Drug abuse: vulnerability and transition to addiction

Intrinsic vulnerability is central to the transition of recreational drug use to misuse. Several factors contribute to vulnerability, inherent or acquired, and they account for the huge individual differences observed concerning the propensity to enter in the addiction process. Some of the multifactional causes for a vulnerable phenotype will be examined: genetic factors, age and gender influences, various comorbidities and epidemiological observations. Stress-induced vulnerability will be particularly reviewed because it provides a good model for a pathophysiological research and for relating environmental events to biological consequences of drug vulnerability, namely through the striato-cortical dopamine system. Experimental studies are generally blind concerning these historical factors that contribute vulnerability and a critical evaluation of current animal models is needed. The transition of the last stage of the process, addiction, is conceptualized as a progression from homeostasis to allostasis and then, to pathology.

Chronic exposure of rats to noise: Relationship between long-term memory deficits and slow wave sleep disturbances

Noise is now recognized as a serious health problem in our modern societies. Although its deleterious and direct effects on cognitive tasks (long-term memory, mental arithmetic activity, visual tasks, etc.) are clearly admitted, no studies have determined a delayed indirect effect of noise on cognitive processes. Furthermore, the link between sleep disturbances related to environmental noise (EN) exposure and these indirect deteriorations of human performances has never been demonstrated. This could be due to inappropriate evaluation of sleep as well as to uncontrolled and confounding factors such as sex, age, and also inter-individual vulnerability. Based on a recently validated animal model [Rabat A, Bouyer JJ, Aran JM, Le Moal M, Mayo W. Chronic exposure to an environmental noise permanently disturbs sleep in rats: inter-individual vulnerability. Brain Res 2005;1059:72-82], aims of the present study were (i) to determine long-term memory (LTM) deficits following a chronic exposure to EN and (ii) to link these behavioral problems to sleep disturbances related to EN. For this purpose in a first experiment, LTM performances were evaluated before and following 9 days of EN. Results show LTM deficits following a chronic exposure to EN with inter-individual vulnerability. Vulnerability profile was related to the psychobiological profile of rats. Results of the second experiment show LTM deficits correlated to both debt of slow wave sleep (SWS) and to daily decrease of SWS bout duration. Our results demonstrate that chronic exposure to noise indirectly disturbs LTM possibly through SWS disturbances and suggest a possible role of the stress hormonal axis in these biological effects of noise.

Motherhood-induced memory improvement persists across lifespan in rats but is abolished by a gestational stress

Motherhood modifies the biology and behavior of the female, a process which prepares the mother's cognitive systems that are needed for nurturance. It has recently been shown that motherhood enhances hippocampal-mediated spatial learning and synaptic plasticity. Deleterious and long-term effects of a stress experienced during gestation have been demonstrated on progeny. Surprisingly little is known about the effect of such stress on mothers. Here, we investigated the effect of gestational stress on the adaptive changes due to motherhood. Female rats were mated and stressed during the last week of gestation. Two weeks after weaning, they were submitted to behavioral tests or electrophysiological study. A group of females were then kept for 16 months after motherhood experience to study the long-term effect of gestational stress and motherhood on memory when they were 22 months old. We confirm that a single motherhood experience selectively increases hippocampal-mediated spatial memory during the entire lifespan of female rats and protects them from age-associated memory impairments. However, we demonstrate that a stressful experience during gestation totally abolishes the positive effects of motherhood both on spatial memory and on hippocampal synaptic plasticity (long-term potentiation). Environmental factors that induce biological vulnerability have negative effects even for fundamental biological behaviors.

Lifelong corticosterone level determines age-related decline in neurogenesis and memory

Ageing is accompanied by an alteration of spatial memory, a decline in hippocampal neurogenesis and a dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis (HPA) leading to elevated levels of circulating corticosterone. However, the role of the HPA axis in age-related decline in cognitive functions and in neurogenesis decline remains unclear. We found that suppression of glucocorticoids secretion from midlife to the rest of the animals' life increases neurogenesis in old animals and prevents the emergence of age-related memory disorders. Reciprocally, aged rats with a chronic upregulation of the HPA axis exhibit not only spatial memory impairments but also very low levels of hippocampal cell proliferation and survival. Altogether, these results indicate that the extent of lifetime exposure to glucocorticoids determines the extent of age-related decline in hippocampal neurogenesis and consequently age-related cognitive dysfunctions.

Gene expression regulation following behavioral sensitization to cocaine in transgenic mice lacking the glucocorticoid receptor in the brain

Several findings suggest that glucocorticoid hormones influence the propensity of an individual to develop cocaine abuse. These hormones activate two related transcription factors, the glucocorticoid receptor and the mineralocorticoid receptor. We have shown previously that mice carrying a mutation of the glucocorticoid receptor gene specifically in neural cells, glucocorticoid receptor knock-out in the brain, show a dramatic decrease in cocaine-induced self-administration and no behavioral sensitization to this drug, two experimental procedures considered relevant models of addiction. Here, we investigated in glucocorticoid receptor knock-out in the brain mice the consequences of this mutation at the level of the expression of neuropeptide, dopamine receptor and glutamate receptor subunit mRNAs. We quantified mRNA levels in the cortex, striatum and accumbens under basal conditions and following acute or repeated cocaine treatments. Our results show that, under basal conditions, neuropeptide (substance P, dynorphin) and dopamine receptor (D1, D2) mRNAs were decreased in glucocorticoid receptor knock-out in the brain mice in the dorsal striatum but not in the accumbens. However, cocaine-induced changes in the levels of these mRNAs were not modified in glucocorticoid receptor knock-out in the brain mice. In contrast, mutant mice showed altered response in mRNA levels of N-methyl-D-aspartate, GLUR5 and GLUR6 glutamate receptor subunits as well as of enkephalin following cocaine administration. These modifications may be associated to decrease of behavioral effects of cocaine observed in glucocorticoid receptor knock-out in the brain mice.

Chronic exposure to an environmental noise permanently disturbs sleep in rats: Inter-individual vulnerability

Chronic exposure to an environmental noise (EN) induces sleep disturbances. However, discrepancies exist in the literature since many contradictory conclusions have been reported. These disagreements are largely due to inappropriate evaluation of sleep and also to uncontrolled and confounding factors such as sex, age and also inter-individual vulnerability. Based on a recently validated animal model, aims of the present study were (i) to determine the effects of a chronic exposure to EN on sleep and (ii) to evaluate the inter-individual vulnerability of sleep to EN. For this purpose, rats were exposed during 9 days to EN. Results show that a chronic exposure to EN restricts continually amounts of slow wave sleep (SWS) and paradoxical sleep (PS) and fragments these two sleep stages with no habituation effect. Results also evidence the existence of subpopulations of rats that are either resistant or vulnerable to these deleterious effects of EN on sleep and especially on SWS amounts, bouts number and bout duration. Furthermore, importance of SWS debt and daily decrease of SWS bout duration are correlated to each others and both correlate to the amplitude of the locomotor reactivity to novelty, a behavioral measure of reactivity to stress. This last result suggests that this psychobiological profile of subjects, known to induce profound differences in neural and endocrine systems, could be responsible for their SWS vulnerability under a chronic EN exposure.

New insights into the role of neuroactive steroids in cognitive aging

The aim of this article is to describe neuroactive steroid research that has been focused on their physiological role in cognitive aging, an attractive new field in experimental gerontology. Neuroactive steroids have been recently proposed as biomarkers of cognitive aging, however, their specific functions have not yet been fully established. For instance, data emerging from human and animal studies suggest a complex relationship between neuroactive steroids and/or metabolites and cognitive processes during aging. Thus, a better knowledge of neuroactive steroid brain distribution and function could broaden our understanding of their physiological roles and lead to novel and more effective treatments for the management of age-related brain disorders. To this end, newly developed sensitive, specific, and accurate mass spectrometry assays may allow the quantification of neuroactive steroids in discrete brain regions and greatly contribute to unravel their role in age-related cognitive deficits.

Pregnenolone sulfate enhances neurogenesis and PSA-NCAM in young and aged hippocampus

Age-dependent cognitive impairments have been correlated with functional and structural modifications in the hippocampal formation. In particular, the brain endogenous steroid pregnenolone-sulfate (Preg-S) is a cognitive enhancer whose hippocampal levels have been linked physiologically to cognitive performance in senescent animals. However, the mechanism of its actions remains unknown. Because neurogenesis is sensitive to hormonal influences, we examined the effect of Preg-S on neurogenesis, a novel form of plasticity, in young and old rats. We demonstrate that in vivo infusion of Preg-S stimulates neurogenesis and the expression of the polysialylated forms of NCAM, PSA-NCAM, in the dentate gyrus of 3- and 20-month-old rats. These influences on hippocampal plasticity are mediated by the modulation of the gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor complex A (GABA(A)) receptors present on hippocampal neuroblasts. In vitro, Preg-S stimulates the division of adult-derived spheres suggesting a direct influence on progenitors. These data provide evidence that neurosteroids represent one of the local secreted signals controlling hippocampal neurogenesis. Thus, therapies which stimulate neurosteroidogenesis could preserve hippocampal plasticity and prevent the appearance of age-related cognitive disturbances.

Deleterious effects of an environmental noise on sleep and contribution of its physical components in a rat model

Sleep disturbances induced by environmental noise (EN) exposure are now well admitted. However, many contradictory conclusions and discrepancies have been reported, resulting from uncontrolled human factors or the use of artificial noises (pure tone). Thus, the development of an animal model appears to be a useful strategy for determining whether EN is deleterious to sleep. The aims of this study were: (i) to confirm the effects of noise on sleep in a rat model; and (ii) to determine the most deleterious physical component of noise regarding sleep structure. For this purpose, rats were exposed during 24 h either to EN or to artificial broad-band noises [either continuous broad-band noise (CBBN) or intermittent broad-band noise (IBBN)]. All the noises decrease both slow wave sleep (SWS) and paradoxical sleep (PS) amounts during the first hours of exposure. However, CBBN acts indirectly on PS through a reduction of SWS bout duration, whereas IBBN and EN disturb directly and more strongly both SWS and PS. Finally, EN fragments SWS and decreases PS amount during the dark period, whereas IBBN only fragments PS. These results demonstrate the validity and suitability of a rodent model for studying the effects of noise on sleep and definitively show that sleep is disturbed by EN exposure. Two physical factors seem to be implicated: the intermittency and the frequency spectrum of the noise events, which both induce long-lasting sleep disturbances. An additive effect of frequency spectrum to intermittency tends to abolish all possible adaptations to EN exposure. Since sleep is involved in cognitive processes, such disturbances could lead to cognitive deficits.

Environmentally induced long-term structural changes: cues for functional orientation and vulnerabilities

Environmental challenges profoundly modify phenotypes and disrupt inherent developmental programs both at functional and structural levels. As an example, we have studied the impact of these environmental influences on adult neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus. Neurogenesis results from an inherent program, participates to hippocampal network organization and, as a consequence, to the various functional abilities depending on this region, including memories. In preclinical studies of aging we have shown that phenotypes vulnerable to the development of spatial memory disorders are characterized by lower hippocampal neurogenesis. We have hypothesized that these interindividual variations in functional expression of neurogenesis in senescent subjects could be predicted early in life. Indeed, a behavioral response (novelty-induced locomotor reactivity) and a biological trait (hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis activity), which are predictive of cognitive impairments later in life, are related to neurogenesis in young adult rats. This suggests that subjects starting off with an impaired neurogenesis, here rats that are high reactive to stress, are predisposed for the development of age-related cognitive disorders. We have further shown that these inter-individual differences result from early deleterious life events. Indeed, prenatal stress orients neurogenesis in pathological ways for the entire life, and precipitates age-related cognitive impairments. Altogether these data suggest first that hippocampal neurogenesis plays a pivotal role in environmentally-induced vulnerability to the development of pathological aging, and second that environmental challenges and life events orient structural developments, leading to different phenotypes.

Implication of corticosteroid receptors in the regulation of hippocampal structural plasticity

The dentate gyrus is one of the few areas of the adult brain that continues to produce neurons and to express the embryonic polysialylated isoforms of neuronal cell adhesion molecules (PSA-NCAM). The stress hormone corticosterone exerts a complex modulation on neurogenesis and PSA-NCAM, and previous studies have shown that mature granule cells require corticosterone for their survival. Thus, the aim of our work was to investigate the respective role of the different corticosteroid receptors on these three parameters in adrenalectomized rats. It was found that treatment with a low dose of the mineralocorticoid receptor agonist, aldosterone, prevents only the adrenalectomy-induced increase in cell death. Treatment with a higher dose of aldosterone normalized cell proliferation whereas PSA-NCAM expression was normalized only by treatment with the glucocorticoid receptor agonist, RU 28362. It is concluded that stimulation of the mineralocorticoid receptor is sufficient to mediate the effects of corticosterone on neurogenesis and to protect mature cells from cell death whereas stimulation of the glucocorticoid receptor is necessary to modulate PSA-NCAM expression.

Differential effects of learning on neurogenesis: learning increases or decreases the number of newly born cells depending on their birth date

The hippocampal formation, to which new neurons are added on a daily basis throughout life, is important in spatial learning. Surviving de novo produced cells integrate into the functional circuitry, where they can influence both normal and pathological behaviors. In this study, we examined the effect of the water-maze (a hippocampal-dependent spatial task) on neurogenesis. Learning in this task can be divided into two phases, an early phase during which performance improves rapidly, and a late phase during which asymptotic levels of performance are reached. Here we demonstrate that the late phase of learning has a multifaceted effect on neurogenesis depending on the birth date of new neurons. The number of newly born cells increased contingently with the late phase and a large proportion of these cells survived for at least 4 weeks and differentiated into neurons. In contrast, late-phase learning decreased the number of newly born cells produced during the early phase. This decline in neurogenesis was positively correlated with performance in the water-maze. Thus, rats with the highest de novo cell number were less able to acquire and use spatial information than those with low numbers of new cells. These results show that learning has a complex effect on hippocampal neurogenesis, and reveals a novel mechanism through which neurogenesis may influence normal and pathological behaviors.

Relationships between individual sensitivity to CS- and cocaine-induced reinstatement in the rat

RATIONALE

Maintaining abstinence is highly challenging for cocaine ex-users. Exposure to drug conditioned stimuli (CS) and to low doses of cocaine can provoke craving in humans and reinstate self-administration (SA) behavior in animal models. Whether drug- and CS-induced reinstatement depend on the same biological substrates remains controversial.

OBJECTIVES

We investigated the relationships between cocaine- and CS-induced SA reinstatement within the same individuals as a function of the duration of the withdrawal period after cessation of extended cocaine SA.

METHODS

Sprague-Dawley rats were trained for cocaine intravenous SA (0.8 mg/kg per infusion) during 74 sessions (2 h daily exposure to cocaine) and submitted to withdrawal. Five and 30 days after the end of SA, cocaine- and CS-induced reinstatement were tested.

RESULTS

Both after a short and a long withdrawal, CS- and cocaine-induced reinstatement were not related. Furthermore, cocaine-induced reinstatement measured after a short and a long withdrawal was positively related while CS-induced reinstatement was not. The sensitivity of an individual to cocaine-induced reinstatement is not related to its sensitivity to CS-induced reinstatement. Furthermore, vulnerability to cocaine-induced reinstatement is determined quickly after SA cessation and is a long lasting state, whilst vulnerability to CS-induced reinstatement develops quickly or slowly depending on the individual.

CONCLUSIONS

These results support the view that cocaine and CS induce reinstatement through different mechanisms. They imply that reinstatement in drug abuse is a heterogeneous condition with some individuals being more sensitive to one factor than to the other. Research for effective anti-relapse therapies should take these elements into account.

Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) shows that the 'Iberian' clone of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus has spread to France and acquired reduced susceptibility to teicoplanin

Infection by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) presents a serious problem, as these organisms are resistant to a wide range of antibiotics. Moreover, MRSA with reduced susceptibility to glycopeptides (GISA) have emerged in recent years. In our hospital we were faced with an outbreak of GISA between January and March 2000, involving six patients who were free of MRSA when the GISA isolate emerged, and five of whom had not been given glycopeptides. The initial GISA isolate from the six patients was compared with six 'historical' multiple-resistant MRSA isolates (1996-1999), which had not been found to be GISA by the routinely used method. Antibiotic susceptibility was studied through the disc diffusion method, and MICs of glycopeptides were determined by Etest, agar and broth dilution techniques. Molecular strain typing was done by PFGE and multilocus sequence typing (MLST). All 12 isolates that belonged to the gentamicin-resistant group of MRSA were susceptible to vancomycin, but showed reduced susceptibility to teicoplanin through at least one MIC method. PFGE typing yielded five different but closely related profiles, and eight of the 12 clinical isolates were classified into a single PFGE type. MLST yielded an identical allelic profile for all 12 isolates, corresponding to the profile (3-3-1-12-4-4-16) of the 'Iberian' clone HPV107 of MRSA. MLST allowed us to confirm the presence of the 'Iberian' MRSA clone HPV107 with the same allelic profile in our hospital for several years. We can now note that strains of this clone have acquired reduced susceptibility to teicoplanin.

Intrastriatal Dopamine-rich Implants Reverse the Increase of Dopamine D2 Receptor mRNA Levels Caused by Lesion of the Nigrostriatal Pathway: A Quantitative In Situ Hybridization Study

Changes in striatal dopamine D2 receptor mRNA levels provoked by unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine-induced lesion of the nigrostriatal dopamine pathway were studied by in situ hybridization. The influence of embryonic dopaminergic neurons implanted into the dopamine-depleted striatum on the lesion-induced changes was also examined. Changes in D2 mRNA levels were compared with changes in D2 receptor densities measured in the same animals by receptor autoradiography using [3H]spiperone or [3H]SDZ 205-501 as ligands. The distribution of D2 mRNA in the striatum of control animals closely paralleled that of the D2 receptor itself, as assessed by autoradiography, and the highest density of D2 mRNA occurred in the lateral part of the striatum. One month after lesion, levels of D2 mRNA were 34% higher in the dorsolateral part of the dopamine-depleted striatum than in the corresponding region of the contralateral control striatum. D2 receptor density in this region was increased by 40% relative to the control level. No significant increases could be measured in the medial part of the striatum. The increases in the lateral part were similar at 7 months post-lesion; however, at this time the increase in both D2 mRNA and receptor levels had spread to the medial part of the striatum as well. In the graft-bearing striatum levels of both D2 mRNA and D2 receptors reverted to control levels. This study shows that the post-lesion increase in striatal dopamine receptor and mRNA level is a biphasic phenomenon with a late-occurring component in the medial striatum. It also shows that once the increase in striatal D2 receptor gene expression is accomplished, it is maintained unchanged for long periods, similar to that of D2 receptor levels themselves. Moreover, grafts of embryonic dopaminergic neurons are able to modulate the expression of the dopamine D2 receptor gene.

Study of the addictive potential of modafinil in naive and cocaine-experienced rats

RATIONALE

Modafinil is a drug that promotes wakefulness and, as such, is used to treat hypersomnia and narcolepsy. Preclinical and clinical studies suggest that modafinil could possess weak reinforcing effects in drug-experienced subjects. However, its abuse potential in drug-naive healthy individuals is still totally uninvestigated, despite the fact that availability of modafinil has recently increased.

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of our study was to investigate the potential addictive properties of modafinil by testing its reinforcing effects in naive rats. The interactions of modafinil with the reinforcing effects of cocaine were also tested.

METHODS

First, using i.v. self-administration and place conditioning tests, we studied the reinforcing and rewarding effects of a large range of doses of modafinil in naive rats. Second, we tested the influence of modafinil on reinforcing and incentive effects of cocaine in rats trained for cocaine self-administration. The effects of modafinil were compared with those of amphetamine and haloperidol.

RESULTS

Modafinil did not produce reinforcing or rewarding effects and did not modify the effects of cocaine.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that modafinil does not possess an addictive potential in naive individuals. Furthermore, it would be behaviorally distinct from classical central nervous system stimulants which are known to alter cocaine-induced effects. However, as shown previously in nonhuman primates and in humans, modafinil could possibly have reinforcing effects in cocaine-experienced individuals.

The effect of restraint stress on paradoxical sleep is influenced by the circadian cycle

It is well known that the physiological impact imposed by events or behaviors displayed during the waking period determines the way organisms sleep. Among the situations known to affect sleep both in its duration and quality, stress has been widely studied and it is now admitted that its effects on sleep architecture depend on several factors specific to the stressor or the individual itself. Although numerous reports have highlighted the prominent role of the circadian cycle in the physiological, endocrine and behavioral consequences of restraint stress, a possible circadian influence in the effects of stress on the sleep-wake cycle has never been studied. Thus the present study was designed to compare the effects on sleep of a 1 h-lasting restraint stress applied at light onset to those observed after the same stressor was applied at light offset. We report that in both conditions stress induced a marked paradoxical sleep increase, whereas wakefulness displayed a moderate decrease and slow wave sleep a moderate augmentation. Although the effects of stress at lights on were of similar magnitude than those of stress at lights off, important differences in the sleep rebound latencies were observed: whatever the time of day the stress was applied, its effects on sleep always occurred during the dark period. This result thus shows that restraint stress could be efficiently used to study the interaction between the circadian and homeostatic components of sleep regulation.

Neurosteroids in learning and memory processes

The discovery that neurosteroids could be synthesized de novo in the brain independent from the periphery and display neuronal actions led to great enthusiasm for the study of their physiological role. Pharmacological studies suggest that neurosteroids may be involved in several physiological processes, such as learning and memory. This chapter summarizes the effects of the administration of neurosteroids on learning and memory capabilities in rodents and in models of amnesia. We address the central mechanisms involved in mediating the modulation of learning and memory processes by neurosteroids. In this regard, the neurosteroid-modulated neurotransmitter systems, such as gamma-aminobutyric acid type A, N-methyl-D-aspartate, and cholinergic and sigma opioid systems, appear to be potential targets for the rapid memory alteration actions of neurosteroids. Moreover, given that some neurosteroids affect neuronal plasticity, this neuronal change could be involved in the long-term modulation of learning and memory processes. To understand the role of endogeneous neurosteroids in learning and memory processes, we present some physiological studies in rodents and humans. However, the latter do not successfully prove a role of endogenous neurosteroids in age-related memory impairments. Finally, we discuss the relative implication of a given neurosteroid vs its metabolites. For this question, a new approach using the quantitative determination of traces of neurosteroids by mass spectrometry seems to have potential for examining the role of each neurosteroid in discrete brain areas in learning and memory alterations, as observed during aging.

Role of pregnenolone, dehydroepiandrosterone and their sulfate esters on learning and memory in cognitive aging

Aging is a general process of functional decline which involves in particular a decline of cognitive abilities. However, the severity of this decline differs from one subject to another and inter-individual differences have been reported in humans and animals. These differences are of great interest especially as concerns investigation of the neurobiological factors involved in cognitive aging. Intensive pharmacological studies suggest that neurosteroids, which are steroids synthesized in the brain in an independent manner from peripheral steroid sources, could be involved in learning and memory processes. This review summarizes data in animals and humans in favor of a role of neurosteroids in cognitive aging. Studies in animals demonstrated that the neurosteroids pregnenolone (PREG) and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), as sulfate derivatives (PREGS and DHEAS, respectively), display memory-enhancing properties in aged rodents. Moreover, it was recently shown that memory performance was correlated with PREGS levels in the hippocampus of 24-month-old rats. Human studies, however, have reported contradictory results. First, improvement of learning and memory dysfunction was found after DHEA administration to individuals with low DHEAS levels, but other studies failed to detect significant cognitive effects after DHEA administration. Second, cognitive dysfunctions have been associated with low DHEAS levels, high DHEAS levels, or high DHEA levels; while in other studies, no relationship was found. As future research perspectives, we propose the use of new methods of quantification of neurosteroids as a useful tool for understanding their respective role in improving learning and memory impairments associated with normal aging and/or with pathological aging, such as Alzheimer's disease.

SR141716, a CB1 receptor antagonist, decreases the sensitivity to the reinforcing effects of electrical brain stimulation in rats

RATIONALE

The endogenous cannabinoid system is thought to play a role in reinforcement processes.

OBJECTIVES

We tested the effects of five doses of the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) antagonist SR141716 [0, 0.3, 1, 3 and 10 mg/kg intraperitoneal (IP)] on intracranial self-stimulation at the level of the median forebrain bundle (MFB). Self-stimulation was assessed 30 min and 210 min after SR141716 administration. We compared the effect of SR141716 with the effect of a decrease in the magnitude of stimulation (-100 microA) and the effects of a cocaine injection (1, 5 and 10 mg/kg IP).

METHODS

a protocol of rate-frequency curve for self-stimulation was applied. Two rate-frequency curves were established daily, 3 h apart. The frequency required to produce half-maximal performance (M50) and the maximal performance (RMax) were used as the parameters to characterize the rate-frequency functions.

RESULTS

SR141716 decreased the sensitivity to the electrical brain stimulation. SR141716 induced a shift to the right of the rate-frequency curve. This effect depended on the dose administered and the time after injection. Thirty minutes after the injection, 1, 3 and 10 mg/kg SR141716 induced a significant decrease in sensitivity to electrical stimulation, as shown by an elevation in the M50 value. RMax showed a tendency to decrease with increasing doses. At 210 min after administration, 3 and 10 mg/kg SR141716 maintained their decreasing effect on the sensitivity to the stimulation as shown by the significant increase of the M50, however, the maximal response was restored to the basal value. A decrease in self-stimulation intensity produced an effect comparable to the one observed 30 min after either 3 or 10 mg/kg SR141716, while cocaine (5 and 10 mg/kg) produced the opposite effect. Neither condition affected the rate-frequency curve measured 3 h later.

CONCLUSIONS

In accordance with recent observations, these experiments suggest that the endogenous cannabinoid system facilitates the perception or the effects of positive reinforcers. They also suggest that this neurochemical system could be a target of interest for treating psychopathologies implicating the reinforcing system.

Pregnenolone sulfate and aging of cognitive functions: behavioral, neurochemical, and morphological investigations

Neurosteroids are a subclass of steroids that can be synthesized in the central nervous system independently of peripheral sources. Several neurosteroids influence cognitive functions. Indeed, in senescent animals we have previously demonstrated a significant correlation between the cerebral concentration of pregnenolone sulfate (PREG-S) and cognitive performance. Indeed, rats with memory impairments exhibited low PREG-S concentrations compared to animals with correct memory performance. Furthermore, these memory deficits can be reversed by intracerebral infusions of PREG-S. Neurotransmitter systems modulated by this neurosteroid were unknown until our recent report of an enhancement of acetylcholine (ACh) release in basolateral amygdala, cortex, and hippocampus induced by central administrations of PREG-S. Central ACh neurotransmission is involved in the regulation of memory processes and is affected in normal aging and in human neurodegenerative pathologies like Alzheimer's disease. ACh neurotransmission is also involved in the modulation of sleep-wakefulness cycle and relationships between paradoxical sleep and memory are well documented in the literature. PREG-S infused at the level of ACh cell bodies induces a dramatic increase of paradoxical sleep in young animals. Cognitive dysfunctions, particularly those observed in Alzheimer's disease, have also been related to alterations of cerebral plasticity. Among these mechanisms, neurogenesis has been recently studied. Preliminary data suggest that PREG-S central infusions dramatically increase neurogenesis. Taken together these data suggest that PREG-S can influence cognitive processes, particularly in senescent subjects, through a modulation of ACh neurotransmission associated with paradoxical sleep modifications; furthermore our recent data suggest a role for neurosteroids in the modulation of hippocampal neurogenesis.

Progressive enhancement of delayed hyperalgesia induced by repeated heroin administration: a sensitization process

It is difficult to conceive that tolerance and sensitization processes, two apparently opposite phenomena, can concomitantly modify one given biological process, i.e., the processing of pain. We have shown recently that opiates produce not only analgesia but also long-lasting hyperalgesia in rats. This suggests that tolerance to the analgesic effect of an opiate, especially heroin, could be in part the result of an actual sensitization of pronociceptive systems. Here, we show that both magnitude and duration of heroin-induced delayed hyperalgesia increase with intermittent heroin administrations, leading to an apparent decrease in the analgesic effectiveness of a given heroin dose. Our observation that a small dose of heroin which is ineffective for triggering a delayed hyperalgesia in non-heroin-treated rats induced an enhancement in pain sensitivity for several days after a series of heroin administrations is in agreement with the sensitization hypothesis. The effectiveness of the opioid receptor antagonist naloxone to precipitate hyperalgesia in rats that had recovered their pre-drug nociceptive value after single or repeated heroin administrations indicates that heroin-deprived rats were in a new biological state associated with a high level balance between opioid-dependent analgesic systems and pronociceptive systems. Because the NMDA receptor antagonist dizocilpine maleate (MK-801) prevented both heroin-induced long-lasting enhancement in pain sensitivity and naloxone-precipitated hyperalgesia, these findings further suggest that tolerance, sensitization, and one withdrawal symptom, hyperalgesia, are issued from a neuroadaptive process in which NMDA systems play a critical role.

[Early experience, stressful dysregulation of the hormonal axis and age-related vulnerability to neurodegenerative processus: a longitudinal study in the rat]

The deleterious effects of particular environmental situations have been suspected to augment the repercussions of cerebral injuries leading to increased vulnerability during ageing. The relationship between the hormones of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis, mainly glucocorticosteroids, and cerebral structures like the hippocampus has been the subject of intense investigation in the recent years. Data suggest that long-term elevated blood levels of these hormones can induce neuronal alterations leading to cognitive dysfunction. This hypothesis has been tested with relevant animal models of normal/abnormal ageing. The models are based on the existence of considerable inter-individual differences in the degree of age-related cognitive impairments observed in rodents. Results show that long-term glucocorticosteroid exposure induces cerebral changes related to the action of these hormones on their central receptors. Experimental data are in accordance with clinical investigations suggesting that hormonal changes, and chronic life events, could be considered as a predictive factor of future cognitive dysfunction.

Controlling interindividual differences in the unconditioned response to amphetamine in the study of environment-dependent sensitization

Two subgroups of rats selected on the basis of their emergence latency in a light-dark box test were shown to exhibit significantly different unconditioned responses to d-amphetamine (AMPH, 1mg/kg). The rats presenting a low latency to emerge from the dark side (LL subgroup) responded more to AMPH than the rats presenting a high latency (HL subgroup). These two subgroups were compared for environment-dependent and environment-independent sensitization. The major findings were as follows: (a) when these two subgroups underwent a conditioning procedure to study environment-dependent sensitization, in which the paired groups received AMPH in Environment A (activity cages) and saline in Environment B (plastic housing cages), the unpaired groups received saline in A and AMPH in B, and the control groups received saline in both environments, only the LL subgroup showed conditioned activity and environment-dependent sensitization; (b) when LL and HL subgroups were submitted to a sensitization procedure designed to rule out any conditioning processes (environment-independent sensitization), there was no significant difference in the development and magnitude of sensitization although the amplitude of the response following each injection remained lower in the HL compared with the LL subgroup; (c) when unconditioned responses to AMPH for the two subgroups were equated by increasing the dose of AMPH for the HL rats (1.25mg/kg), there was no longer a significant difference between the two subgroups with respect to conditioned activity and environment-dependent sensitization; (d) in the LL subgroup, an extinction procedure (in which all animals received vehicle in both environments) that completely abolished the conditioned activity in the paired group, suppressed the difference between paired and unpaired groups during the test for environment-dependent sensitization, by reducing the response of the former. Overall, these results provide two major contributions: first, they show that interindividual differences in the unconditioned response to AMPH influence the outcome of the study of environment-dependent sensitization; second, when these differences are controlled, they suggest that environment-dependent sensitization appears to be the result of the addition between conditioned activity and environment-independent effects of AMPH.

Individual reactivity to novelty predicts probability of amphetamine self-administration

The present study demonstrates a relationship between individual responses to environmental activation, such as novelty, and propensity to acquire amphetamine self-administration. Locomotor activity cumulated over 2 h of exposure to a circular corridor was a stable and novelty-dependent feature of behaviour in individual rats. The differences between subjects in this behaviour were maintained over two trials at 1 months intervals, but disappeared over 4 days when the animals were tested daily, i.e. when the environment was no longer novel. The subjects with the higher locomotor response to novelty (HR group) also showed a higher propensity to acquire amphetamine self-administration, while the subjects with the lower response to novelty (LR group) did not acquire self-administration over 7 days of testing. Differences in self-administration of HR animals could not be accounted for by differences in exploratory behaviour. Thus, HR animals did not show higher investigative responses in a hole exploration test. Animals with the higher locomotor response to novelty also showed a greater release of corticosterone in the same environment. Since dopaminergic (DA) neurons are activated by both amphetamine and novelty, it is possible that differences in the propensity to acquire amphetamine self-administration may be accounted for by differences in the activity of DA neurons.

Drug addiction, dysregulation of reward, and allostasis

This paper reviews recent developments in the neurocircuitry and neurobiology of addiction from a perspective of allostasis. A model is proposed for brain changes that occur during the development of addiction that explain the persistent vulnerability to relapse long after drug-taking has ceased. Addiction is presented as a cycle of spiralling dysregulation of brain reward systems that progressively increases, resulting in the compulsive use and loss of control over drug-taking. The development of addiction recruits different sources of reinforcement, different neuroadaptive mechanisms, and different neurochemical changes to dysregulate the brain reward system. Counteradaptive processes such as opponent-process that are part of normal homeostatic limitation of reward function fail to return within the normal homeostatic range and are hypothesized to form an allostatic state. Allostasis from the addiction perspective is defined as the process of maintaining apparent reward function stability by changes in brain reward mechanisms. The allostatic state represents a chronic deviation of reward set point and is fueled not only by dysregulation of reward circuits per se, but also by the activation of brain and hormonal stress responses. The manifestation of this allostatic state as compulsive drug-taking and loss of control over drug-taking is hypothesized to be expressed through activation of brain circuits involved in compulsive behavior such as the cortico-striatal-thalamic loop. The view that addiction is the pathology that results from an allostatic mechanism using the circuits established for natural rewards provides a realistic approach to identifying the neurobiological factors that produce vulnerability to addiction and relapse.

Influence of glucocorticoids on dopaminergic transmission in the rat dorsolateral striatum

Glucocorticoid hormones exert strong influences on central neurotransmitter systems. In the present work, we examined the functional consequences of corticosterone suppression on the dopaminergic transmission in the dorsolateral striatum by studying the expression of Fos-like proteins and extracellular dopamine levels. Glucocorticoid hormones were suppressed by adrenalectomy, and the specificity of the effects assessed by restoring physiological plasmatic corticosterone concentrations. We show that, in the dorsolateral striatum, glucocorticoids modify postsynaptic dopaminergic transmission. Suppression of glucocorticoids decreased the induction of Fos proteins in response to a direct agonist of dopamine D(1) receptors (SKF 82958, 1.5 mg/kg, i.p.), but not the release of dopamine induced by morphine (2 mg/kg, s.c.) or the density of the limiting enzyme of dopamine synthesis, tyrosine hydroxylase. In contrast to the dopaminergic response to morphine, the response to cocaine (15 mg/kg, i.p.) was modified by the suppression of corticosterone. In this case, adrenalectomy increased cocaine-induced changes in extracellular dopamine but did not modify the expression of Fos-like proteins. This absence of changes in cocaine-induced Fos-like proteins might result from a compensatory mechanism between the increase in the dopaminergic response and the decrease in the functional activity of dopamine D(1) receptors. The increased dopaminergic response to cocaine also contrasts with the decreased response previously observed in the shell of the nucleus accumbens [Barrot et al. (2000) Eur. J. Neurosci., 12, 973-979]. The present data highlight the profound heterogeneous influence of glucocorticoids within dopaminergic projections.

Long term neurodevelopmental and behavioral effects of perinatal life events in rats

Modern neurosciences are now able to open new avenues concerning an experimental approach to clinical neurosciences and psychiatry. Detection and prediction of potential vulnerabilities such as behavioral disturbances and neurodegenerative diseases, are urgent tasks leading to prevention that must be encouraged in parallel to the enormous efforts displayed for treatments. Besides possible genetic origins of diseases, environmental factors are now coming under scrutiny, and especially deleterious and challenging life events and stress occurring during prenatal and postnatal critical periods may orient brain functions towards deleterious developments. The hypothesis that will be examined is that early events might be at the origin of pathological transformations and symptoms after long periods of apparent normal abilities and behavioral homeostasis. We used models of prenatal stress and postnatal manipulations such as cross-fostering. It will be demonstrated that such events induce long-term changes, cognitive and emotional modifications appearing first, when offspring are adults, followed by cognitive defects later in life. Increased sensitivity of the hypothalamic pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA), the endocrine system controlling the secretion of stress hormones (corticoids), appears to be a major element of pathogenesis. HPA axis dysfunction appears very early after birth (3 days) and lasts for months. Cumulative exposure to high levels of hormones seems to be detrimental for some brain regions, especially the hippocampus and major neurotransmitter systems such as dopamine neurons. We evidenced that neuronal modifications in hippocampal region are correlated with behavioral and cognitive defects, relating environment, stress in early life, hormonal changes, long-term neuropathological processes and impaired cognition in aging. Moreover appears in offspring, when adults, a proneness to engage in drug dependence. These data emphasize the need to consider early environmental life events as etiological factors for delayed neuropsychiatric disturbances, neurodegenerative defects included. Moreover, they strengthen the interest for a longitudinal approach to promote experimental psychopathology.

Disruption of the mouse Necdin gene results in hypothalamic and behavioral alterations reminiscent of the human Prader-Willi syndrome

Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) is a complex neurogenetic disorder with considerable clinical variability that is thought in large part to be the result of a hypothalamic defect. PWS results from the absence of paternal expression of imprinted genes localized in the 15q11-q13 region; however, none of the characterized genes has so far been shown to be involved in the etiology of PWS. Here, we provide a detailed investigation of a mouse model deficient for NECDIN: Linked to the mutation, a neonatal lethality of variable penetrance is observed. Viable NECDIN: mutants show a reduction in both oxytocin-producing and luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH)-producing neurons in hypothalamus. This represents the first evidence of a hypothalamic deficiency in a mouse model of PWS. NECDIN:-deficient mice also display increased skin scraping activity in the open field test and improved spatial learning and memory in the Morris water maze. The latter features are reminiscent of the skin picking and improved spatial memory that are characteristics of the PWS phenotype. These striking parallels in hypothalamic structure, emotional and cognitive-related behaviors strongly suggest that NECDIN is responsible for at least a subset of the multiple clinical manifestations of PWS.

Interactions between imidazoline binding sites and dopamine levels in the rat nucleus accumbens

Imidazoline binding sites are present in the striatal complex and in the extended amygdala and have been implicated in mood disorders. In this report we analysed the influence of these sites on the functional activity of the mesolimbic dopaminergic transmission, one of the major brain systems involved in the regulation of motivation and reward. We studied the effects of two imidazoline ligands, S23229 and S23230 (respectively S(+) and R(-) enantiomers of the S22687 or (5-[2-methyl phenoxy methyl] 1,3-oxazolin-2-yl) amine), on extracellular dopamine in the nucleus accumbens using microdialysis in freely moving rats. We compared these imidazoline ligands to cocaine, a dopamine uptake blocker known to increase extracellular dopamine concentrations. S23229 dose-dependently increased extracellular dopamine and locomotor activity. S23230 dose-dependently increased extracellular dopamine and produced a near-significant dose-effect on locomotor activity. S23229 had a stronger efficacy than S23230 and increased dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens at an extent similar to the one of cocaine. These results suggest that central imidazoline binding sites could contribute to the functional regulation of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system.

Differential calbindin-immunoreactivity in dopamine neurons projecting to the rat striatal complex

The calcium-binding protein calbindin-D28K is an anatomical marker that has been associated with resistance to neurodegeneration and with the electrophysiological characteristics of neurons. In this study, we compared the presence of calbindin in dopamine neurons projecting to three distinct functional regions of the striatal complex: the striatum, and the core and the shell of the nucleus accumbens. After iontophoretic injections of Fluoro-Gold in the dopaminergic terminal fields, the presence of tyrosine hydroxylase and calbindin were immunohistochemically assessed in the mesencephalon. It was found that the proportion of cells expressing calbindin was highest in the dopamine cells projecting to the core (72%), intermediate in the cells projecting to the shell (51%) and lowest in the cells projecting to the dorsolateral striatum (2.6%). These results do not support the idea that calbindin is a sufficient condition to confer resistance to neurodegeneration because shell-projecting neurons seem the most resistant to it. The present data also raise the question of the role of calbindin in the differences in firing characteristics among dopamine neurons projecting to the striatal complex.

Nicotine-induced locomotor activity is increased by preexposure of rats to prenatal stress

Genetic factors are believed to play a predominant role in the individual differences observed in behavioral and pharmacological responses to drugs of abuse. An increasing literature indicates, however, that epigenetic factors can be involved as well. In this report we examined whether developmental changes induced by prenatal stress could alter the way animals respond to the psychostimulant effect of nicotine when adults. The results show that nicotine induces a dose-dependent increase of locomotor activity in both groups, and that prenatally-stressed animals exhibit a higher behavioral response at all doses. This study emphasizes the importance of early environment in the later development of drug-related behavior.

Prenatal stress produces learning deficits associated with an inhibition of neurogenesis in the hippocampus

Early experiences such as prenatal stress significantly influence the development of the brain and the organization of behavior. In particular, prenatal stress impairs memory processes but the mechanism for this effect is not known. Hippocampal granule neurons are generated throughout life and are involved in hippocampal-dependent learning. Here, we report that prenatal stress in rats induced lifespan reduction of neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus and produced impairment in hippocampal-related spatial tasks. Prenatal stress blocked the increase of learning-induced neurogenesis. These data strengthen pathophysiological hypotheses that propose an early neurodevelopmental origin for psychopathological vulnerabilities in aging.

Influence of environment on the efficacy of intrastriatal dopaminergic grafts

Functional recovery is influenced by experience. The aim of the present work was to examine the effects of "enriched" environment (EE) versus an "impoverished" environment on the anatomical and functional integration of intrastriatal dopaminergic grafts. These influences were studied using a paradigm where grafting was performed before the dopamine-depleting lesion. Dopaminergic grafts were implanted into the left neostriatum of adult male rats. In the enriched group, grafted rats were housed collectively and were trained on different behavioral tests following grafting. In contrast, impoverished grafted rats were housed individually and not further manipulated. Ten weeks after grafting, the mesotelencephalic dopaminergic pathway was destroyed unilaterally to the grafted side and different behaviors were followed for 7 months. Grafting prior to lesioning had no prophylactic effects on the performance as the graft did not prevent the onset of the lesion-induced impairments. However, under EE conditions, a graft effect was manifested in the reduction of drug-induced rotation and on the indices of bias as tested by a spatial alternation test. No positive graft effects were observed in the skilled paw reaching test. Grafted rats raised under impoverished conditions performed in a fashion indistinguishable from the control lesioned animals on most measures of behavior. A beneficial effect of EE conditions was observed on survival of TH-positive neurons within the grafts. The results suggest that survival of grafted neurons, and the reduction of the magnitude of particular behavioral impairments, can be optimized by increasing the complexity of the subject's environment.

Abolition and reversal of strain differences in behavioral responses to drugs of abuse after a brief experience

Inbred strains of mice are largely used to identify the genetic basis of normal and pathological behaviors. This report demonstrates that a moderate period of food shortage, an ecologically common experience, can reverse or abolish strain differences in behavioral responses to the abused psychostimulant amphetamine. The period of food shortage occurred when the animals were mature and was terminated before the administration of amphetamine. Strain differences in behavior appear highly dependent on environmental experiences. Consequently, to identify biological determinants of behavior, an integrated approach considering the interaction between environmental and genetic factors needs to be used.

Vertical shifts in self-administration dose-response functions predict a drug-vulnerable phenotype predisposed to addiction

The role of individual differences in the etiology of addiction is a very controversial issue. Neuroendocrine phenotypes that are able to predispose an individual to the development of drug intake have been identified previously. However, such information has been gathered by comparing individuals who differ in their sensitivity to low doses of the drug. Consequently, it remains unclear whether a phenotype predicting a higher sensitivity to low drug doses would be relevant in environmental conditions, such as the ones encountered by humans in which high drug doses are available. In this report, we studied dose-response, dose-intake, and ratio-intake functions for intravenous cocaine self-administration in the laboratory rat. We show that individual differences in drug self-administration originate from vertical shift in the dose-response function. Thus, no matter the dose, drug intake is very high in some "vulnerable" subjects and very low in other "resistant" ones. Vulnerable subjects, the upward shifted ones, would then have a higher chance to develop drug abuse also when high drug doses are available. In conclusion, these results provide a solid foundation for the existence of a drug-vulnerable phenotype relevant for the etiology of addiction.

PSA-NCAM: an important regulator of hippocampal plasticity

The Neural Cell Adhesion Molecule (NCAM) serves as a temporally and spatially regulated modulator of a variety of cell-cell interactions. This review summarizes recent results of studies aimed at understanding its regulation of expression and biological function, thereby focussing on its polysialylated isoforms (PSA-NCAM). The detailed analysis of the expression of PSA and NCAM in the hippocampal mossy fiber system and the morphological consequences of PSA-NCAM deficiency in mice support the notion that the levels of expression of NCAM are important not only for the regulation and maintenance of structural changes, such as migration, axonal growth and fasciculation, but also for activity-induced plasticity. There is evidence that PSA-NCAM can specifically contribute to a presynaptic form of plasticity, namely long-term potentiation at hippocampal mossy fiber synapses. This is consistent with previous observations that NCAM-deficient mice show deficits in spatial learning and exploratory behavior. Furthermore, our data points to an important role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, which is the principle adaptive response of the organism to environmental challenges, in the control of PSA-NCAM expression in the hippocampal formation. In particular, we evidence an inhibitory influence of corticosterone on PSA-NCAM expression.

Serotonergic systems in the spinal cord of the amphibian urodele Pleurodeles waltl

The role of the monoamine serotonin (5-HT) in modulating the neural networks underlying axial locomotor movements was studied in an adult amphibian urodele, Pleurodeles waltl. 5-HT was applied to an in vitro brainstem-spinal cord preparation of P. waltl, which displayed fictive axial locomotor patterns following bath application of N-methyl-D-aspartate (5 microM) with D-serine (10 microM). Our results showed that 5-HT (1-25 microM) produces a reversible increase in the cycle duration and the duration of rhythmic bursting activity recorded extracellularly from ventral roots innervating the axial musculature. When applied alone, 5-HT does not trigger axial locomotor activity. The distribution pattern of 5-HT immunoreactive (5-HT-ir) cells along the spinal cord was investigated both in intact and in chronic spinal animals. The number of 5-HT-ir cell bodies is higher at brachial levels and decreases through crural levels. Sparse oval or fusiform 5-HT-ir somata are present within the gray matter, just ventrolateral to the central canal. Longitudinal fibers were detected throughout the entire white matter, except in the medial part of the dorsal funiculi. Two columns of intensely labeled and profusely branching thick and thin fibers associated with numerous varicosities run continuously along the ventrolateral surface of the spinal cord. Three weeks following full spinal cord transection at the level of the second spinal root, all longitudinal processes had disappeared, indicating their supraspinal origin, whereas the ventrolateral plexes remained, suggesting that they originated from intraspinal 5-HT-ir cell bodies. Our data showing that spinal 5-HT is organized according to a rostrocaudal gradient suggest that the 5-HT systems of P. waltl are not related to the presence of limb motor pools but more likely are related to axial central pattern generators (CPGs) networks down the length of the spinal cord. The possible involvement of these two sources (descending vs. intraspinal) of 5-HT innervation in the modulation of the axial CPGs is discussed.

The dopaminergic hyper-responsiveness of the shell of the nucleus accumbens is hormone-dependent

The dopaminergic projection to the shell of the nucleus accumbens is the most reactive to stress, reward and drugs of abuse and this subregion of the nucleus accumbens is also considered a target of therapeutic effects of atypical antipsychotic drugs (APD). In this report we show, by means of in vivo microdialysis and Fos immunohistochemistry, that the hyper-responsiveness which characterizes the dopaminergic transmission to the shell is dependent on glucocorticoid hormones. In Sprague-Dawley rats, after suppression of endogenous glucocorticoids by adrenalectomy, extracellular dopamine levels selectively decreased in the shell, whilst they remained unchanged in the core. This effect was observed in basal conditions, after a mild stress (vehicle injection), as well as after subcutaneous administration of morphine (2 mg/kg, s.c. ) or intraperitoneal injection of cocaine (15 mg/kg, i.p.). The decrease in dopamine observed in the shell had a postsynaptic impact, as shown by less induction of Fos-like proteins selectively in the shell in response to cocaine. However, the induction of Fos-like proteins by the full D1 agonist SKF82958 (1.5 mg/kg, i.p.) remained unchanged after adrenalectomy, suggesting that the changes in Fos expression after cocaine injection were likely to depend on changes in extracellular dopamine levels rather than on changes in postsynaptic sensitivity to dopamine. The effects of adrenalectomy were glucocorticoid-specific given that they were prevented by corticosterone treatment. This anatomical specificity in the control of neuronal activity by a hormonal input highlights the role of steroid hormones in shaping the functional activity of the brain.

Pregnenolone sulfate increases hippocampal acetylcholine release and spatial recognition

The pregnenolone sulfate is a neurosteroid with promnesic properties. Recently, a correlation between endogenous levels of pregnenolone sulfate in the hippocampus and performance in a spatial memory task has been reported in aged rats. Cholinergic transmission is known to modulate memory processes and to be altered with age. In the present experiment we investigated the effect of increasing doses of pregnenolone sulfate on hippocampal acetylcholine release. Our results show that intracerebroventricular administrations of this neurosteroid induced a dose-dependent increase in acetylcholine release. Administration of 12 and 48 nmol of pregnenolone sulfate induced a short lasting (20 min) enhancement of acetylcholine output with a maximum around 120% over baseline and the administration of 96 and 192 nmol doses induced a long-lasting (80 min) increase that peaked around 300% over baseline. In a second experiment we have observed that the 12 nmol dose enhanced spatial memory performance, whereas the 192 nmol dose was inefficient. These results are consistent with previous work suggesting that, a modest increase in acetylcholine release facilitates memory processes, while elevation beyond an optimal level is ineffective. Nevertheless, neurosteroids may be of value for reinforcing depressed cholinergic transmission in certain age-related memory disorders.

Evidence for opiate-activated NMDA processes masking opiate analgesia in rats

The acute interaction between opioid receptors and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors on nociception was examined in rats using tail-flick and paw-pressure vocalisation tests. When injected at various times (1 to 6 h) after morphine (5 to 20 mg/kg, i.v.) or fentanyl (4x40 microgram/kg, i.v.), the opioid receptor antagonist naloxone (1 mg/kg, s.c.) not only abolished the opiate-induced increase in nociceptive threshold, but also reduced it below the basal value (hyperalgesia). The noncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist MK-801 (0.15 or 0.30 mg/kg, s.c.) prevented the naloxone-precipitated hyperalgesia and enhanced the antinociceptive effects of morphine (7.5 mg/kg, i.v.) and fentanyl (4x40 microgram/kg, i.v.). These results indicate that the antinociceptive effects of morphine and fentanyl, two opiate analgesics widely used in humans in the management of pain, are blunted by concomitant NMDA-dependent opposing effects which are only revealed when the predominant antinociceptive effect is sharply blocked by naloxone. This study provides new rationale for beneficial adjunction of NMDA receptor antagonists with opiates for relieving pain by preventing pain facilitatory processes triggered by opiate treatment per se.

Behavioural trait of reactivity to novelty is related to hippocampal neurogenesis

The hippocampal formation is one of the brain areas where neurogenesis persists during adulthood, with new neurons being continuously added to the population of dentate granule cells. However, the functional implications of this neurogenesis are unknown. On the other hand, the hippocampal formation is particularly concerned with the detection of novelty, and there are indications that dentate granule cells play a significant role in this function. Recently, the existence of inter-individual differences in behavioural reactivity to novelty has been evidenced, related to differences in the reactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA). Rats that are highly reactive to novelty (HR) exhibit a prolonged corticosterone secretion in response to novelty and to stress when compared with low reactive rats (LR). Taking advantage of the existence of these inter-individual differences, we investigated whether neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus is correlated with the behavioural trait of reactivity to novelty. Rats were first selected according to their locomotor reactivity to a novel environment. Two weeks later, cell proliferation, evaluated by the incorporation of 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BrdU) in progenitors, was studied by immunohistochemistry. We found that cell proliferation in the dentate gyrus was negatively correlated with locomotor reactivity to novelty. Indeed, cell proliferation in LR rats was twice that observed in HR rats. In contrast, survival of nascent neurons was not influenced by the behavioural trait of reactivity to novelty. Using an unbiased stereology, we show that LR rats had more cells within the granule cell layer of the dentate gyrus than did HR rats. These results demonstrate the existence of inter-individual differences in neurogenesis and total granule cell number within the dentate gyrus. These differences in hippocampal plasticity can be predicted by the behavioural trait of reactivity to novelty.

[Corticosteroid hormones and the brain]

The anatomical and functional links between the hormone stress axis and the cortico-limbic brain regions which integrate emotion and motivation are well documented. It is important, considering the consequences of stress on the brain, to take into account the regulatory buffer capacities of the personality-cognitive processes. Another point of interest is evaluation of the long term effects of repeated life events on chronic environmental pressures which induce brain negative feedback defects and, subsequently, insidious cellular changes in regions such as the hippocampus that lead to memory or adaptive impairments. An example is provided by perinatal stress that induces, later in life, both hormonal and cognitive deleterious changes.

The neurosteroid pregnenolone sulphate increases dopamine release and the dopaminergic response to morphine in the rat nucleus accumbens

Neurosteroids are a subclass of steroids that can be synthesized in the central nervous system independently of peripheral sources. Clinical studies in humans have associated some of these hormones with a generic sensation of 'well-being' and with pathologies such as depression. In rodents, the neurosteroid pregnenolone sulphate (Preg-S) has been shown to present antidepressant-like effects. These observations suggest that neurosteroids could interact with reward-related processes, mood and motivation. However, the possible neural substrates of such an effect remain unclear. In this report, we studied the action of Preg-S on the activity of the mesencephalic dopaminergic projection to the nucleus accumbens which is considered one of the biological substrates of motivation and reward. Both the direct effect of Preg-S and the influence of this hormone on the dopaminergic response to the pharmacological reward provided by the opiate morphine, were studied by means of microdialysis. Pregnenolone sulphate dose-dependently increased dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens. Furthermore, this hormone doubled the dopaminergic response to morphine. These effects were observed for Preg-S doses of 100, 200, and 400 pmol injected intracerebroventricularly. The stimulant effect of Preg-S on dopamine could mediate some of the behavioural effects of neurosteroids and in particular the interaction of these hormones with mood and motivation.

Prenatal stress alters circadian activity of hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis and hippocampal corticosteroid receptors in adult rats of both gender

Prenatal stress impairs activity of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in response to stress in adult offspring. So far, very few data are available on the effects of prenatal stress on circadian functioning of the HPA axis. Here, we studied the effects of prenatal stress on the circadian rhythm of corticosterone secretion in male and female adult rats. To evaluate the effects of prenatal stress on various regulatory components of corticosterone secretion, we also assessed the diurnal fluctuation of adrenocorticotropin, total and free corticosterone levels, and hippocampal corticosteroid receptors. Finally, in the search of possible maternal factors, we studied the effects of repeated restraint stress on the pattern of corticosterone secretion in pregnant female rats. Results demonstrate that prenatal stress induced higher levels of total and free corticosterone secretion at the end of the light period in both males and females, and hypercorticism over the entire diurnal cycle in females. No diurnal fluctuation of adrenocorticotropin was observed in any group studied. The effects of prenatal stress on corticosterone secretion could be mediated, at least in part, by a reduction in corticosteroid receptors at specific times of day. Results also show that prepartal stress alters the pattern of corticosterone secretion in pregnant females. Those data indicate that prenatally stressed rats exhibit an altered temporal functioning of the HPA axis, which, taken together with their abnormal response to stress, reinforces the idea of a general homeostatic dysfunction in those animals.

Effects of amphetamine and cocaine treatment on c-Fos, Jun-B, and Krox-24 expression in rats with intrastriatal dopaminergic grafts

Activation of dopaminergic (DA) transmission by psychostimulants increases c-fos expression. d-Amphetamine-induced c-fos activation is reduced in the neostriatum deprived of DA afferents. Dopaminergic grafts implanted into the denervated neostriatum induce a c-fos hyperexpression when challenged with d-amphetamine, which is correlated with the exaggerated compensation of d-amphetamine-induced rotation. The aim of the present study was to test the generality of this phenomenon and the effects of DA grafts on the expression of three immediate early gene-coded proteins (c-Fos, Jun-B, Krox-24) following a challenge with either d-amphetamine or cocaine. c-fos basal expression was low in the neostriatum and was increased by the administration of psychostimulants. These effects were blocked by the DA lesion and restored by the DA grafts. A c-fos hyperexpression was observed within the grafted neostriatum, which was correlated with the compensation of d-amphetamine- or cocaine-induced rotation. Basal levels of Jun-B- and Krox-24-LI nuclei were high within the neostriatum. Administration of d-amphetamine or cocaine did not influence the expression of these IEG-coded proteins. Jun-B expression was not affected by the surgical procedure. In contrast, lesion of DA afferents of neostriatum decreased Krox-24 basal expression, an effect reversed by the grafts. Thus, the expression of c-fos but not Jun-B or Krox-24 appeared to be a good marker for the rotational behavior exhibited by DA-grafted rats challenged with drugs that increased DA transmission. This generalized c-fos overshoot indicates an abnormal activation of postsynaptic neurons by dopamine and points to its value as an indicator of the deleterious effects of DA grafts.