A Genomic Snapshot of Antibiotic-ResistantEnterococcus faecalis within Public Hospital Environments in South Africa

Enterococci are among the most common opportunistic hospital pathogens. This study used whole-genome sequencing (WGS) and bioinformatics to determine the antibiotic resistome, mobile genetic elements, clone and phylogenetic relationship of Enterococcus faecalis isolated from hospital environments in South Africa. This study was carried out from September to November 2017. Isolates were recovered from 11 frequently touched sites by patients and healthcare workers in different wards at 4 levels of healthcare (A, B, C, and D) in Durban, South Africa. Out of the 245 identified E. faecalis isolates, 38 isolates underwent whole-genome sequencing (WGS) on the Illumina MiSeq platform, following microbial identification and antibiotic susceptibility tests. The tet(M) (31/38, 82%) and erm(C) (16/38, 42%) genes were the most common antibiotic-resistant genes found in isolates originating from different hospital environments which corroborated with their antibiotic resistance phenotypes. The isolates harboured mobile genetic elements consisting of plasmids (n = 11) and prophages (n = 14) that were mostly clone-specific. Of note, a large number of insertion sequence (IS) families were found on the IS3 (55%), IS5 (42%), IS1595 (40%), and Tn3 transposons the most predominant. Microbial typing using WGS data revealed 15 clones with 6 major sequence types (ST) belonging to ST16 (n = 7), ST40 (n = 6), ST21 (n = 5), ST126 (n = 3), ST23 (n = 3), and ST386 (n = 3). Phylogenomic analysis showed that the major clones were mostly conserved within specific hospital environments. However, further metadata insights revealed the complex intraclonal spread of these E. faecalis major clones between the sampling sites within each specific hospital setting. The results of these genomic analyses will offer insights into antibiotic-resistantE. faecalis in hospital environments relevant to the design of optimal infection prevention strategies in hospital settings.

Neutralizing Carbapenem Resistance by Co-Administering Meropenem with Novel β-Lactam-Metallo-β-Lactamase Inhibitors

Virulent Enterobacterale strains expressing serine and metallo-β-lactamases (MBL) genes have emerged responsible for conferring resistance to hard-to-treat infectious diseases. One strategy that exists is to develop β-lactamase inhibitors to counter this resistance. Currently, serine β-lactamase inhibitors (SBLIs) are in therapeutic use. However, an urgent global need for clinical metallo-β-lactamase inhibitors (MBLIs) has become dire. To address this problem, this study evaluated BP2, a novel beta-lactam-derived β-lactamase inhibitor, co-administered with meropenem. According to the antimicrobial susceptibility results, BP2 potentiates the synergistic activity of meropenem to a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of ≤1 mg/L. In addition, BP2 is bactericidal over 24 h and safe to administer at the selected concentrations. Enzyme inhibition kinetics showed that BP2 had an apparent inhibitory constant (K_iapp) of 35.3 µM and 30.9 µM against New Delhi Metallo-β-lactamase (NDM-1) and Verona Integron-encoded Metallo-β-lactamase (VIM-2), respectively. BP2 did not interact with glyoxylase II enzyme up to 500 µM, indicating specific (MBL) binding. In a murine infection model, BP2 co-administered with meropenem was efficacious, observed by the >3 log₁₀ reduction in K. pneumoniae NDM cfu/thigh. Given the promising pre-clinical results, BP2 is a suitable candidate for further research and development as an (MBLI).

In Vitro and In Vivo Development of a β-Lactam-Metallo-β-Lactamase Inhibitor: Targeting Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacterales

β-lactams are the most prescribed class of antibiotics due to their potent, broad-spectrum antimicrobial activities. However, alarming rates of antimicrobial resistance now threaten the clinical relevance of these drugs, especially for the carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales expressing metallo-β-lactamases (MBLs). Antimicrobial agents that specifically target these enzymes to restore the efficacy of last resort β-lactam drugs, that is, carbapenems, are therefore desperately needed. Herein, we present a cyclic zinc chelator covalently attached to a β-lactam scaffold (cephalosporin), that is, BP1. Observations from in vitro assays (with seven MBL expressing bacteria from different geographies) have indicated that BP1 restored the efficacy of meropenem to ≤ 0.5 mg/L, with sterilizing activity occurring from 8 h postinoculation. Furthermore, BP1 was nontoxic against human hepatocarcinoma cells (IC₅₀ > 1000 mg/L) and exhibited a potency of (K_iapp) 24.8 and 97.4 μM against Verona integron-encoded MBL (VIM-2) and New Delhi metallo β-lactamase (NDM-1), respectively. There was no inhibition observed from BP1 with the human zinc-containing enzyme glyoxylase II up to 500 μM. Preliminary molecular docking of BP1 with NDM-1 and VIM-2 sheds light on BP1's mode of action. In Klebsiella pneumoniae NDM infected mice, BP1 coadministered with meropenem was efficacious in reducing the bacterial load by >3 log₁₀ units' postinfection. The findings herein propose a favorable therapeutic combination strategy that restores the activity of the carbapenem antibiotic class and complements the few MBL inhibitors under development, with the ultimate goal of curbing antimicrobial resistance.

Phenotypic and Genomic Insights into Biofilm Formation in Antibiotic-Resistant Clinical Coagulase-Negative Staphylococcus Species from South Africa

The work aims to investigate biofilm formation and biofilm/adhesion-encoding genes in coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) species recovered from blood culture isolates. Eighty-nine clinical CoNS were confirmed using the VITEK 2 system, and antibiotic susceptibility testing of isolates was conducted using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method against a panel of 20 antibiotics. Isolates were qualitatively screened using the Congo red agar medium. Quantitative assays were performed on microtiter plates, where the absorbances of the solubilised biofilms were recorded as optical densities and quantified. In all, 12.4% of the isolates were strong biofilm formers, 68.5% had moderate biofilm capacity, and 17.9% showed weak capacity. A subset of 18 isolates, mainly methicillin-resistant S. epidermidis, were investigated for adherence-related genes using whole-genome sequencing and bioinformatics analysis. The highest antibiotic resistance rates for strongly adherent isolates were observed against penicillin (100%) and cefoxitin (81.8%), but the isolates showed no resistance to linezolid (0.0%) and tigecycline (0.0%). The icaABC genes involved in biofilm formation were detected in 50% of the screened isolates. Other adherence-related genes, including autolysin gene atl (88.8%), elastin binding protein gene ebp (94.4%), cell wall-associated fibronectin-binding protein gene ebh (66.7%), clumping factor A gene clfA (5.5%), and pili gene ebpC (22.2%) were also found. The insertion sequence IS256, involved in biofilm formation, was found in 10/18 (55.5%) screened isolates. We demonstrate a high prevalence of biofilm-forming coagulase-negative staphylococci associated with various resistance phenotypes and a substantial agreement between the possession of biofilm-associated genes and the biofilm phenotype.

A Public Health Insight into Salmonella in Poultry in Africa: A Review of the Past Decade: 2010-2020

Poultry is a cheap source of animal protein and constituent of diets in Africa. Poultry can serve as a reservoir for Salmonella and cause food-borne infections in humans. This review describes Salmonella contamination of food, poultry, and the farming environment, antimicrobial resistance profiles, and serotypes of Salmonella, as well as the farming systems, antimicrobial use (AMU), hygiene, and husbandry conditions used to rear poultry in Africa. Using the PRISMA (preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis) guidelines, PubMed, Science Direct, and Web of Science databases were searched using a set of predefined keywords. Full-length research articles in English were examined for the period 2010-2020 and relevant information extracted for the narrative synthesis. Of the articles that met the inclusion criteria, 63.1% were conducted on farms and among households, while 36.9% were undertaken at government-controlled laboratories, which quarantine imported birds, processing plants, and retail outlets. The farming systems were intensive, semi-intensive, and extensive. AMU was described in 11.5% of the studies and varied within and across countries. Multidrug-resistant (MDR) Salmonella isolates were detected in 30 studies and the prevalence ranged from 12.1% in Zimbabwe to 100% in Egypt, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Senegal, and South Africa. A total of 226 different Salmonella serotypes were reported. Twenty-four (19.7%) of the studies reported food-borne Salmonella contamination in eggs, poultry, and poultry products at retail outlets and processing plants. The apparent extensive use of antimicrobials and circulation of MDR Salmonella isolates of various serotypes in Africa is a concern. It is important to implement stricter biosecurity measures on farms, regulate the use of antimicrobials and implement surveillance systems, in addition to food safety measures to monitor the quality of poultry and poultry products for human consumption.

Food animals as reservoirs and potential sources of multidrug-resistant diarrheagenic E. coli pathotypes: Focus on intensive pig farming in South Africa

Background

Diarrheagenic E. coli (DEC) strains are a major cause of diarrheal diseases in both developed and developing countries. Healthy asymptomatic animals may be reservoirs of zoonotic DEC, which may enter the food chain via the weak points in hygiene practices.

Aim

We investigated the prevalence of DEC along the pig production continuum from farm-to-fork.

Methods

A total of 417 samples were collected from specific points along the pig production system, that is, farm, transport, abattoir and food. E. coli was isolated and enumerated using Colilert. Ten isolates from each Quanti-tray were selected randomly and phenotypically identified using eosin methylene blue agar selective media. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to confirm the species and to classify them into the various diarrheagenic pathotypes. Antimicrobial susceptibility was determined against a panel of 20 antibiotics using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method and EUCAST guideline.

Results

The final sample size consisted of 1044 isolates, of which 45.40% (474/1044) were DEC and 73% (762/1044) were multidrug-resistant. Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC) was the most predominant DEC at all the sampling sites.

Conclusion

The presence of DEC in food animal production environments and food of animal origin could serve as reservoirs for transmitting these bacteria to humans, especially in occupationally exposed workers and via food. Adherence to good hygienic practices along the pig production continuum is essential for mitigating the risk of transmission and infection, and ensuring food safety.

Occurrence, Antibiotic Resistance, Virulence Factors, and Genetic Diversity of Bacillus spp. from Public Hospital Environments in South Africa

This study aimed to assess the molecular dissemination of Bacillus species in public hospitals in South Africa. The study conducted over 3 months during 2017 involved representative samples obtained from three wards (general ward, intensive care unit, and pediatric unit) from four public hospitals denoted as A (Central), B (Tertiary), C (Regional), and D (District). Swabs collected from 11 distinct hospital surfaces were screened using selective media, biochemical testing, and molecular methods. Overall, 17% (135/777) isolates were identified with a prevalence of 24% (32/135) for central, 33% (45/135) for tertiary, 27% (36/135) for regional, and 16% (22/135) for district hospital. Bacillus species were further confirmed to belong to Bacillus cereus (129/135; 96%) and Bacillus subtilis (6/135; 4%). Prevalence was similar across the wards, averaging 33.3% (45/135). The highest prevalence of Bacillus isolates was found on the drip stands (11.8%), sink (11.8%), ward phone (11.5%), and nurses' tables (10.3%). Minimum inhibitory concentration analyses revealed high resistance to β-lactams, fluoroquinolones, and tetracyclines. The most common resistance genes detected were ermB (56%) and tetM (5%). Enterotoxin virulence genes hblA (77%) and hblD (88%) associated with the diarrheal syndrome were most detected; however, no ces genes (cereulide toxin) for emetic syndrome was found. The enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus PCR revealed considerable diversity at the different levels of health care, although the clonal spread of strains between the sites/wards within each specific hospital was revealed. The study highlighted the dissemination of drug-resistant Bacillus spp. in public hospital environments and calls for the design of optimal strategies to curb their spread.

Genomic Analysis of Antibiotic-Resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis Isolates From Clinical Sources in the Kwazulu-Natal Province, South Africa

Staphylococcus epidermidis has become an important nosocomial pathogen. Multidrug resistance makes S. epidermidis infections difficult to treat. The study aims to describe the genomic characteristics of methicillin-resistant S. epidermidis (MRSE) isolated from clinical sources, to comprehend the genetic basis of antibiotic resistance, virulence, and potential pathogenicity. Sixteen MRSE underwent whole-genome sequencing, and bioinformatics analyses were carried out to ascertain their resistome, virulome, mobilome, clonality, and phylogenomic relationships. In all, 75% of isolates displayed multidrug resistance and were associated with the carriage of multiple resistance genes including mecA, blaZ, tet(K), erm(A), erm(B), erm(C), dfrG, aac(6')-aph(2''), and cat(pC221) conferring resistance to β-lactams, tetracyclines, macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin B, aminoglycosides, and phenicols, which were located on both plasmids and chromosomes. Their virulence profiles were evidenced by the presence of genes involved in adherence/biofilm formation (icaA, icaB, icaC, atl, ebh, and ebp), immune evasion (adsA, capC, and manA), and antiphagocytosis (rmlC, cdsA, and A). The community-acquired SCCmec type IV was the most common SCCmec type. The CoNS belonged to seven multilocus sequence types (MLSTs) and carried a diversity of mobile genetic elements such as phages, insertion sequences, and plasmids. The bacterial anti-phage defense systems clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated (CRISPR-Cas) immunity phage system and restriction-modification system (R-M system) and the arginine catabolic mobile element (ACME) involved in immune evasion and transport of virulence genes were also found. The insertion sequence, IS256, linked with virulence, was found in 56.3% of isolates. Generally, the isolates clustered according to STs, with some similarity but also considerable variability within isolates. Whole-genome sequencing and bioinformatics analysis provide insights into the likely pathogenicity and antibiotic resistance of S. epidermidis, necessitating surveillance of this emerging pathogen.

Enterococcal contamination of hospital environments in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

AIMS

Enterococci are implicated in hospital-acquired infections and show high tenacity on inanimate objects in the hospital environment. This study investigated the prevalence of Enterococcus spp. in selected wards in public hospitals at four levels of healthcare from a district in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Swabs were collected from frequently touched areas in the paediatric wards and intensive care units (ICUs). Presumptive Enterococcus spp. were isolated and confirmed to genus and species levels, followed by Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion against 14 antibiotics. The results showed that enterococci were recovered from all 11 surfaces tested with the highest contamination rate observed on occupied beds and mops used to clean floors. A total number of 295 Enterococcus was identified. Polymerase chain reaction identified Enterococcus faecalis 83.1% (245/295) and Enterococcus faecium 12.9% (38/295), while whole genome sequencing identified Enterococcus gallinarum 2.0% (6/295) and Enterococcus casseliflavus 2.0% (6/295). Significant prevalence was observed in paediatric wards 64.1% (189/295) compared with the ICUs 35.9% (106/295), p < 0.05, in central, regional and district hospitals. Collectively, 82.0% (242/295) of enterococcal isolates were multidrug resistant, and 80 different antibiograms were observed. The most prominent antibiogram for E. faecium was CIP-RIF-NIT-TET-ERY and for E. faecalis CIP-TET-ERY.

CONCLUSION

E. faecalis was the most frequent enterococcal species isolated in all the hospitals investigated and correlates with studies conducted elsewhere. A substantially greater number of isolates were recovered from the paediatric wards compared with ICUs, and thus improved standards should be developed for infection control practices. It is suggested that the elevated use of antibiotics contributed to the increased nonsusceptible isolates observed from ICUs. This study highlighted the high recovery rate of enterococci in the hospital environment even in a nonoutbreak setting.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Enterocci had a high prevalence rate on the surfaces within the hospitals studied. This study gives an insight into the possible roles all healthcare staff may play in infection control intervention, including proper handling of hospital cleaning equipment and lack of knowledge about the potential for bacteria dissemination.

Molecular Surveillance and Dissemination of Klebsiella pneumoniae on Frequently Encountered Surfaces in South African Public Hospitals

Bacteria that cause life-threatening illnesses in humans are also capable of contaminating hospital surfaces, thus pose as a potential source of infection. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence, genetic diversity, virulence, and antibiotic resistance profile of Klebsiella pneumoniae in South Africa. In a nonoutbreak setting involving four public hospitals, 777 samples were collected in three different wards from 11 different sites. Phenotypic and genotypic methods were used for isolation and identification. The Kirby-Bauer disk-diffusion method was used to examine antibiotic resistance followed by the combination disk method to characterize extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs). Antibiotic resistance and virulence genes were screened using PCR and clonality was investigated using enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (ERIC)-PCR. Seventy-five (10%) K. pneumoniae isolates were recovered. These isolates were obtained from all four hospitals and all three wards involved. However, only six frequently touched surfaces were contaminated. Thirty (40%) isolates were characterized as ESBLs showing high resistance to antibiotics and mostly harboring the bla_CTX-M group one gene. Virulence genes were highly prevalent among all the isolates. ERIC-PCR showed that the isolates recovered from different sites within the same hospital were genetically similar. The study highlighted that K. pneumoniae can contaminate various surfaces and this persistence allows for the dissemination of bacteria within the hospital environment. The information from this study can assist hospitals to evaluate and improve current infection prevention and control interventions in place.

Super-Cationic Peptide Dendrimers-Synthesis and Evaluation as Antimicrobial Agents

Microbial infections are a major public health concern. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have been demonstrated to be a plausible alternative to the current arsenal of drugs that has become inefficient due to multidrug resistance. Herein we describe a new AMP family, namely the super-cationic peptide dendrimers (SCPDs). Although all members of the series exert some antibacterial activity, we propose that special attention should be given to (KLK)2KLLKLL-NH2 (G1KLK-L2KL2), which shows selectivity for Gram-negative bacteria and virtually no cytotoxicity in HepG2 and HEK293. These results reinforce the validity of the SCPD family as a valuable class of AMP and support G1KLK-L2KL2 as a strong lead candidate for the future development of an antibacterial agent against Gram-negative bacteria.

Occurrence, Antimicrobial Resistance, and Molecular Characterization of Campylobacter spp. in Intensive Pig Production in South Africa

Campylobacter spp. are among the leading foodborne pathogens, causing campylobacteriosis, a zoonotic infection that results in bacterial gastroenteritis and diarrheal disease in animals and humans. This study investigated the molecular epidemiology of antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter spp. isolated across the farm-to-fork-continuum in an intensive pig production system in South Africa. Following ethical approval, samples were collected over sixteen weeks from selected critical points (farm, transport, abattoir, and retail) using a farm-to-fork sampling approach according to WHO-AGISAR guidelines. Overall, 520 samples were investigated for the presence of Campylobacter spp., which were putatively identified using selective media with identity and speciation confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of specific genes. Resistance profiles were ascertained by the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method. Antibiotic resistance and virulence genes were identified using PCR and DNA sequencing. Clonal relatedness was determined using ERIC-PCR. Altogether, 378/520 (72.7%) samples were positive for Campylobacter spp., with Campylobacter coli being the predominant species (73.3%), followed by Campylobacter jejuni (17.7%); 8.9% of the isolates were classified as "other spp". Relatively high resistance was observed in C. coli and C. jejuni to erythromycin (89% and 99%), streptomycin (87% and 93%), tetracycline (82% and 96%), ampicillin (69% and 85%), and ciprofloxacin (53% and 67%), respectively. Multidrug resistance (MDR) was noted in 330 of the 378 (87.3%) isolates. The antibiotic resistance genes observed were tetO (74.6%), bla_OXA-61 (2.9%), and cmeB (11.1%), accounting for the resistance to tetracycline and ampicillin. The membrane efflux pump (cmeB), conferring resistance to multiple antibiotics, was also detected in most resistant isolates. Chromosomal mutations in gyrA (Thr-86-Ile) and 23S rRNA (A2075G and A2074C) genes, conferring quinolone and erythromycin resistance, respectively, were also found. Of the virulence genes tested, ciaB, dnaJ, pldA, cdtA, cdtB, cdtC, and cadF were detected in 48.6%, 61.1%, 17.4%, 67.4%, 19.3%, 51%, and 5% of all Campylobacter isolates, respectively. Clonal analysis revealed that isolates along the continuum were highly diverse, with isolates from the same sampling points belonging to the same major ERIC-types. The study showed relatively high resistance to antibiotics commonly used in intensive pig production in South Africa with some evidence, albeit minimal, of transmission across the farm-to-fork continuum. This, together with the virulence profiles present in Campylobacter spp., presents a challenge to food safety and a potential risk to human health, necessitating routine surveillance, antibiotic stewardship, and comprehensive biosecurity in intensive pig production.

Staphylococcus aureus in Intensive Pig Production in South Africa: Antibiotic Resistance, Virulence Determinants, and Clonality

Although Staphylococcus aureus is a major threat to the veterinary, agricultural, and public health sectors because of its zoonotic potential, studies on its molecular characterisation in intensive animal production are rare. We phenotypically and genotypically characterised antibiotic-resistant S. aureus in intensive pig production in South Africa, using the farm-to-fork approach. Samples (n = 461) were collected from the farm, transport vehicles, and the abattoir using the World Health Organisation on Integrated Surveillance of Antimicrobial Resistance (WHO-AGISAR) sampling protocol. Bacteria were isolated using selective media and identified using biochemical tests and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Phenotypic resistance was determined using the disk diffusion method. Selected resistance and virulence genes were investigated using PCR. Clonality among the isolates was determined using the repetitive element sequence-PCR. In all, 333 presumptive staphylococcal isolates were obtained, with 141/333 (42.3%) identified as staphylococci biochemically. Ninety-seven (97; 68.8%) were confirmed as S. aureus using PCR, 52.6% of which were identified as methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) through the mecA gene. All the 97 S. aureus isolates (100%) were resistant to at least one of the antibiotics tested, with the highest resistance observed against erythromycin and clindamycin (84.50% each), and the lowest observed against amikacin (2.10%); 82.47% (80/97) were multidrug-resistant with an average multiple antibiotic resistance index of 0.50. Most of the phenotypically resistant isolates carried at least one of the corresponding resistance genes tested, ermC being the most detected. hla was the most detected virulence gene (38.14%) and etb was the least (1.03%). Genetic fingerprinting revealed diverse MRSA isolates along the farm-to-fork continuum, the major REP types consisting of isolates from different sources suggesting a potential transmission along the continuum. Resistance to antibiotics used as growth promoters was evidenced by the high prevalence of MDR isolates with elevated multiple antibiotic resistance indices >0.2, specifically at the farm, indicating exposure to high antibiotic use environments, necessitating antibiotic stewardship and proper infection control measures in pig husbandry and intensive pig production.

Multidrug-Resistant Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci Isolated from Bloodstream in the uMgungundlovu District of KwaZulu-Natal Province in South Africa: Emerging Pathogens

Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) are increasingly associated with nosocomial infections, especially among the immunocompromised and those with invasive medical devices, posing a significant concern. We report on clinical multidrug-resistant CoNS from the uMgungundlovu District, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa, as emerging pathogens. One hundred and thirty presumptive CoNS were obtained from blood cultures. Culture, biochemical tests, and the Staphaurex™ Latex Agglutination Test were used for the initial identification of CoNS isolates; confirmation and speciation were undertaken by the VITEK 2 system. Susceptibilities of isolates against a panel of 20 antibiotics were determined using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method, and the multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) indices of the isolates were determined. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to amplify the mecA gene to confirm methicillin resistance. Overall, 89/130 presumptive CoNS isolates were confirmed as CoNS by the VITEK 2 system. Of these, 68 (76.4%) isolates were putatively methicillin-resistant by the phenotypic cefoxitin screen test and 63 (92.6%) were mecA positive. Staphylococcus epidermidis (19.1%), S. hominis ssp. hominis (15.7%), and S. haemolyticus (16.9%) were the most common CoNS species. Isolates showed high percentage resistance against penicillin (100.0%), erythromycin (74.2%), and azithromycin (74.2%) while displaying high susceptibilities to linezolid (95.5%), gentamicin (95.5%), and tigecycline (94.4%). Multidrug resistance (MDR) was observed in 76.4% of isolates. MAR index calculation revealed 71.9% of isolates with MAR index >0.2 and 20.2% >0.5. Isolates with the highest MAR indices (0.7 and 0.8) were recovered from the neonatal intensive care unit. Fifty-one MDR antibiograms were observed. The high prevalence of methicillin resistance and multidrug resistance in several species of CoNS necessitates surveillance of this emerging pathogen, currently considered a contaminant of microbial cultures.

Surveillance of Salmonella spp. in the environment of public hospitals in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

AIM

To investigate the dissemination of Salmonella spp. within four levels of government hospitals in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.

METHODS

The identification of Salmonella spp. was performed by amplification of the invA gene. Isolates were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing and molecular characterization of eight resistance genes (qnrA, qnrB, qnrS, tetA, tetB, tetC, tetG, ermB) and three virulence genes (sitC, spvA, spv). Genetic relatedness between isolates was determined using enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (ERIC) polymerase chain reaction.

FINDINGS

Ninety-four isolates were obtained. The largest source of isolates was the regional hospital. Paediatric wards had the highest prevalence of isolates. Nurses' tables contained the most isolates out of all sites sampled. Twenty-two clusters indicating diverse isolates were obtained via molecular typing. Four main ERIC types were identified, each unique to a specific hospital. A possibility of dissemination across the wards was noted as highly related isolates were present at various sites within the wards. Many of these sites were highly trafficked areas by healthcare staff. Ten multi-drug-resistant isolates were found.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that infection prevention and control strategies that involve environmental cleaning and decontamination may not be enough, or adhered to sufficiently, to prevent the dissemination of Salmonella spp.

Review of Clinically and Epidemiologically Relevant Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci in Africa

Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) have engendered substantial interest in recent years as pathogenic causes of infections in both human and veterinary medicine, especially in the immunocompromised, critically ill, long-term hospitalized and in those harboring invasive medical devices such as catheters. They have been implicated in infections such as urinary tract infections, bloodstream infections, and invasive device-related infections, and are responsible for substantial economic losses in livestock production. The advancement of diagnostic techniques has increased our understanding of their molecular mechanisms of pathogenicity, even though distinguishing between innocuousness and pathogenicity is still challenging. The incidence of CoNS varied across the continent in humans and animals (mainly cattle), ranging from 6% to 68% in suspected human infections and from 3% to 61.7% in suspected animal infections, distributed across different geographic locations. Furthermore, there were varying antibiotic resistance patterns observed in CoNS isolates, with high methicillin resistance in some cases, leading to crossresistance against many antibiotics. Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus haemolyticus, and Staphylococcus xylosus were most commonly reported in studies herein reviewed, while the enterotoxin C gene, atl E gene, ica gene, and hemolysin virulence factors were linked with enhanced pathogenicity. Advancement in identification and typing methods, including whole genome sequencing, virulence screening, and the assessment of the immune status of subjects in studies will help to thoroughly assess the true pathogenic potential of isolated CoNS species in developing countries. Careful antibiotic stewardship guidelines should be followed due to the ability of CoNS to develop multidrug resistance.

Molecular epidemiology of antibiotic-resistant Enterococcus spp. from the farm-to-fork continuum in intensive poultry production in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

The poultry industry is among the main protein suppliers worldwide. Thus, this study determined the antibiotic resistance and virulence profiles of Enterococcus spp. along the farm-to-fork production chain of an intensive poultry system in the uMgungundlovu District, Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa. Overall, 162 samples along the continuum (growth phase, transport and post-slaughter) were evaluated for the presence of Enterococcus spp. using selective media, biochemical tests and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Resistance profiles were assessed by Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method following the WHO-AGISAR recommended antibiotics panel for Enterococcus spp. Antibiotic resistance and virulence genes were detected using real-time PCR. Clonal relatedness was evaluated by REP-PCR. Overall, 131 isolates were recovered across the continuum, (34% E. faecalis, 32% E. faecium, 2% E. gallinarum and 32% other Enterococcus spp.). Resistance to tetracycline (79%), erythromycin (70%), nitrofurantoin (18%), ampicillin (15%), streptomycin (15%), chloramphenicol (10%), ciprofloxacin (4%), tigecycline (4%), gentamicin (4%), teicoplanin (3%) was observed among all Enterococcus spp.; no vancomycin resistance (0%) was recorded. Also, 24% of E. faecium were resistant to quinupristin-dalfopristin. Twenty-four multidrug resistance (MDR) antibiograms were observed across all species; E. faecium (43%) showed the highest frequency of MDR. The most frequently observed antibiotic resistomes were tetM (76%) and ermB (66%) while smaller percentages were noted for aph(3')-IIIa (12%) and vanC1 (1%). Virulence genes efaAFs (100%), cpd (96%) and gelE (80%) were more prevalent in E. faecalis. Clonality revealed that isolates along the continuum were highly diverse with major REP-types consisting of isolates from the same sampling point. This study highlights the diversity of MDR Enterococcus in the food chain with isolates harbouring resistance and virulence genes. These could be reservoirs for the potential transfer of pathogenic enterococci carrying these genes from poultry to humans through the food chain continuum, thus, underscoring the need for routine antibiotic resistance surveillance in food animals.

Antibiotic Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus from Poultry and Poultry Products in uMgungundlovu District, South Africa, Using the "Farm to Fork" Approach

Background: This study determined the prevalence and antibiotic susceptibility profiles of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from selected critical control points (farm, transport, abattoir, and retail product) in an intensive poultry production system in the uMgungundlovu District, South Africa, using the "farm to fork" approach. Materials and Methods: Three hundred eighty-four samples from poultry and poultry products were examined across the "farm to fork" continuum for S. aureus using selective media, biochemical tests, and API Staph kit and confirmed by polymerase chain reaction identification of the nuc gene. Antibiotic susceptibility testing of the isolates was determined by the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method to 19 antimicrobials and to vancomycin by the broth microdilution technique. Results: The overall prevalence rate of S. aureus was 31.25% (n = 120/384), distributed across the continuum: farm site (40), transport (15), abattoir (30), and retail point (35). The isolates were resistant to tetracycline (61.67%), penicillin G (55.83%), erythromycin (54.17%), clindamycin (43.33%), doxycycline (36.67%), ampicillin (34.17%), moxifloxacin (30.83%), amikacin (30.83%), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (30.00%), and levofloxacin (23.33%). A 100% susceptibility to tigecycline, teicoplanin, vancomycin, nitrofurantoin, chloramphenicol, and linezolid was observed in all isolates. The rate of multidrug resistance and the multiple antibiotic resistance index of the strains were 39.17% and 0.23%, respectively. The isolates showed similar patterns of resistance to commonly used growth promoters and antibiotics in veterinary and human medicine belonging to the same class. Conclusion: It is evident that the different antibiotics and growth promoters used in poultry production are exerting selection pressure for the emergence and co-selection of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the production system, necessitating efficient antibiotic stewardship guidelines to streamline their use.

Genome Mining and Comparative Pathogenomic Analysis of An Endemic Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) Clone, ST612-CC8-t1257-SCCmec_IVd(2B), Isolated in South Africa

This study undertook genome mining and comparative genomics to gain genetic insights into the dominance of the methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) endemic clone ST612-CC8-t1257-SCCmec_IVd(2B), obtained from the poultry food chain in South Africa. Functional annotation of the genome revealed a vast array of similar central metabolic, cellular and biochemical networks within the endemic clone crucial for its survival in the microbial community. In-silico analysis of the clone revealed the possession of uniform defense systems, restriction-modification system (type I and IV), accessory gene regulator (type I), arginine catabolic mobile element (type II), and type 1 clustered, regularly interspaced, short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)Cas array (N = 7 ± 1), which offer protection against exogenous attacks. The estimated pathogenic potential predicted a higher probability (average Pscore ≈ 0.927) of the clone being pathogenic to its host. The clone carried a battery of putative virulence determinants whose expression are critical for establishing infection. However, there was a slight difference in their possession of adherence factors (biofilm operon system) and toxins (hemolysins and enterotoxins). Further analysis revealed a conserved environmental tolerance and persistence mechanisms related to stress (oxidative and osmotic), heat shock, sporulation, bacteriocins, and detoxification, which enable it to withstand lethal threats and contribute to its success in diverse ecological niches. Phylogenomic analysis with close sister lineages revealed that the clone was closely related to the MRSA isolate SHV713 from Australia. The results of this bioinformatic analysis provide valuable insights into the biology of this endemic clone.

1,4,7-Triazacyclononane Restores the Activity of β-Lactam Antibiotics against Metallo-β-Lactamase-Producing Enterobacteriaceae: Exploration of Potential Metallo-β-Lactamase Inhibitors

Metallo-β-lactamase (MBL)-producing Enterobacteriaceae are of grave clinical concern, particularly as there are no metallo-β-lactamase inhibitors approved for clinical use. The discovery and development of MBL inhibitors to restore the efficacy of available β-lactams are thus imperative. We investigated a zinc-chelating moiety, 1,4,7-triazacyclononane (TACN), for its inhibitory activity against clinical carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae MICs, minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs), the serum effect, fractional inhibitory concentration indexes, and time-kill kinetics were determined using broth microdilution techniques according to Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CSLI) guidelines. Enzyme kinetic parameters and the cytotoxic effects of TACN were determined using spectrophotometric assays. The interactions of the enzyme-TACN complex were investigated by computational studies. Meropenem regained its activity against carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae, with the MIC decreasing from between 8 and 64 mg/liter to 0.03 mg/liter in the presence of TACN. The TACN-meropenem combination showed bactericidal effects with an MBC/MIC ratio of ≤4, and synergistic activity was observed. Human serum effects on the MICs were insignificant, and TACN was found to be noncytotoxic at concentrations above the MIC values. Computational studies predicted that TACN inhibits MBLs by targeting their catalytic active-site pockets. This was supported by its inhibition constant (Ki ), which was 0.044 μM, and its inactivation constant (Kinact), which was 0.0406 min-1, demonstrating that TACN inhibits MBLs efficiently and holds promise as a potential inhibitor.IMPORTANCE Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE)-mediated infections remain a significant public health concern and have been reported to be critical in the World Health Organization's priority pathogens list for the research and development of new antibiotics. CRE produce enzymes, such as metallo-β-lactamases (MBLs), which inactivate β-lactam antibiotics. Combination therapies involving a β-lactam antibiotic and a β-lactamase inhibitor remain a major treatment option for infections caused by β-lactamase-producing organisms. Currently, no MBL inhibitor-β-lactam combination therapy is clinically available for MBL-positive bacterial infections. Hence, developing efficient molecules capable of inhibiting these enzymes could be a promising way to overcome this phenomenon. TACN played a significant role in the inhibitory activity of the tested molecules against CREs by potentiating the activity of carbapenem. This study demonstrates that TACN inhibits MBLs efficiently and holds promises as a potential MBL inhibitor to help curb the global health threat posed by MBL-producing CREs.

In vitro potentiation of carbapenems with tannic acid against carbapenemase-producing enterobacteriaceae: exploring natural products as potential carbapenemase inhibitors

AIMS

We hypothesized and confirmed that tannic acid (TA) reverses carbapenem resistance by inhibiting carbapenemases in class A and B carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Minimum inhibitory concentrations of carbapenems in the presence and absence of TA and other efflux pump inhibitors, TA-carbapenemases inhibition assays and computational studies showed that TA had the greatest effect on metallo-β-lactamases (MBLs) followed by class A serine-β-lactamases (SBLs). TA completely reversed the MICs of MBL producers from between 32 and ≥512 mg l^-1 to susceptible values (<4 mg l^-1 ) while substantially reducing the MICs of SBLs from between 16 and >512 mg l^-1 to <4 to 16 mg l^-1 . Tolerable cytotoxic effect was observed for the concentrations tested (8-1024 mg l^-1 ). TA inhibited enzymes with a marked difference of ≈50% inhibition (IC₅₀ ) for NDM-1 (270 μmol l^-1 ) and KPC-2 (15  μmol l^-1 ).

CONCLUSION

TA inhibited both MBLs and SBLs by targeting their hydrophobic sites. Moreover, TA had a stronger binding affinity for MBLs than SBLs as the MBLs, specifically VIM-1 (-43·7220 ± 0·4513 kcal mol^-1 ) and NDM-1(-44·2329 ± 0·3806 kcal mol^-1 ), interact with a larger number of their catalytic active-site residues than that of OXA-48 (-22·5275 ±  0·1300 kcal mol^-1 ) and KPC-2 (-22·1164 ± 0·0111 kcal mol^-1 ).

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Tannic acid or its analogues could be developed into carbapenemase-inhibiting adjuvants to restore carbapenem activity in CRE infections, save many lives and reduce healthcare associated costs.

Diversity and Proliferation of Metallo-β-Lactamases: a Clarion Call for Clinically Effective Metallo-β-Lactamase Inhibitors

The worldwide proliferation of life-threatening metallo-β-lactamase (MBL)-producing Gram-negative bacteria is a serious concern to public health. MBLs are compromising the therapeutic efficacies of β-lactams, particularly carbapenems, which are last-resort antibiotics indicated for various multidrug-resistant bacterial infections. Inhibition of enzymes mediating antibiotic resistance in bacteria is one of the major promising means for overcoming bacterial resistance. Compounds having potential MBL-inhibitory activity have been reported, but none are currently under clinical trials. The need for developing safe and efficient MBL inhibitors (MBLIs) is obvious, particularly with the continuous spread of MBLs worldwide. In this review, the emergence and escalation of MBLs in Gram-negative bacteria are discussed. The relationships between different class B β-lactamases identified up to 2017 are represented by a phylogenetic tree and summarized. In addition, approved and/or clinical-phase serine β-lactamase inhibitors are recapitulated to reflect the successful advances made in developing class A β-lactamase inhibitors. Reported MBLIs, their inhibitory properties, and their purported modes of inhibition are delineated. Insights into structural variations of MBLs and the challenges involved in developing potent MBLIs are also elucidated and discussed. Currently, natural products and MBL-resistant β-lactam analogues are the most promising agents that can become clinically efficient MBLIs. A deeper comprehension of the mechanisms of action and activity spectra of the various MBLs and their inhibitors will serve as a bedrock for further investigations that can result in clinically useful MBLIs to curb this global menace.

In Vitro Antibacterial Activity of Teixobactin Derivatives on Clinically Relevant Bacterial Isolates

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and vancomycin-resistant enterococcus (VRE) are included on the WHO high priority list of pathogens that require urgent intervention. Hence emphasis needs to be placed on developing novel class of molecules to tackle these pathogens. Teixobactin is a new class of antibiotic that has demonstrated antimicrobial activity against common bacteria. Here we examined the antimicrobial properties of three Teixobactin derivatives against clinically relevant bacterial isolates taken from South African patients. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), the minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC), the effect of serum on MICs and the time-kill kinetics studies of our synthesized Teixobactin derivatives (3, 4, and 5) were ascertained following the CLSI 2017 guidelines and using the broth microdilution method. Haemolysis on red blood cells (RBCs) and cytotoxicity on peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were performed to determine the safety of these compounds. The MICs of 3, 4, and 5 against reference strains were 4–64 μg/ml, 2–64 μg/ml, and 0.5–64 μg/ml, respectively. The MICs observed for MRSA were (3) 32 μg/ml, (4) 2–4 μg/ml and (5) 2–4 μg/ml whilst those for VRE were (3) 8–16 μg/ml, (4) 4 μg/ml and (5) 2–16 μg/ml, respectively. In the presence of 50% human serum, there was no significant effect on the MICs. The compounds did not exhibit any effect on cell viability at their effective concentrations. Teixobactin derivatives (3, 4, and 5) inhibited bacterial growth in drug-resistant bacteria and hence emerge as potential antimicrobial agents. Molecular dynamic simulations suggested that the most dominant binding mode of Lys10-teixobactin (4) to lipid II is through the amide protons of the cycle, which is identical to data described in the literature for the natural teixobactin hence predicting the possibility of a similar mechanism of action.

Colistin and tigecycline resistance in carbapenemase-producing Gram-negative bacteria: emerging resistance mechanisms and detection methods

A literature review was undertaken to ascertain the molecular basis for tigecycline and colistin resistance mechanisms and the experimental basis for the detection and delineation of this resistance particularly in carbapenemase-producing Gram-negative bacteria. Pubmed, Google Scholar and Science Direct were searched with the keywords colistin, tigecycline, resistance mechanisms and detection methods. Trans-complementation and comparative MIC studies, mass spectrometry, chromatography, spectrofluorometry, PCR, qRT-PCR and whole genome sequencing (WGS) were commonly used to determine tigecycline and colistin resistance mechanisms, specifically modifications in the structural and regulatory efflux (acrAB, OqxAB, kpgABC adeABC-FGH-IJK, mexAB-XY-oprJM and soxS, rarA robA, ramRAB marRABC, adeLRS, mexRZ and nfxb) and lipid A (pmrHFIJFKLM, lpxA, lpxC lpxD and mgrB, pmrAB, phoPQ,) genes respectively. Mutations in the ribosomal 16S rRNA operon rrnBC, also yielded resistance to tigecycline through target site modifications. The mcr-1 gene conferring resistance to colistin was identified via WGS, trans-complementation and a murine thigh infection model studies. Common detection methods are mainly antibiotic sensitivity testing with broth microdilution while molecular identification tools are mostly PCR and WGS. Spectrofluorometry, MALDI-TOF MS, micro-array and real-time multiplex PCR hold much promise for the future as new detection tools.

Clofazimine Contributes Sustained Antimicrobial Activity after Treatment Cessation in a Mouse Model of Tuberculosis Chemotherapy

Experimental and clinical studies have indicated that the antileprosy drug clofazimine may contribute treatment-shortening activity when included in tuberculosis treatment regimens. Clofazimine accumulates to high levels in tissues, has a long half-life, and remains in the body for months after administration is stopped. We hypothesized that in tuberculosis treatment, accumulated clofazimine may contribute sustained antimicrobial activity after treatment cessation, and we used the BALB/c mouse model of chronic tuberculosis chemotherapy to address this hypothesis. Mycobacterium tuberculosis-infected mice were treated for 4 weeks or 8 weeks with either isoniazid alone, clofazimine alone, the first-line regimen rifampin-isoniazid-pyrazinamide-ethambutol, or a first-line regimen where clofazimine was administered in place of ethambutol. To evaluate posttreatment antimicrobial activity, bacterial regrowth in the lungs and spleens was assessed at the day of treatment cessation and 2, 4, 6, and 8 weeks after treatment was stopped. Bacterial regrowth was delayed in all mice receiving clofazimine, either alone or in combination, compared to the mice that did not receive clofazimine. This effect was especially evident in mice receiving multidrug therapy. In mice not receiving clofazimine, bacterial regrowth began almost immediately after treatment was stopped, while in mice receiving clofazimine, bacterial regrowth was delayed for up to 6 weeks, with the duration of sustained antimicrobial activity being positively associated with the time that serum clofazimine levels remained at or above the 0.25-μg/ml MIC for M. tuberculosis Thus, sustained activity of clofazimine may be important in the treatment-shortening effect associated with this drug.

Plasmid-mediated resistance and virulence mechanisms in the private health sector in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: An investigation of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) clinical isolates collected during a three month period

OBJECTIVES

Due to the lack of information on the plasmid content of MRSA strains in South Africa (SA), this study investigated the resistance and virulence mechanisms of 27 clinical isolates from the private health care sector over a period of 3 months.

METHODS

Plasmids were extracted and the presence of MRSA confirmed by the presence of mecA. The isolates were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing and molecular characterization of common resistance encoding genes and frequently encountered virulence factors by PCR using plasmid DNA as the template. The genetic relatedness between the isolates was determined by pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE).

RESULTS

All isolates were plasmid positive, and displayed ampillicin, ciprofloxacin, gentamicin, rifampicin, tetracycline, erythromycin, and clindamycin resistance. They were all fully susceptible to daptomycin, linezolid, vancomycin, tigecycline and fusidic acid. Multidrug resistance (MDR) was found in 74.1% (20/27) of the MRSA isolates. The frequency of the resistance and virulence genes ranged from 100% to 0%. PFGE analysis revealed 10 pulsotypes, designated A-J, which showed correlation with resistance profile of the isolates in each group. Of note, 85.2% (23/27) of the isolates clustered into six major PFGE types giving an indication of similar circulating MRSA clones.

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights the genetic diversity and resistance mechanisms in MRSA strains from the private health sector in SA hence the need for implementing effective infection control programs.

MALDI MSI and LC-MS/MS: Towards preclinical determination of the neurotoxic potential of fluoroquinolones

Fluoroquinolones are broad-spectrum antibiotics with efficacy against a wide range of pathogenic microbes associated with respiratory and meningeal infections. The potential toxicity of this class of chemical agents is a source of major concern and is becoming a global issue. The aim of this study was to develop a method for the brain distribution and the pharmacokinetic profile of gatifloxacin in healthy Sprague-Dawley rats, via Multicenter matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI MSI) and quantitative liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). We developed a sensitive LC-MS/MS method to quantify gatifloxacin in plasma, lung, and brain homogenates. A pharmacokinetic profile was observed where there is a double peak pattern; a sharp initial increase in the concentration soon after dosing followed by a steady decline until another increase in concentration after a longer period post dosing in all three biological samples was observed. The imaging results showed the drug gradually entering the brain via the blood brain barrier and into the cortical regions from 15 to 240 min post dose. As time elapses, the drug leaves the brain following the same path as it followed on its entry and finally concentrates at the cortex. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Tissue distribution of pretomanid in rat brain via mass spectrometry imaging

1. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI MSI) combines the sensitivity and selectivity of mass spectrometry with spatial analysis to provide a new dimension for histological analyses of the distribution of drugs in tissue. Pretomanid is a pro-drug belonging to a class of antibiotics known as nitroimidizoles, which have been proven to be active under hypoxic conditions and to the best of our knowledge there have been no studies investigating the distribution and localisation of this class of compounds in the brain using MALDI MSI. 2. Herein, we report on the distribution of pretomanid in the healthy rat brain after intraperitoneal administration (20 mg/kg) using MALDI MSI. Our findings showed that the drug localises in specific compartments of the rat brain viz. the corpus callosum, a dense network of neurons connecting left and right cerebral hemispheres. 3. This study proves that MALDI MSI technique has great potential for mapping the pretomanid distribution in uninfected tissue samples, without the need for molecular labelling.

Observational study of the prevalence and antibiotic resistance of Campylobacter spp. from different poultry production systems in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Campylobacter bacteria are important foodborne pathogens that cause acute diarrheal illness, and infection is often associated with contaminated poultry. In a blind observational study, the prevalence and resistance profiles of thermophilic Campylobacter strains collected from different poultry production systems were tested against the clinically used antibiotics ciprofloxacin, tetracycline, erythromycin, gentamicin, and streptomycin. Campylobacter strains were isolated from chickens in rural production systems, a free-range commercial facility, and industrially raised broiler and egg-laying chickens all situated in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Isolates were collected from the chicken cecae and were identified with conventional methods and tested for antibiotic resistance with the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute agar dilution method. The prevalence of Campylobacter spp. isolates in chickens was 68% (56 samples) in rural production, 47% (140 samples) in commercial free-range broilers, 47% (133 samples) in industrial broilers, and 94% (34 samples) in industrial layer hens. Isolates from the rurally raised chickens showed significantly (P < 0.01) less resistance against ciprofloxacin (7.9%), erythromycin (0%), and tetracycline (21.6%) than those from commercially produced chickens. Isolates from the commercially raised chickens (free range and industrial) were highly resistant to tetracycline (98.9 to 100%). The incidence of gentamicin and streptomycin resistance was 1.6 and 11.5%, respectively, in commercial free-range broilers, 1.7 and 16.4%, respectively, in industrially raised broilers, and 12.9 and 40%, respectively, in industrially raised layers. It is possible that variations among the poultry production systems, including antimicrobial usage, result in differences in antibiotic resistance profiles in Campylobacter.

Prevalence of antibiotic resistance in Campylobacter isolates from commercial poultry suppliers in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

OBJECTIVES

Campylobacter jejuni isolated from broiler and layer chickens from registered abattoirs in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, were tested for their susceptibility to eight antibiotics.

METHODS

Using agar dilution, susceptibility to eight antibiotics was determined for C. jejuni recovered from the caeca.

RESULTS

A total of 155 isolates were collected of which 77 were identified as C. jejuni (broilers n = 56 and layers n = 21). Resistance was highest to tetracycline (broilers 98.2% and layers 100%) and ceftriaxone (broilers 96.4% and layers 100%). High susceptibility was found to ciprofloxacin (broilers 91% and layers 76%) and gentamicin (broilers 98% and layers 81%). Susceptibilities to each of the antibiotics for the broilers and layers, respectively, were: 50% and 57% for erythromycin, 45% and 24% for clarithromycin, 68% and 43% for ampicillin and 64% and 48% for nalidixic acid. Statistically significant differences were detected for the MIC(50) of gentamicin, ciprofloxacin and tetracycline between broilers and layers (P < 0.001) with the MIC(90) of gentamicin also of significant difference (P = 0.01). Multiresistance was detected in 23% and 43% of the isolates from broiler and layer chickens, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Mass therapy procedures used in animal husbandry have a potential impact on antibiotic resistance development in C. jejuni.