield. HPLC was employed to analyse lutein in flour. Lowest lutein (68 μg/100 g) was determined in the hexane extract. Samples extracted using an ultrasonic bath (126-132 μg/100 g) contained higher lutein than those extracted using a probe (84-109 μg/100 g). Saponified samples showed significantly less lutein (30-64 μg/100 g) than their respective non-saponified ones (122-134 μg/100 g). Without added ascorbic acid, lutein that was extracted into isopropyl alcohol was 143 μg/100 g and was higher than those released into acetone (92 μg/100 g). When ascorbic acid was added, measured lutein in the extracts of isopropyl alcohol (155 μg/100 g) and acetone (138 μg/100 g) increased by 8 and 33%, respectively. Our results suggested that the choice of extraction solvents and addition of ascorbic acid was crucial for quantitative analysis of lutein, so that the lutein content in lupin flour can be accurately reported.

Validation of a measurement instrument for parental child feeding in a low and middle-income country

BACKGROUND

Parental child feeding practices (PCFP) are a key factor influencing children's dietary intake, especially in the preschool years when eating behavior is being established. Instruments to measure PCFP have been developed and validated in high-income countries with a high prevalence of childhood obesity. The aim of this study was to test the appropriateness, content, and construct validity of selected measures of PCFP in a low and middle-income country (LMIC) in which there is both undernutrition and obesity in children.

METHODS

An expert panel selected subscales and items from measures of PCFP that have been well-tested in high-income countries to measure both "coercive" and "structural" behaviors. Two sequential cross-sectional studies (Study 1, n = 154; Study 2, n = 238) were conducted in two provinces in Indonesia. Findings of the first study were used to refine subscales used in Study 2. An additional qualitative study tested content validity from the perspective of mothers (the intended respondents). Factorial validation and reliability were also tested. Convergent validity was tested with child nutritional status.

RESULTS

In Study 1, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) model with 11 factors provided good fit (RMSEA = 0.045; CFI = 0.95 and TLI = 0.95) after two subscales were removed. Reliability was good among seven of the subscales. Following a decision to take out an additional subscale, the instrument was tested for factorial validity (Study 2). A CFA model with 10 subscales provided good fit (RMSEA = 0.03; CFI = 0.92 and TLI = 0.90). The reliability of subscales was lower than in Study 1. Convergent validity with nutrition status was found with two subscales.

CONCLUSIONS

The two studies provide evidence of acceptable psychometric properties for 10 subscales from tested instruments to measure PCFP in Indonesia. This provides the first evidence of the validity of these measures in a LMIC setting. Some shortcomings, such in the reliability of some subscales and further tests of predictive validity, require further investigation.

Modelling of the impact of universal added sugar reduction through food reformulation

Food reformulation has been suggested to be one of the strategies to reduce population added sugar (AS) intake. This study aims to investigate the untested assumption that a reduction in AS through reformulation will result in a reduction in population intakes of AS and energy. Plausible dietary data from 4,140 respondents of an Australian national nutrition survey were used. Dietary modelling was performed at AS reductions of 10%, 15%, and 25% using four strategies: simple removal of AS or replacement with non-nutritive sweeteners (NNS), and replacement of AS with NNS and either: polyols, 50% fibres or 50% maltodextrin. Paired t-tests were conducted to compare the intake of energy, fat, and AS pre- and post-reformulation. The chosen reformulation strategies resulted in a projected reduction in AS and energy, with the greatest reduction found in 25% reformulation which was the highest level modelled. The overall projected mean (SD) reduction in energy and AS after 25% reformulation was 114 (92) kJ/day and 11.73 (7.52) g/day, p < 0.001. To conclude, product reformulation may be a potentially useful strategy for reducing AS intake. Although the magnitude of projected reduction was small at the individual level, the impact may be meaningful at a population level.

Naturally occurring folates in selected traditionally prepared foods in Southern India

A wide range of Indian foods (cereals, pulses, vegetables and milk based preparations) were analysed for five folate vitamers naturally present in the foods (n = 44). A liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method using reversed phase chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry, coupled via positive mode electrospray ionization was used for the detection and quantification of the vitamers. The optimized LC-MS/MS method was capable of analysing the five most commonly-occurring folates (folic acid, 5-methyl tetrahydrofolic acid, tetrahydrofolic acid, 10-formyl folic acid and 5-formyl tetrahydrofolic acid) in 20 min. Quantification of folates was performed using ¹³C labelled internal standards. 5-methyl tetrahydrofolate was predominant in cereals, pulses and vegetable preparations. Fermented cereal preparations, beverages (coffee and tea) and green leafy vegetables were the main sources contributing to 5-formyl THF. Folic acid was identified in home-made yoghurt. All the values obtained in the present study using LC-MS/MS were compared to the total folate analysed using the microbiological assay in 2010 to generate data on the same foods. Findings suggest that the data obtained using both techniques showed agreement in the values (total folate calculated by adding the individual vitamers in the case of the LC-MS/MS values) particularly when foods were predominant in 5 methyl tetrahydrofolate.

Effect of Germination and Fermentation on Carbohydrate Composition of Australian Sweet Lupin and Soybean Seeds and Flours

This study investigated the effect of germination and fermentation on the composition of carbohydrates in Australian sweet lupin. Specifically, the amount of sugars (sucrose, fructose, and glucose), starch, oligosaccharides (verbascose, stachyose, and raffinose), and dietary fiber were measured in germinated lupin seeds and fermented lupin flour, and compared with those in soy. High performance liquid chromatography coupled with refractive index was employed for quantitation of sugars, starch, and oligosaccharides, and gas chromatography coupled with a flame ionization detector was used for quantitation of simple sugars in total, and soluble, and insoluble dietary fiber. The enzyme activities of α-amylase and α-glucosidase were compared before and after germination or fermentation. The α-amylase activity in germinated lupin increased to  ∼17 nmol/mL/min/0.1 g and in germinated soy∼32; in fermented lupin, the activity increased to ∼52, while in fermented soy it decreased to ∼20. In general, germination or fermentation decreased the oligosaccharide content, and increased the total sugar in samples (p < 0.05). Total oligosaccharides in lupin after uncontrolled germination were reduced by 98% to 6 mg/g, and after controlled germination reduced by 44% to 86 mg/g. Fermentation with yogurt culture lowered the content of total oligosaccharides due to 94% decrease in stachyose. Total oligosaccharides in soy flour prior to fermentation were 180 mg/g and significantly decreased to ∼124 mg/g in fermented soy. Germination did not affect the starch content. There was no significant change in the amounts of total, soluble, and insoluble dietary fiber after germination or fermentation of lupin except for galactose, which was significantly reduced in germinated lupin seeds. Soluble dietary fiber in germinated soy significantly increased. Germination and fermentation are simple and effective techniques to reduce the oligosaccharides while maintaining the composition of dietary fibers.

25-Hydroxyvitamin D as a Biomarker of Vitamin D Status and Its Modeling to Inform Strategies for Prevention of Vitamin D Deficiency within the Population

There is substantial evidence that the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency is unacceptably high in the population, and this requires action from a public health perspective. Circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] is a robust and reliable marker of vitamin D status and has been used by numerous agencies in the establishment of vitamin D dietary requirements and for population surveillance of vitamin D deficiency or inadequacy. In a wider context, modeling of serum 25(OH)D data and its contributory sources, namely dietary vitamin D supply and UVB availability, can inform our understanding of population vitamin D status. The aim of this review is to provide the current status of knowledge in relation to modeling of such vitamin D-relevant data. We begin by highlighting the importance of the measurement of 25(OH)D and its standardization, both of which have led to new key data on the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency and inadequacy in North America and Europe. We then overview how state-of-the-art modeling can be used to inform our understanding of the potential effect of ergocalciferol and 25(OH)D on vitamin D intake estimates and how meteorological data on UVB availability, when coupled with other key data, can help predict population serum 25(OH)D concentration, even accounting for seasonal fluctuations, and lastly, how these in silico approaches can help inform policymakers on strategic options on addressing low vitamin D status through food-based approaches and supplementation. The potential of exemplar food-based solutions will be highlighted, as will the possibility of synergies between vitamin D and other dairy food-based micronutrients, in relation to vitamin D status and bone health. Lastly, we will briefly consider the interactions between season and vitamin D supplements on vitamin D status and health.

Vitamin D₃ and 25-Hydroxyvitamin D₃ Content of Retail White Fish and Eggs in Australia

Dietary vitamin D may compensate for inadequate sun exposure; however, there have been few investigations into the vitamin D content of Australian foods. We measured vitamin D₃ and 25-hydroxyvitamin D₃ (25(OH)D₃) in four species of white fish (barramundi, basa, hoki and king dory), and chicken eggs (cage and free-range), purchased from five Australian cities. Samples included local, imported and wild-caught fish, and eggs of varying size from producers with a range of hen stocking densities. Raw and cooked samples were analysed using high performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array. Limits of reporting were 0.2 and 0.1 μg/100 g for vitamin D₃ and 25(OH)D₃, respectively. The vitamin D₃ content of cooked white fish ranged from <0.1 to 2.3 μg/100 g, and the 25(OH)D₃ content ranged from 0.3 to 0.7 μg/100 g. The vitamin D₃ content of cooked cage eggs ranged from 0.4 to 0.8 μg/100 g, and the 25(OH)D₃ content ranged from 0.4 to 1.2 μg/100 g. The vitamin D₃ content of cooked free-range eggs ranged from 0.3 to 2.2 μg/100 g, and the 25(OH)D₃ content ranged from 0.5 to 0.8 μg/100 g. If, as has been suggested, 25(OH)D₃ has five times greater bioactivity than vitamin D₃, one cooked serve (100 g) of white fish, and one cooked serve of cage or free-range eggs (120 g) may provide 50% or 100%, respectively, of the current guidelines for the adequate intake of vitamin D (5 µg) for Australians aged 1-50 years.

Changes in the Sodium Content of Australian Processed Foods between 1980 and 2013 Using Analytical Data

The objective of this study was to obtain analytical data on the sodium content of a range of processed foods and compare the levels obtained with their label claims and with published data of the same or equivalent processed foods in the 1980s and 1990s to investigate the extent of any change in sodium content in relation to reformulation targets. The sodium contents of 130 Australian processed foods were obtained by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) analysis and compared with previously published data. The sodium content between 1980 and 2013 across all products and by each product category were compared. There was a significant overall sodium reduction of 23%, 181 mg/100 g (p <0.001, 95% CI (Confidence Interval), 90 to 272 mg/100 g), in Australian processed foods since 1980, with a 12% (83 mg/100 g) reduction over the last 18 years. The sodium content of convenience foods (p < 0.001, 95% CI, 94 to 291 mg/100 g) and snack foods (p = 0.017, 95% CI, 44 to 398 mg/100 g) had declined significantly since 1980. Meanwhile, the sodium contents of processed meats (p = 0.655, 95% CI, -121 to 190) and bread and other bakery products (p = 0.115, 95% CI, -22 to 192) had decreased, though not significantly. Conversely, the sodium content of cheese (p = 0.781, 95% CI, -484 to 369 mg/100 g) had increased but also not significantly. Of the 130 products analysed, 62% met Australian reformulation targets. Sodium contents of the processed foods and the overall changes in comparison with previous data indicate a decrease over the 33 years period and suggest that the Australian recommended reformulation targets have been effective. Further sodium reduction of processed foods is still required and continuous monitoring of the reduction of sodium levels in processed foods is needed.

The Potential Use of Fermented Chickpea and Faba Bean Flour as Food Ingredients

Apart from being a rich and inexpensive protein source, legumes provide essential vitamins, minerals and dietary fibre. Considering the nutritional benefits, legumes flour can potentially be incorporated in the development of new products. The aim of this study was to investigate whether fermentation affects the protein content, in vitro protein digestibility, trypsin inhibitor activity and the functionality of proteins in faba bean, desi and kabuli chickpea. Australian grown chickpea and faba bean were selected and initially soaked, de-hulled, dried and milled into flour. This was fermented with lyophilised yoghurt cultures in a 30 °C orbital shaker for 16 h. While protein contents in fermented desi and kabuli flour were lower than their raw counterparts (p > 0.05), it was significantly higher in fermented faba bean. A significant increase (9.5%) in in vitro protein digestibility was found in fermented desi. Trypsin inhibitor activity in fermented desi, kabuli and faba bean reduced by 2.7, 1.1 and 4.7%, respectively (p > 0.05). Overall, the in vitro protein digestibility in flour samples increased, while simultaneously reducing the trypsin inhibitor activity. The water absorption capacity of the fermented kabuli flour significantly increased by 11.3%. All fermented flour samples had significantly higher oil absorption capacity than their corresponding raw flour that was likely due to increased insoluble hydrophobic protein. Although, the foaming capacity in all fermented flour samples was significantly lower than their respective raw samples, only fermented desi and faba bean flour showed lower foaming stability (p > 0.05). The present study suggests that fermented legume flour could fulfill the demand for innovative products of higher nutritional value.

Voluntary fortification of breakfast cereals with folic acid: contribution to dietary intake in Australia

Ready-to-eat breakfast cereals have been voluntarily fortified with folic acid since 1995, with the purpose of reducing the prevalence of neural tube defects in utero. Using data from the recent Australian Health Survey, this study aimed to estimate folate intake from one serving of breakfast cereals (median amount). Various commercial brands were purchased in 2002 (n = 19) and in 2014 (n = 14); folate was determined by microbiological assay and high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). Total folate (μg/100 g) in 2002 and 2014 selections were 144-633 and 147-564, respectively, and mostly comparable to nutrition labels. Folic acid (2014 selection) using HPLC, ranged from 85 to 411 μg/100 g. Intake of 51 g cereals/serving by individuals ≥ 2 years could contribute 75-288 μg dietary folate equivalent. It seems that folic acid intake among children (2-3 years) exceeds the recommended dietary intake, when certain brands of breakfast cereals are consumed. Accordingly, the benefits and potential detrimental effects of the voluntary fortification need to be further explored.

Physicochemical properties and digestibility of eleven Vietnamese rice starches with varying amylose contents

Digestion of rice starches cooked in limited water is significantly different from raw starch or when cooked in excess water.

New data for vitamin D in Australian foods of animal origin: impact on estimates of national adult vitamin D intakes in 1995 and 2011-13

OBJECTIVES

To assess the potential dietary supply of vitamin D to Australian adults by application of new data for Australian primary foods of animal origin.

METHODS

New published analytical data on the vitamin D contents of Australian primary foods from animal products were obtained and assessed for reliability. Using food consumption data from Australian population dietary surveys for 1995 and 2011-2013, estimates were made of the likely average daily intakes of vitamin D equivalents from these sources by Australian adults.

RESULTS

Meats, chicken, fish, eggs and dairy produce may alone have contributed about 4.2 μg vitamin D equivalents per day to average Australian diets of adults >18 years in 1995 and 4.3 μg in 2011-2013.

CONCLUSIONS

Dietary vitamin D intake in Australia is likely to be higher than previously estimated because new data from improved analytical methods reveal the contributions to vitamin D supply from foods of animal origin. Absence of reliable vitamin D data for milk and milk products, and the gaps in vitamin D data for many commonly consumed seafood, poultry, eggs and processed animal products greatly limit estimation of dietary vitamin D intakes by Australians.