Comparison of an insulin analog, insulin aspart, and regular human insulin with no insulin in gestational diabetes mellitus

OBJECTIVE

To assess the short-term efficacy of insulin aspart in comparison with regular human insulin in women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) during standardized meal tests.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

The study included 15 women with GDM who had inadequate diabetes control with diet alone. On 3 consecutive days, breakfast meal tests were performed-the first with no exogenous insulin and the other two after the injection of either regular insulin or insulin aspart.

RESULTS

The peak insulin concentration was higher and the peak glucose and C-peptide concentrations were lower with both insulin preparations than with no exogenous insulin. Glucose areas under the curve above baseline were significantly lower with insulin aspart (180-min area, 7.1 mg. h. dl(-1); P = 0.018), but not with regular insulin (30.2 mg. h. dl(-1); P = 0.997), than with no insulin (29.4 mg. h. dl(-1)).

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that effective postprandial glycemic control in women with GDM who required insulin was brought about by insulin aspart through higher insulin peak and lower demand on endogenous insulin secretion.

Small weight gain is not associated with development of insulin resistance in healthy, physically active individuals

We investigated whether weight gain alters insulin sensitivity and leptin levels in physically active individuals. Six (5 males and 1 female; age 26.6+/-1.0 years; BMI 21.5+/-0.9, body fat 17.4+/-2.2%) healthy individuals were enrolled in an overfeeding study (caloric surplus 22.5-26.5 kcal/kg/day) to achieve up to 10% weight gain over 4-6 week period with subsequent weight maintenance over additional 2 weeks. The participants were requested to maintain their previous physical activity which in all of them included 45-60 min training sessions at the gym 2-3 times/week.

RESULTS

BMI increased to 23.4+/-0.9 (4.4 kg weight gain; p<0.05) and body fat to 21.0+/-2.8% (p < 0.05) over the period of active weight gain and remained stable over the two week period of weight maintenance; fasting plasma glucose and serum insulin remained unchanged; serum leptin nearly doubled (3.8+/-1.0 vs 6.4+/-1.9 ng/ mL; p < 0.05); insulin sensitivity, when expressed per kg of the total body (11.1+/-1.6 vs 12.4+/-2.1 mg/kg/min; p = NS), and lean body mass (13.4+/-1.9 vs 15.7+/-2.6 mg/kgLBM/min; p = NS), did not decrease after weight gain. On the contrary, insulin action had improved in 5 out of 6 individuals. In conclusion, the data presented in this preliminary report indicate that a small weight gain due to overfeeding in lean, healthy, physically active individuals is associated with rise in circulating leptin levels but not with worsening of insulin action.

Insulin resistance: site of the primary defect or how the current and the emerging therapies work

Insulin resistance is one of the cardinal pathophysiological components of the metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, and frequently co-exists with essential hypertension. Although insulin resistance is defined as inadequate target organ (muscle, liver and fat) responsiveness and/or sensitivity to insulin, the primary defect may be located in the target organs themselves or at their remote controller--the central nervous system. One of the ways of resolving this dilemma is studying the mechanisms of action of drugs that have insulin-sensitizing properties. In this brief review we discuss how the known and potential insulin sensitizers: metformin, appetite suppressants, thiazolidinediones, and the new class of centrally acting antihypertensive drugs, I1-receptor agonists, may work.

Dexamethasone, OB gene, and leptin in humans; effect of exogenous hyperinsulinemia

This study was undertaken to investigate temporal association between dexamethasone administration, OB gene expression, and leptin response in humans in the presence and absence of exogenous hyperinsulinemia. Six healthy males (age 24.5 +/- 1.0 yr, body mass index 26.4 +/- 1.0, body fat 16.2 +/- 1.8%) received 10 mg oral dexamethasone in five divided doses twice (protocols A and B) 1-2 weeks apart beginning at 0800 h on day 1 and ending at 0700 h on day 2. The dexamethasone administration was combined with two subcutaneous abdominal fat biopsies performed at 0800 h before and after dexamethasone administration (protocol A), or 4-h isoglycemic hyperinsulinemic (300 mU/m2 BSA/min, protocol B) clamp carried out between 0900 and 1300 h on day 2. OB gene expression (protocol A) did not change. In both protocols on day 2, the 0800 h leptin levels nearly doubled (P < 0.001), whereas 1300 h levels nearly quadrupled (P < 0.001). The elevation in leptin persisted until 0800 h of day 3 (24 h after last dexamethasone dose) with its subsequent rapid normalization. The short-term isoglycemic hyperinsulinemia (protocol B) had no additional effect on the postdexamethasone leptin response. We summarize that: 1) 24-h administration of dexamethasone has a marked stimulatory effect on circulating leptin levels but not on OB gene expression in the subcutaneous abdominal fat. 2) The effect is sustained for the next 24 h. 3) Short-term hyperinsulinemia has no additional effect. We conclude that dexamethasone is a powerful stimulator of leptin production in vivo through a mechanism that appears to be independent of OB gene transcription in the human subcutaneous abdominal fat.

Effects of prolonged hyperinsulinemia on serum leptin in normal human subjects

We have studied the effect of prolonged hyperinsulinemia and hyperglycemia on serum leptin levels in young nonobese males during 72-h euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic and hyperglycemic ( approximately 8.5 and 12.6 mM) clamps. Hyperinsulinemia increased serum leptin concentrations (by RIA) dose-dependently. An increase in serum insulin concentration of > 200 pM for > 24 h was needed to significantly increase serum leptin. An increase of approximately 800 pM increased serum leptin by approximately 70% over 72 h. Changes in plasma glucose concentrations (from approximately 5.0 to approximately 12.6 mM) or changes in plasma FFA concentrations (from < 100 to > 1,000 microM) had no effect on serum leptin. Serum leptin concentrations changed with circadian rhythmicity. The cycle length was approximately 24 h, and the cycle amplitude (peak to trough) was approximately 50%. The circadian leptin cycles and the circadian cycles of total body insulin sensitivity (i.e., GIR, the glucose infusion rates needed to maintain euglycemia during hyperinsulinemic clamping) changed in a mirror image fashion. Moreover, GIR decreased between Days 2 and 3 (from 11.4+/-0.2 to 9. 8+/-0.2 mg/kg min, P< 0.05) when mean 24-h leptin levels reached a peak. In summary, we found (a) that 72 h of hyperinsulinemia increased serum leptin levels dose-dependently; (b) that hyperglycemia or high plasma FFA levels did not affect leptin release; (c) that leptin was released with circadian rhythmicity, and (d) that 24-h leptin cycles correlated inversely with 24-h cycles of insulin sensitivity. We speculate that the close positive correlation between body fat and leptin is mediated, at least in part, by insulin.

Dexamethasone stimulates leptin release from human adipocytes: unexpected inhibition by insulin

In the present study we have examined the effect of dexamethasone on ob gene mRNA expression and leptin release from isolated human subcutaneous adipocytes. Dexamethasone stimulated leptin release from cultured adipocytes in a time- and dose-dependent manner. A two-fold increase in leptin release was detectable by 36 h of treatment with 10(-7) M dexamethasone. Leptin release was preceded by a significant 83 +/- 30% increase in ob mRNA after 24 h exposure to the compound. Co-incubation of cells with dexamethasone (10(-7) M) and insulin (10(-7) or 10(-9) M) completely blocked the dexamethasone-stimulated increase in ob mRNA and leptin release. These data demonstrate that insulin and glucocorticoids regulate leptin synthesis and release from human adipocytes in vitro.

Responses of leptin to short-term fasting and refeeding in humans: a link with ketogenesis but not ketones themselves

We investigated the response of leptin to short-term fasting and refeeding in humans. A mild decline in subcutaneous adipocyte ob gene mRNA and a marked fall in serum leptin were observed after 36 and 60 h of fasting. The dynamics of the leptin decline and rise were further substantiated in a 6-day study consisting of a 36-h baseline period, followed by 36-h fast, and a subsequent refeeding with normal diet. Leptin began a steady decline from the baseline values after 12 h of fasting, reaching a nadir at 36 h. The subsequent restoration of normal food intake was associated with a prompt leptin rise and a return to baseline values 24 h later. When responses of leptin to fasting and refeeding were compared with that of glucose, insulin, fatty acids, and ketones, a reverse relationship between leptin and beta-OH-butyrate was found. Consequently, we tested whether the reciprocal responses represented a causal relationship between leptin and beta-OH-butyrate. Small amounts of infused glucose equal to the estimated contribution of gluconeogenesis, which was sufficient to prevent rise in ketogenesis, also prevented a fall in leptin. The infusion of beta-OH-butyrate to produce hyperketonemia of the same magnitude as after a 36-h fast had no effect on leptin. The study indicates that one of the adaptive physiological responses to fasting is a fall in serum leptin. Although the mediator that brings about this effect remains unknown, it appears to be neither insulin nor ketones.

Response of leptin to short-term and prolonged overfeeding in humans

As one of the postulated roles of the ob gene product, leptin, is regulation of energy balance and preservation of normal body composition, we investigated the effect of acute and chronic calorie excess (weight gain) on serum leptin in humans. Two protocols were employed: 1) acute (12-h) massive (120 Cal/kg) voluntary overfeeding of eight healthy individuals; and 2) chronic overfeeding to attain 10% weight gain, with its subsequent maintenance for additional 2 weeks, involving six normal males. In the acute experiments (protocol 1), circulating leptin rose by 40% over baseline (P < 0.01) during the final hours of overfeeding; this increase persisted until the next morning. At the point of achievement and the 2-week maintenance of 10% weight gain (protocol 2), a more than 3-fold rise in the basal leptin concentration was observed (P < 0.01). A direct linear relationship was found between the magnitude of the leptin response to weight gain and the percent gain of body fat (r = 0.88; P < 0.01). In summary, 1) in contrast to normal food intake (8), short term massive overfeeding is associated with a moderate elevation of circulating leptin levels that persists until next feeding cycle is initiated; and 2) a 10% weight gain causes different changes in the body composition, and the resulting rise in circulating leptin parallels the increase in the percentage of body fat. In conclusion, these studies document acute elevation of leptin in response to positive energy balance and suggest that developing resistance to leptin is associated with bigger fat deposition during weight gain in humans.

Evidence of free and bound leptin in human circulation. Studies in lean and obese subjects and during short-term fasting

Little is known about leptin's interaction with other circulating proteins which could be important for its biological effects. Sephadex G-100 gel filtration elution profiles of 125I-leptin-serum complex demonstrated 125I-leptin eluting in significant proportion associated with macromolecules. The 125I-leptin binding to circulating macromolecules was specific, reversible, and displaceable with unlabeled leptin (ED50: 0.73 +/- 0.09 nM, mean +/- SEM, n = 3). Several putative leptin binding proteins were detected by leptin-affinity chromatography of which either 80- or 100-kD proteins could be the soluble leptin receptor as approximately 10% of the bound 125I-leptin was immunoprecipitable with leptin receptor antibodies. Significantly higher (P < 0.001) proportions of total leptin circulate in the bound form in lean (46.5 +/- 6.6%) compared with obese (21.4 +/- 3.4%) subjects. In lean subjects with 21% or less body fat, 60-98% of the total leptin was in the bound form. Short-term fasting significantly decreased basal leptin levels in three lean (P < 0.0005) and three obese (P < 0.005) subjects while refeeding restored it to basal levels. The effects of fasting on free leptin levels were more pronounced in lean subjects (basal vs. 24-h fasting: 19.6 +/- 1.9 vs. 1.3 +/- 0.4 ng/ml) compared with those in obese subjects (28.3 +/- 9.8 vs. 14.7 +/- 5.3). No significant (P > 0.05) decrease was observed in bound leptin in either group. These studies suggest that in obese individuals the majority of leptin circulates in free form, presumably bioactive protein, and thus obese subjects are resistant to free leptin. In lean subjects with relatively low adipose tissue, the majority of circulating leptin is in the bound form and thus may not be available to brain receptors for its inhibitory effects on food intake both under normal and food deprivation states.

Decreased cerebrospinal-fluid/serum leptin ratio in obesity: a possible mechanism for leptin resistance

BACKGROUND

A receptor for leptin has been cloned from the choroid plexus, the site of cerebrospinal-fluid (CSF) production and the location of the blood/cerebrospinal-fluid barrier. Thus, this receptor might serve as a transporter for leptin. We have studied leptin concentrations in serum and (CSF).

METHODS AND FINDINGS

We demonstrated by radioimmunoassay and western blot the presence of leptin in human CSF. We then measured leptin in CSF and serum in 31 individuals with a wide range of bodyweight. Mean serum leptin was 318% higher in 8 obese (40.2 [SE 8.6] ng/mL) than in 23 lean individuals (9.6 [1.5] ng/mL, p < 0.0005). However, the CSF leptin concentration in obese individuals (0.337 [0.04] ng/mL) was only 30% higher than in lean people (0.259 [0.26] ng/mL, p < 0.1). Consequently, the leptin CSF/serum ratio in lean individuals (0.047 [0.010]) was 4.3-fold higher than that in obese individuals (0.011 [0.002], p < 0.05). The relation between CSF leptin and serum leptin was best described by a logarithmic function (r = 0 x 52, p < 0.01).

INTERPRETATION

Our data suggest that leptin enters the brain by a saturable transport system. The capacity of leptin transport is lower in obese individuals, and may provide a mechanism for leptin resistance.

Acute and chronic effects of insulin on leptin production in humans: Studies in vivo and in vitro

This study was undertaken to investigate the changes in obesity (OB) gene expression and production of leptin in response to insulin in vitro and in vivo under euglycemic and hyperglycemic conditions in humans. Three protocols were used: 1) euglycemic clamp with insulin infusion rates at 40, 120, 300, and 1,200 mU / m / min carried out for up to 5 h performed in 16 normal lean individuals, 30 obese individuals, and 31 patients with NIDDM; 2) 64-to 72-h hyperglycemic (glucose 12.6 mmol/l) clamp performed on 5 lean individuals; 3) long-term (96-h) primary culture of isolated abdominal adipocytes in the presence and absence of 100 nmol/l insulin. Short-term hyperinsulinemia in the range of 80 to > 10,000 microU/ml had no effect on circulating levels of leptin. During the prolonged hyperglycemic clamp, a rise in leptin was observed during the last 24 h of the study (P < 0.001). In the presence of insulin in vitro, OB gene expression increased at 72 h (P < 0.01), followed by an increase in leptin released to the medium (P < 0.001). In summary, insulin does not stimulate leptin production acutely; however, a long-term effect of insulin on leptin production could be demonstrated both in vivo and in vitro. These data suggest that insulin regulates OB gene expression and leptin production indirectly, probably through its trophic effect on adipocytes.

Mutation screening and identification of a sequence variation in the human ob gene coding region

In the present study mRNA from the subcutaneous adipose tissue of 68 obese (defined as a body mass index > or = 27.3 for men and > or = 27.8 for women) and 38 lean subjects was screened for mutations in the ob gene coding region. No mutations in the coding region of the human ob gene were detected using Conformation Sensitive Gel Electrophoresis in 105 subjects. A first base substitution (G to A) was detected in one individual, which changed a valine to a methionine at position 94. The mRNA of all subjects contained the codon for glutamine-49, ruling out the possibility of a splice defect occurring during the removal of intron 2. These observations suggest that defects in the ob gene sequence itself are not the primary cause of obesity in humans.

Viability of fat obtained by syringe suction lipectomy: effects of local anesthesia with lidocaine

The results of transplantation of free autologous fat obtained by blunt syringe suction lipectomy are unpredictable. We examined if adipose tissue viability is compromised by using syringe suction lipectomy and by infiltration of the tissue with local anesthetics. As reference, we used adipose tissue samples excised during elective surgery. Fat obtained intraoperatively and by lipectomy was digested with collagenase to isolate adipocytes. The mechanical damage associated with sample handling and cell isolation in both procedures was similar and did not exceed 6% of the total cell mass. In addition, cells isolated from intraoperative and lipectomy samples did not differ functionally, responded similarly to insulin stimulation of glucose transport and epinephrine-stimulated lipolysis, and retained the same growth pattern in culture. Since during fat transplantation the graft is exposed to local anesthetics at both the donor and the recipient sites, we reexamined adipocyte function in the presence of lidocaine. Lidocaine potently inhibited glucose transport and lipolysis in adipocytes and their growth in culture. That effect, however, persisted only as long as lidocaine was present; after washing, the cells were able to fully regain their function and growth regardless of whether the exposure was as short as 30 minutes or as long as 10 days. These results indicate that adipose tissue obtained by syringe lipectomy consists of fully viable and functional adipocytes, but local anesthetics may halt their metabolism and growth.

A new technique for biopsy of human abdominal fat under local anaesthesia with Lidocaine

The objectives of this study were to develop a new technique to safety, reliably, and in a cosmetically acceptable way, obtain more than 5.0 g of abdominal subcutaneous fat in out-patients, and to investigate whether inhibitory effects of a local anaesthetic on adipose tissue function in vitro are sufficient argument against the use of infiltrative local anaesthesia during fat biopsy to obtain samples for metabolic studies. Measurements were obtained to compare glucose transport and lipolysis response to insulin in adipocytes isolated from subcutaneous abdominal fat obtained: (i) during elective surgery in eight women and four men (BMI 25.8 +/- 3.1 kg/m2); and (ii) from five male and three female out-patients (BMI 25.8 +/- 3.1 kg/m2) by the described novel technique performed under local anaesthesia with Lidocaine. The effects of acute and 11-day exposure to Lidocaine in vitro on adipocyte lipolysis and glucose transport response to insulin, and the growth potential were determined. In vivo exposure of the tissue samples to local anaesthetic by the novel technique had no apparent effect on isolated adipocyte responses to insulin by stimulation of glucose transport or by inhibitor- or adrenaline-stimulated lipolysis; the results were not different to those for adipocytes isolated from fat obtained during elective abdominal surgeries. Lidocaine added in vitro potently inhibited glucose transport and lipolysis in adipocytes, and cell attachment and growth in primary 'ceiling' culture; this effect persisted only as long as Lidocaine was present. After washing, adipocytes fully regained their function and growth regardless of the exposure period, as short as 30 min or as long as 11 days.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Insulin-like growth factor-1 therapy in diabetes: physiologic basis, clinical benefits, and risks

PURPOSE

To review the effects of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and to discuss the clinical benefits and risks of using it in patients with diabetes.

DATA SOURCES

Recent publications identified through a MEDLINE search using relevant keywords.

STUDY SELECTION

Selected studies on the metabolic effects and kinetic mechanisms of in vitro IGF-1 and existing literature on the effects of IGF-1 on glucose and lipid metabolism in vivo with special emphasis on data from humans.

DATA SYNTHESIS

The substantial stimulatory effect of IGF-1 on glucose uptake suggests that, in selected clinical situations, the drug may be an alternative to standard treatment of diabetes. Metabolic control in patients with extreme insulin resistance is improved after using IGF-1. Moreover, patients with type II (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes who receive IGF-1 have improved glucose tolerance and decreased hyperinsulinemia and hypertriglyceridemia. The complications associated with long-term administration of IGF-1 are unknown but might include the progression of certain neoplasms and diabetic complications, such as nephropathy and retinopathy.

CONCLUSIONS

Insulin-like growth factor-1 may be a useful adjunct for treatment of diabetes and may even be the drug of choice in some patients with extreme insulin resistance who have metabolic emergencies. However, further data are needed to evaluate the risks and benefits of IGF-1 use in diabetes and in other states associated with impaired insulin action.

Effects of oleate and fatty acids from omental adipocytes on insulin uptake in rat liver cells

Hyperinsulinemia in central type (upper body) obesity has been related to reduced hepatic insulin uptake caused by fatty acids reaching the portal vein directly from the omental (visceral) fat depot. We investigated the effect of sodium oleate and fatty acid-rich buffer recovered from incubation of omental adipocytes with 10(-7) M epinephrine on specific [125I]insulin uptake (at 37 C) in freshly prepared and cultured hepatocytes and nonparenchymal liver cells isolated from 200-250 g rats. In hepatocytes, insulin uptake was studied after standard cell isolation and washing and after additional repeated 30-min washings at 37 C. In the vigorously washed hepatocytes, both fatty acid rich buffer (from 0.08-1.3 mM) and sodium oleate (from 0.0125-1.2 mM) decreased insulin uptake maximally by approximately 30% and approximately 40%, respectively (P < 0.005); a biphasic effect of fatty acids was observed, with maximal inhibition occurring at 0.08-0.1 mM. Without vigorous washing, oleate had no effect on insulin uptake in either freshly prepared or cultured hepatocytes and nonparenchymal cells. The reason for the observed inhibitory effect of fatty acids on insulin uptake in vigorously washed cells remains unknown, but the effect is unlikely to be physiologically important. Thus, our data do not support the hypothesis that the increased concentration of fatty acids in the portal vein is responsible for reduced hepatic insulin uptake and hyperinsulinemia in upper body obesity.

Insulin binding and degradation by rat liver Kupffer and endothelial cells

The liver is the major site of insulin metabolism. Previous studies have suggested that hepatocytes were chiefly responsible for this activity, while contributions of Kupffer and other nonparenchymal liver cells remained controversial. In this study, we compared 125I-insulin binding and degradation by rat hepatocytes with insulin binding and degradation by sinusoidal Kupffer and endothelial cells. Kupffer cells were separated from endothelial cells by centrifugal elutriation. Hepatocytes had approximately 3.5 times more insulin binding sites than Kupffer cells and approximately eight times more binding sites than endothelial cells. In addition, wheat germ agglutinin (WGA)-purified solubilized receptors from all three cell types bound insulin in proportions similar to whole cells. Moreover, all three cell types were shown with a ribonuclease (RNase) protection assay to express insulin receptor mRNA. Hepatocytes degraded approximately four times more insulin than Kupffer cells, while endothelial cells degraded only negligible amounts of insulin. Based on morphometric data available in the literature, we estimated that nonparenchymal cells could account for approximately 10% to 15% of hepatic insulin degradation. We concluded that rat hepatocytes, Kupffer cells, and endothelial cells all have specific insulin receptors, and that nonparenchymal cells play a small but significant role in insulin degradation.

Effects of interferon alpha on insulin binding and glucose transport in human adipocytes

We have previously demonstrated that interferon administration impairs glucose tolerance and causes insulin resistance in healthy man. Whether this is a direct effect of interferon is not known. The present study was undertaken to examine directly the effect of interferon alpha on insulin binding and action on glucose transport in isolated human adipocytes. Different concentrations of interferon alpha (range 10(-3)-10(5) IU ml-1) and different incubation times (0-5-24 h) with interferon were employed. Acute and 5-h and 24-h exposure of human adipocytes to 10(-2)-10 IU ml-1 of interferon increased the high affinity binding of 125I-insulin (P less than 0.05). In contrast, human interferon alpha had no effect on insulin binding in rat adipocytes. In short-term studies interferon had no effect on 14C-glucose transport clearance. 24-h preincubation of human adipocytes with 10(-2), 10, 10(4) IU ml-1 interferon increased maximally-insulin stimulated 14C-glucose transport clearance (P less than 0.05) and glucose transport responsiveness to insulin was enhanced by 24% (P less than 0.05) in cells exposed to 10(-2) IU ml-1 interferon. After 5 and 24-h preincubations with interferon we observed modest changes in glucose transport sensitivity to moderate concentrations of insulin (50-100 pM) with upregulation in the presence of 10(-2)-10 IU ml-1 interferon and downregulation in the presence of 10(4)-10(5) IUm ml-1 interferon (P less than 0.05). The insulin sensitivity index (ED50) did not change.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

The acute effect of ethanol on counterregulatory response and recovery from insulin-induced hypoglycemia

We examined the acute effect of moderate ethanol administration (oral and iv) on the counterregulatory response and recovery from insulin-induced hypoglycemia after an overnight fast in eight normal men, aged 26 +/- 6 yr. While ethanol increased fasting plasma glucose and serum insulin concentrations, after insulin administration plasma glucose concentrations fell to similar nadirs in the ethanol [2.5 +/- 0.2 (+/- SE) mmol/L] and control studies (2.3 +/- 0.1 mmol/L). The hypoglycemia-induced serum GH, cortisol, and glucagon responses were all reduced (P less than 0.05-0.005) during the ethanol study, while the rises in plasma epinephrine and norepinephrine concentrations were similar in both studies. After discontinuation of the insulin infusions, the initial recovery from hypoglycemia occurred sooner in the presence than in the absence of ethanol. These data indicate that ethanol facilitates the recovery from insulin-induced hypoglycemia in the face of reduced counterregulatory hormones responses. Thus, other mechanisms, such as ethanol-induced insulin resistance, may be important in facilitating the recovery from insulin-induced hypoglycemia during ethanol administration.