Psychophysiological strategies for enhancing performance through imagery-skin conductance level analysis in guided vs. self-produced imagery

Athletes need to achieve their optimal level of arousal for peak performance. Visualization or mental rehearsal (i.e., Imagery) often helps to obtain an appropriate level of activation, which can be detected by monitoring Skin Conductance Level (SCL). However, different types of imagery could elicit different amount of physiological arousal. Therefore, this study aims: (1) to investigate differences in SCL associated with two instructional modalities of imagery (guided vs. self-produced) and six different scripts; (2) to check if SCL could differentiate respondents according to their sport expertise. Thirty participants, aged between 14 and 42 years (M = 22.93; SD = 5.24), with different sport levels took part in the study. Participants listened to each previously recorded script and then were asked to imagine the scene for a minute. During the task, SCL was monitored. We analysed the mean value, variance, slope and number of fluctuations per minute of the electrodermal signal. Unsupervised machine learning models were used for measuring the resemblance of the signal. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used for distinguishing guided and self-produced imagery, and The Mann-Whitney U test was used for distinguishing results of different level athletes. We discovered that among others, self-produced imagery generates lower SCL, higher variance, and a higher number of fluctuations compared to guided imagery. Moreover, we found similarities of the SCL signal among the groups of athletes (i.e. expertise level). From a practical point of view, our findings suggest that different imagery instructional modalities can be implemented for specific purposes of mental preparation.

Attentional Focus Effects on Lower-Limb Muscular Strength in Athletes: A Systematic Review

ABSTRACT

Pompa, D, Carson, HJ, Beato, M, di Fronso, S, and Bertollo, M. Attentional focus effects on lower-limb muscular strength in athletes: A systematic review. J Strength Cond Res 38(2): 419-434, 2024-Evidence links an athlete's focus of attention to enhancing strength performance. However, additional research is needed to investigate the applicability of studies beyond the tasks and population currently examined. Therefore, we aimed to systematically review studies concerning attentional focus effects on strength characteristics on lower-limb tasks in athletes. Scopus, Web of Science, and EBSCO databases were searched using PRISMA PERSIST guidelines and keywords related to the focus of attention, force production processes, and athletes. Subjects were categorized: world class (tier 5); elite (tier 4); highly trained (tier 3); trained/developmental (tier 2); nonathletes (tiers 1-0); and mixed (different levels). Fifteen of 296 studies met the inclusion criteria. Included studies investigated the focus of attention effects on performance ( n = 6), between skill levels ( n = 2), and for learning ( n = 5), with respect to subject preference ( n = 1); one study did not state the aim. Studies achieved an average risk of bias score of "excellent"; however, findings suffered in the assessment of certainty. Only 2 studies reported an advantage for one type of attentional focus (external focus) across conditions ( g = 0.13-0.42) with tier 2 and mixed tier athletes. Research does not address the needs of elite athletes, and there is limited evidence on each type of strength characteristics and muscle action. There is also a need to incorporate methodological steps to promote task-relevant instructions. Research should focus on contextualized information within professional practice to offer stronger translational implications for athletes and coaches.

Dreaming while awake: The beneficial effects of yoga Nidra on mental and physical recovery in two elite karate athletes

Yoga Nidra (YN) naturally stimulates a hypnagogic state wherein an individual is physiologically asleep yet maintains a certain awareness to follow a guide's instructions. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of this aware sleep state on recovery-stress balance in two elite karate athletes adopting an idiosyncratic and multimodal approach. One male and one female athlete underwent a YN intervention. Before intervention, after intervention and three weeks later, recovery-stress balance specific scales, perceived stress, cognitive and somatic anxiety, subjective and objective sleep quality, and individual alpha peak frequency (iAPF) values were assessed. Perceived quality of recovery was continuously monitored for three months including the period of the investigation. Feelings and arousal levels before and after each YN session were also examined. Our results showed a YN general positive effect; however, the intervention had higher sport specific effects in the male compared to the female athlete. On the other hand, in the female athlete, YN seems to have effects both from an emotional and physical point of view. We also noted the intertwined relationship among interoception, perceived stress and YN effects. Also, findings suggest that iAPF modulation reflected improved recovery skills or a better control of stressful situations, while the acute effects on arousal levels were expression of anxiety or energy reduction. Overall, YN improved both the perceived quality of recovery and sleep quality, shedding light on the importance of YN for recovery-stress balance enhancement in the sport context.

Special Issue: Sport Psychology Interventions for Athletes' Performance and Well-Being

Scientific evidence highlights that sport psychology interventions adopted by professionals are crucial for making a difference in athlete performance [...].

The Effects of Mindfulness-Based Strategies on Perceived Stress and Psychobiosocial States in Athletes and Recreationally Active People

The mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) programme is gaining increasing attention in sport and physical activity domains. This programme comprises three meditation practices: mindful yoga, body scan, and sitting meditation. In this study, we aimed to examine the effects of a dynamic (mindful yoga) strategy and a static (a combination of body scan/sitting meditation) strategy on participants’ psychobiosocial states (PBS), perceived stress (PS) and mindfulness levels in athletes and recreationally active (RA) people. Thirty-four participants (athletes = 18; RA participants = 16) were assigned to a dynamic intervention strategy, and another 34 (athletes = 19; RA participants = 15) were assigned to the static intervention strategy. Before the intervention, after the intervention and three weeks later, the Italian versions of the PBS scale, the PS scale and the Mindful Attention Awareness scale were administered. RM-(M)ANOVAs revealed that intervention strategies improved functional PBS, reduced PS and enhanced mindfulness levels in both athletes and RA participants after the intervention (p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.605). However, improved functional PBS after the intervention (p < 0.001; d = 0.62) and stable PS levels at follow-up (p = 1) were observed mainly in athletes. The findings reinforce the view of the importance of the body as a means to improve emotional and health processes, and support the use of mindfulness strategies in sport to enhance individuals’ well-being.

Athletes and Coaches through the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Qualitative View of Goal Management

Since the end of 2019 and throughout 2020, the world has been devastated by the COVID-19 pandemic. The sports world suddenly had to deal with a massive reorganization of events with important implications for the physical and psychological preparation of athletes and coaches. The purpose of this study was to explore how these changes impacted coaches’ and athletes’ goal-setting strategies and their experience of goal adjustment. As part of a wider mixed-method project involving 2162 coaches and 1354 athletes, an online qualitative survey was used, and data collected were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis. Findings highlighted three overarching themes, in response to goal adjustment: “Moving on toward new goals”, “Letting go of goals”, and “Trying to hold on”, with several themes and sub-themes identifying different nuances of athletes’ and coaches’ experiences. The implications of such findings for the mental preparation of high-level athletes are discussed in two ways. Firstly, in light of existing literature on goal setting from an applied perspective; secondly, in the broader perspective of the sports culture and the application of our themes to other challenging moments that sports professionals might encounter.

Rebooting in sport training and competitions: Athletes' perceived stress levels and the role of interoceptive awareness

The psychological consequences of the lockdown in the sport context have been well studied. However, few studies investigated athletes' perceived stress during the rebooting in sport training and competitions; moreover, no investigations examined the relationship between perceived stress and interoceptive awareness. To mind this gap and support the enactment of appropriate behaviours for practising sports in a unique situation, we compared athletes' perceived stress data collected during the rebooting in sport activities with normative data and with those collected during the first Italian lockdown. Furthermore, we examined the impact of interoceptive awareness towards positive and negative stress by means of regression analyses. The IPSS-10 and the MAIA questionnaire were administered to 220 athletes. Findings suggest that athletes were experiencing a detrimental situation despite the resumption of sport activities but when comparing rebooting phase with the lockdown, female athletes began to feel greater financial security thereby reducing their perceived stress. Athletes who scored high especially for body trusting - the experience of one's body as safe and trustworthy - could regulate their perceived stress levels by increasing positive and reducing negative stress. Athletes could engage in mindful activities related to the body to reduce their perceived stress levels and better deal with an unprecedented situation.

Neural Oscillation During Mental Imagery in Sport: An Olympic Sailor Case Study

The purpose of the current study was to examine the cortical correlates of imagery depending on instructional modality (guided vs. self-produced) using various sports-related scripts. According to the expert-performance approach, we took an idiosyncratic perspective analyzing the mental imagery of an experienced two-time Olympic athlete to verify whether different instructional modalities of imagery (i.e., guided vs. self-produced) and different scripts (e.g., training or competition environment) could differently involve brain activity. The subject listened to each previously recorded script taken from two existing questionnaires concerning imagery ability in sport and then was asked to imagine the scene for a minute. During the task, brain waves were monitored using EEG (32-channel g. Nautilus). Our findings indicate that guided imagery might induce higher high alpha and SMR (usually associated with selective attention), whereas self-produced imagery might facilitate higher low alpha (associated with global resting state and relaxation). Results are discussed in light of the neural efficiency hypothesis as a marker of optimal performance and transient hypofrontality as a marker of flow state. Practical mental training recommendations are presented.

Initial validation of the Italian version of the Volition in Exercise Questionnaire (VEQ-I)

The purpose of this study was to validate the Volition in Exercise Questionnaire in Italian language (VEQ-I). The translation and cultural adaptation of the VEQ-I was conducted using the forward-backward translation method. VEQ-I eighteen items correspond to the six-factors structure of the original version. The construct validity was verified by the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) (CFI = 0.960; TLI = 0.943; RMSEA = 0.039; and SRMR = 0.040). The eighteen items were well distributed in six subscales and the six-factors structure of the questionnaire was supported. Internal Consistency value of the questionnaire was investigated for each subscale of the VEQ-I. Cronbach’s alpha and Omega values of the Reasons, Postponing Training, Unrelated Thoughts, Self-Confidence, Approval from Others and Coping with Failure subscales were 0.76 (α) and 0.76 (ω), 0.76 (α) and 0.76 (ω), 0.87 (α) and 0.88 (ω), 0.85 (α) and 0.85 (ω), 0.70 (α) and 0.72 (ω) and 0.74 (α) and 0.74 (ω), respectively. They were acceptable in all the six subscales. The concurrent validity was assessed using the correlation among the subscales of VEQ-I measures and those contained in two questionnaires: Psychobiosocial States in Physical Education (PBS-SPE) and Exercise Motivations Inventory (EMI-2).

The Impact of the COVID-19 Lockdown on Coaches' Perception of Stress and Emotion Regulation Strategies

The recent global outspread of the COVID-19 pandemic has influenced the lives of people across multiple countries including athletes, coaches, and supporting staff. Along with everybody else, coaches found themselves constrained to an at-home self-isolation, which limited their ability to normally engage with their profession and to interact with their athletes. This situation may also have impacted their own psychological well-being. With this study, we explored coaches’ perceptions of stress in relation to their emotion regulation strategies depending upon their gender and competitive level (elite vs. non-elite). A sample of 2272 Italian coaches were surveyed during the period of lockdown. Mean values for perceived stress and emotion regulation strategies were compared to normative data of the two instruments as reported in the original studies. Furthermore, two Multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs) were completed to observe the potential differences in the coaches’ emotion regulation strategies and perception of stress. Finally, a blockwise regression analysis was run to assess how coaches’ emotion regulation strategies impacted upon their perception of stress. Both women and men reported higher levels of perceived stress than those reported in the normative data. Similarly, average scores for emotion regulation strategies were significantly different from those reported for normative data, in particular, coaches reported slightly higher use of emotion regulation strategies than participants in the original study. Significant gender-based differences emerged in terms of emotional regulations, with men adopting more suppression than women. No differences by competitive level were found. In terms of perceived stress, male coaches and elite coaches showed to be more in control of the situation (positive stress) than female coaches and non-elite coaches, respectively, while women experienced more negative stress than men. The blockwise regression evidenced how reappraisal resulted to be predictive in helping coaches to reduce their perception of stress, while suppression predicted higher stress perceptions.

Promoting Physical Activity during School Closures Imposed by the First Wave of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Physical Education Teachers' Behaviors in France, Italy and Turkey

The COVID-19 pandemic has drastically reduced physical activity (PA) behaviors of many people. Physical education (PE) is considered one of the privileged instruments to promote youths' PA. We aimed to investigate the effects of lockdown on PE teachers' behaviors promoting their students' out-of-school PA and differences between three European countries. A sample of 1146 PE teachers (59.5% females) from France, Italy, and Turkey answered an online questionnaire about guiding students to engage in out-of-school PA, helping them to set PA goals, encouraging in self-monitoring PA, the pedagogical formats of these behaviors and feedback asked to students. RM-MANCOVAs were performed with a two-time (before and during the lockdown), three country (France, Italy, Turkey), two gender factorial design, using teaching years and perceived health as covariates. A significant multivariate main effect time × country × gender (p < 0.001) was reported for the behaviors promoting students' PA, with French and Italian teachers increasing some behaviors, while Turkish teachers showing opposite trends. Significant multivariate main effects time × country were found for formats supporting the behaviors (p < 0.001) and for asked feedback formats (p < 0.001). The massive contextual change imposed by lockdown caused different reactions in teachers from the three countries. Findings are informative for PA promotion and PE teachers' education.

The influence of core affect on cyclo-ergometer endurance performance: Effects on performance outcomes and perceived exertion

BACKGROUND

Core affect is defined as the most general affective construct consciously accessible that is experienced constantly. It can be experienced as free-floating (mood) or related to prototypical emotional episodes. The aim of this study was to examine the influence of pleasant and unpleasant core affect on cyclo-ergometer endurance performance. Specifically, we considered the influence of pleasant and unpleasant core affect on performance outcomes (i.e., time to task completion) and rate of perceived exertion (RPE; Borg Scale, category ratio-10) collected during the task.

METHODS

Thirty-one participants aged 20-28 years were recruited. Core affect was randomly elicited by 2 sets of pleasant and unpleasant pictures chosen from the international affective picture system. Pictures were displayed to participants during a cyclo-ergometer performance in 2 days in a counterbalanced order. RPE was collected every minute to detect volunteers' exhaustion.

RESULTS

The study sample was split into 2 groups. Group 1 comprised participants who performed better with pleasant core affect, whereas Group 2 included participants who performed better with unpleasant core affect. Mixed between-within subjects analysis of variance revealed a significant 2 (group) × 2 (condition) × 5 (isotime) interaction (p = 0.002, η_p² = 0.158). Post hoc comparisons showed that participants who obtained better performance with pleasant core affect (pleasant pictures; Group 1) reported lower RPE values at 75% of time to exhaustion in a pleasant core affect condition compared to an unpleasant core affect condition. On the other hand, participants who obtained better performance with unpleasant core affect (unpleasant pictures; Group 2) reported lower RPE values at 75% and 100% of time to exhaustion in an unpleasant core affect condition.

CONCLUSION

Findings suggest differential effects of pleasant and unpleasant core affect on performance. Moreover, core affect was found to influence perceived exertion and performance according to participants' preferences for pleasant or unpleasant core affect.

Athletes and adversities: athletic identity and emotional regulation in time of COVID-19

Background

The COVID-19 pandemic impacted on the sporting field, with athletes constrained in home isolation without the possibility to train and compete in their usual environments. This situation has been investigated within the theoretical frameworks of athletic identity and cognitive emotion regulation.

Objectives

The objectives of our investigation were to: (a) validate the athletic identity measurement scale (AIMS) for use in Italian language; and (b) explore differences by gender, typology of sport (individual vs. team), and competitive level (elite vs. non-elite) in athletic identity and in cognitive emotion regulation during the Covid-19 lockdown period.

Methods

To achieve these objectives, the reliability and construct validity of the Italian version of the AIMS have been tested in Study 1. Multivariate and univariate analyses were run to evaluate differences between different groups of athletes in Study 2.

Results

Results from Study 1 suggest a 3-factor higher order model of athletic identity. Results from Study 2 highlight that, during this lockdown period, elite athletes and team sports athletes show higher athletic identity. Cognitive emotion regulation strategies are different for gender and for competitive level. Finally, athletes with higher athletic identity tend to ruminate and catastrophize more.

Conclusions

The present multi-study paper contributes to the theoretical field with a validated measure of athletic identity in Italian language. It also provides some practical implications that could apply in this situation of isolation and can be extended to cases such as those of injury or illness.

Modulation of Brain Functional Connectivity and Efficiency During an Endurance Cycling Task: A Source-Level EEG and Graph Theory Approach

Various methods have been employed to investigate different aspects of brain activity modulation related to the performance of a cycling task. In our study, we examined how functional connectivity and brain network efficiency varied during an endurance cycling task. For this purpose, we reconstructed EEG signals at source level: we computed current densities in 28 anatomical regions of interest (ROIs) through the eLORETA algorithm, and then we calculated the lagged coherence of the 28 current density signals to define the adjacency matrix. To quantify changes of functional network efficiency during an exhaustive cycling task, we computed three graph theoretical indices: local efficiency (LE), global efficiency (GE), and density (D) in two different frequency bands, Alpha and Beta bands, that indicate alertness processes and motor binding/fatigue, respectively. LE is a measure of functional segregation that quantifies the ability of a network to exchange information locally. GE is a measure of functional integration that quantifies the ability of a network to exchange information globally. D is a global measure of connectivity that describes the extent of connectivity in a network. This analysis was conducted for six different task intervals: pre-cycling; initial, intermediate, and final stages of cycling; and active recovery and passive recovery. Fourteen participants performed an incremental cycling task with simultaneous EEG recording and rated perceived exertion monitoring to detect the participants’ exhaustion. LE remained constant during the endurance cycling task in both bands. Therefore, we speculate that fatigue processes did not affect the segregated neural processing. We observed an increase of GE in the Alpha band only during cycling, which could be due to greater alertness processes and preparedness to stimuli during exercise. Conversely, although D did not change significantly over time in the Alpha band, its general reduction in the Beta bands during cycling could be interpreted within the framework of the neural efficiency hypothesis, which posits a reduced neural activity for expert/automated performances. We argue that the use of graph theoretical indices represents a clear methodological advancement in studying endurance performance.

A cross-cultural validation of the Attention Questionnaire of Rehabilitated Athletes Returning to competition

OBJECTIVES

To culturally adapt the Attention Questionnaire of Rehabilitated Athletes Returning to Competition (AQ-RARC) in the Italian language.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

SETTING

Italian athletes.

PARTICIPANTS

We recruited 324 athletes (215 men, 109 women) divided in two samples: 101 injured athletes returning to their first competition following injury, 223 non-injured athletes making their first competition of the regular season.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The AQ-RARC-IT, the Psychobiosocial States Scale (PBS-ST), and a Concentration Disruption scale. Athletes completed the questionnaires at the end of their first competition. We investigated the construct validity, the internal consistency, and the concurrent validity of all measures.

RESULTS

A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) supported the two-factor structure of the AQ-RARC-IT yielding acceptable fit indices, CFI = 0.930, TLI = 0.912, RMSEA (90% CI) = 0.100 (.076-.123), and SRMR = 0.082. Concurrent validity was evaluated through Pearson's correlation coefficients between measures. Correlations ranged in magnitude from weak to moderately high.

CONCLUSIONS

Study findings showed satisfactory psychometric properties of the AQ-RARC-IT. The questionnaire can be used for clinical and research purposes.

The Injury-Psychological Readiness to return to sport (I-PRRS) scale and the Sport Confidence Inventory (SCI): A cross-cultural validation

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to cross-culturally validate in the Italian language the I-PRRS and the SCI.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

SETTING

Injured Italian athletes.

PARTICIPANTS

We recruited male (n = 73) and female (n = 27) athletes who returned to practice after having completed the rehabilitation.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The measures comprised the I-PRRS, the SCI, and the Italian Mood Scale (ITAMS). Athletes completed the questionnaires within 1 day before their first official competition following injury. We investigated the construct validity, the internal consistency, and the concurrent validity of the I-PRRS and SCI with the ITAMS.

RESULTS

Confirmatory Factor Analysis supported the two-factor structure of the I-PRRS (Confidence in performance capability and Confidence in recovery) and the three-factor structure of the SCI (SC-Physical Skills and Training, SC-Cognitive Efficiency, and SC-Resilience). The reliability scores of both I-PRRS and SCI subscales indicated good internal consistency. Correlation between the I-PRRS and the SCI ranged in magnitude from weak to moderately high. A similar trend of correlations was found between the subscales of the I-PRRS and the ITAMS, as well as between the subscales of the SCI and the ITAMS.

CONCLUSIONS

Study findings showed satisfactory psychometric properties of the Italian version of the I-PRRS and SCI.

Dry EEG in Sports Sciences: A Fast and Reliable Tool to Assess Individual Alpha Peak Frequency Changes Induced by Physical Effort

Novel state-of-the-art amplifier and cap systems enable Electroencephalography (EEG) recording outside of stationary lab systems during physical exercise and body motion. However, extensive preparation time, cleaning, and limited long-term stability of conventional gel-based electrode systems pose significant limitations in out-of-the-lab conditions. Dry electrode systems may contribute to rapid and repetitive mobile EEG acquisition with significantly reduced preparation time, reduced cleaning requirements, and possible self-application by the volunteer but are known for higher channel failure probability and increased sensitivity to movement artifacts. We performed a counterbalanced repeated measure endurance cycling study to objectively validate the performance and applicability of a novel commercially available 64-channel dry electrode cap for sport science. A total of 17 healthy volunteers participated in the study, performing an endurance cycling paradigm comprising five phases: (I) baseline EEG, (II) pre-cycling EEG, (III) endurance cycling, (IV) active recovery, and (V) passive recovery. We compared the performance of the 64-channel dry electrode cap with a commercial gel-based cap system in terms of usability metrics, reliability, and signal characteristics. Furthermore, we validated the performance of the dry cap during a realistic sport science investigation, verifying the hypothesis of a systematic, reproducible shift of the individual alpha peak frequency (iAPF) induced by physical effort. The average preparation time of the dry cap was one-third of the gel-based electrode caps. The average channel reliability of the dry cap varied between 80 ± 15% (Phase I), 66 ± 19% (Phase III), and 91 ± 10% (Phase V). In comparison, the channel reliability of the gel-based cap varied between 95 ± 3, 85 ± 9, and 82 ± 9%, respectively. No considerable differences were evident for the comfort evaluations nor the signal characteristics of both caps. A within-volunteers repeated measure analysis of variance (RM-ANOVA) did not show significant effects of the electrode type on the iAPF [F(1,12) = 1.670, p = 0.221, ηp2 = 0.122, Power = 0.222]. However, a significant increase of the iAPF exists from Phase II to Phases IV and V due to exhaustive physical task. In conclusion, we demonstrated that dry electrode cap is equivalent to the gel-based electrode cap based on signal characteristics, comfort, and signal information content, thereby confirming the usefulness of dry electrodes in sports science and other mobile applications involving ample movement.

Hyperscanning of Interactive Juggling: Expertise Influence on Source Level Functional Connectivity

Hyperscanning studies, wherein brain activity is recorded from multiple participants simultaneously, offer an opportunity to investigate interpersonal dynamics during interactive tasks at the neurophysiological level. In this study, we employed a dyadic juggling paradigm and electroencephalography (EEG) hyperscanning to evaluate functional connectivity between EEG sources within and between jugglers’ brains during individual and interactive juggling. We applied graph theoretical measures to identify significant differences in functional connectivity between the individual and interactive juggling conditions. Connectivity was measured in multiple juggler pairs with various skill levels where dyads were either skill-level matched or skill-level unmatched. We observed that global efficiency was reduced during paired juggling for less skilled jugglers and increased for more skilled jugglers. When jugglers were skill-level matched, additional reductions were found in the mean clustering coefficient and small-world topology during interactive juggling. A significant difference in hemispheric brain lateralization was detected between skill-level matched and skill-level unmatched jugglers during interactive juggling: matched jugglers had an increased right hemisphere lateralization while unmatched jugglers had an increased left hemisphere lateralization. These results reveal multiple differences in functional brain networks during individual and interactive juggling and suggest that similarities and disparities in individual skills can impact inter-brain dynamics in the performance and learning of motor tasks.

Well-Come Back! Professional Basketball Players Perceptions of Psychosocial and Behavioral Factors Influencing a Return to Pre-injury Levels

The psychological factors influencing a return to sport has gained increased research attention. In the current investigation, we explored professional basketball players’ perceptions of the psychosocial and behavioral factors facilitating a return to performance equal to or exceeding previous performance standards. We also sought to describe athletes’ experiences – both positive and negative – of returning to sport following injury recovery. Ten Italian professional male basketball players (age range 22–36 years), were retrospectively interviewed in relation to three time-periods: (1) from the commencement of rehabilitation to their first official competition, (2) the first official competition, and (3) the 6-months following the initial competition. Qualitative content analysis of the data revealed numerous themes across the three time periods. In regards to Period 1, participants indicated that social support, investment in rehabilitation and training programs, coping skills and motivation were fundamental in reaching pre-injury performance levels. During their first official game (i.e., Period 2), athletes reported that realistic performance expectations, focusing on the performance, positive emotions, motivation, arousal and social support facilitated their return to sport. Athletes, however, also described a predominance of factors that hindered their return to pre- injury levels (i.e., low confidence in personal abilities, decrements in skill execution and dysfunctional physical sensations). Moreover, participants typically described a substandard level of performance during their first competition back following injury. In recounting experiences during the 6 months following their first official game, basketballers reported improvements in skill execution and highlighted the importance of coping skills, motivation and social support. The process of restoring self-confidence in one’s ability to successfully perform was perceived as crucial in enabling participants to move beyond a mere return to sport to a return to high performance – that is, to reach a level of proficiency equal to or exceeding previous performance standards. Findings support the relevance of cognitive, emotional and behavioral responses highlighted in the Integrated Model and suggest the importance of addressing psychological factors throughout the return-to-sport process. Finally, results from the present study hold a number of practical implications for athletes’ aiming to achieve a return to pre-injury levels.

Focusing Attention on Muscle Exertion Increases EEG Coherence in an Endurance Cycling Task

The aim of this study was to examine EEG coherence before, during, and after time to exhaustion (TTE) trials in an endurance cycling task, as well as the effect of effort level and attentional focus (i.e., functional external, functional internal, and dysfunctional internal associative strategies-leading to Type 1, Type 2, and Type 3 performances) on brain functional connectivity. Eleven college-aged participants performed the TTE test on a cycle-ergometer with simultaneous EEG and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) monitoring. EEG data from 32 electrodes were divided into five effort level periods based on RPE values (Baseline, RPE 0-4, RPE 5-8, RPE 9-MAX, and Recovery). Within subjects RM-ANOVA was conducted to examine time to task completion across Type 1, Type 2, and Type 3 performance trials. RM-ANOVA (3 performance types × 5 effort levels) was also performed to compare the EEG coherence matrices in the alpha and beta bands for 13 pairs of electrodes (F3-F4, F3-P3, F4-P4, T7-T8, T7-P3, C3-C4, C3-P3, C4-P4, T8-P4, P3-P4, P3-O1, P4-O2, O2-O1). Significant differences were observed on TTE performance outcomes between Type 1 and Type 3, and between Type 2 and Type 3 performance states (p < 0.05), whereas Type 1 and Type 2 performance states did not differ. No significant main effects were observed on performance type (p > 0.05) for all frequency bands in any pair of electrodes of the coherence matrices. Higher EEG coherence values were observed at rest (Baseline) than during cycling (RPE 0-4, 5-8, 9-MAX) for all pairs of electrodes and EEG frequency bands irrespective of the type of performance (main effect of effort, p < 0.05). Interestingly, we observed a performance × effort interaction in C3-C4 in beta 3 band [F_{(4, 77)} = 2.62, p = 0.038] during RPE 9-MAX for Type 3 performance as compared to Type 1 and Type 2 performances. These findings may have practical implications in the development of performance optimization strategies in cycling, as we found that focusing attention on a core component of the action could stimulate functional connectivity among specific brain areas and lead to enhanced performance.

Heart Rate Variability Discriminates Competitive Levels in Professional Soccer Players

Heart rate variability (HRV) has been increasingly used to monitor team sports athletes. Besides the traditional time domain indices (i.e., the SD of successive RR intervals [SDNN] and the root mean square difference of successive normal RR intervals [RMSSD]), recently the use of the stress score (SS), which is an inverse function of the SD2 index derived from the Poincaré plot, and the sympathetic/parasympathetic ratio (S/PS) to monitor soccer players has been proposed. However, the reliability of these new indices and the ability of HRV to differentiate between soccer competitive levels are unknown. The aim of this study was to analyze the reliability of the different HRV-derived indices in professional soccer players during the competitive period and to compare HRV of professional soccer players from 3 teams of distinct competitive levels (i.e., Italian Second Division [2D], European League [EL], and Champions League [CL]). Fifty-four male professional soccer players from 3 different teams of 2 European countries (Italy and Germany) participated in the study. The intraclass correlation coefficient values of the HRV indices varied from 0.78 (very large) to 0.90 (near perfect). The coefficient of variation (CV) values for RMSSD and SDNN were all <5.00%, although the CV for SS was 6.13% and for S/PS, it was 21.33%. Both the CL and EL groups, assumed to be internationally qualified, presented higher lnRMSSD and lnSDNN and lower lnSS and S/PS than the 2D. Therefore, the HRV can be considered reliable in professional soccer players and is able to differentiate between international- and national-level players.

Implementing the TARGET Model in Physical Education: Effects on Perceived Psychobiosocial and Motivational States in Girls

Grounded in achievement goal and self-determination theories, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of mastery and performance climate interventions on students’ psychobiosocial (PBS) states and self-determined motivation. A first study was conducted to determine the validity of the measures. In a second study, two groups of female students (N = 65, 14–15 years of age) took part in the investigation. A mastery-performance group participated in eight task-involving lessons and then in another set of eight ego-involving lessons. A performance-mastery group participated in ego-involving lessons and then in task-involving lessons. Findings revealed that the program was effective in changing PBS states and self-determined motivation in the performance-mastery group. In particular, participants in this group reported lower scores on pleasant/functional PBS states and self-determined motivation after the first phase of the intervention. Furthermore, lower levels of self-determined motivation were maintained after the second phase of the intervention, thereby suggesting detrimental carryover effects.

Individual Alpha Peak Frequency in Ice Hockey Shooting Performance

There are several important inter- and intra-individual variations in individual alpha peak frequency (IAPF) in the cognitive domain. The rationale for the present study was to extend the research on IAPF in the cognitive domain to IAPF in the sport domain. Specifically, the purpose of the present study was twofold: (a) to explore whether baseline IAPF is related to performance in an ice hockey shooting task and (b) to explore whether a shooting task has an effect on IAPF variability. The present investigation is one of the first studies to examine links between IAPF and sport performance. Study results did not show significant changes in IAPF when comparing baseline IAPF and pre- to post-task IAPF across three performance levels. The findings support previous literature in the cognitive domain suggesting that IAPF is a stable neurophysiological marker. Future research should consider the following methodological suggestions: (a) measuring IAPF during sport performance instead of at a resting state, (b) changing the pre-performance resting baseline instructions to take into account sport-specific mental preparation,

Hyperbrain features of team mental models within a juggling paradigm: a proof of concept

BACKGROUND

Research on cooperative behavior and the social brain exists, but little research has focused on real-time motor cooperative behavior and its neural correlates. In this proof of concept study, we explored the conceptual notion of shared and complementary mental models through EEG mapping of two brains performing a real-world interactive motor task of increasing difficulty. We used the recently introduced participative "juggling paradigm," and collected neuro-physiological and psycho-social data. We were interested in analyzing the between-brains coupling during a dyadic juggling task, and in exploring the relationship between the motor task execution, the jugglers'skill level and the task difficulty. We also investigated how this relationship could be mirrored in the coupled functional organization of the interacting brains.

METHODS

To capture the neural schemas underlying the notion of shared and complementary mental models, we examined the functional connectivity patterns and hyperbrain features of a juggling dyad involved in cooperative motor tasks of increasing difficulty. Jugglers' cortical activity was measured using two synchronized 32-channel EEG systems during dyadic juggling performed with 3, 4, 5 and 6 balls. Individual and hyperbrain functional connections were quantified through coherence maps calculated across all electrode pairs in the theta and alpha bands (4-8 and 8-12 Hz). Graph metrics were used to typify the global topology and efficiency of the functional networks for the four difficulty levels in the theta and alpha bands.

RESULTS

Results indicated that, as task difficulty increased, the cortical functional organization of the more skilled juggler became progressively more segregated in both frequency bands, with a small-world organization in the theta band during easier tasks, indicative of a flow-like state in line with the neural efficiency hypothesis. Conversely, more integrated functional patterns were observed for the less skilled juggler in both frequency bands, possibly related to cognitive overload due to the difficulty of the task at hand (reinvestment hypothesis). At the hyperbrain level, a segregated functional organization involving areas of the visuo-attentional networks of both jugglers was observed in both frequency bands and for the easier task only.

DISCUSSION

These results suggest that cooperative juggling is supported by integrated activity of specialized cortical areas from both brains only during easier tasks, whereas it relies on individual skills, mirrored in uncorrelated individual brain activations, during more difficult tasks. These findings suggest that task difficulty and jugglers' personal skills may influence the features of the hyperbrain network in its shared/integrative and complementary/segregative tendencies.

Neural Markers of Performance States in an Olympic Athlete: An EEG Case Study in Air-Pistol Shooting

This study focused on identifying the neural markers underlying optimal and suboptimal performance experiences of an elite air-pistol shooter, based on the tenets of the multi-action plan (MAP) model. According to the MAP model's assumptions, skilled athletes' cortical patterns are expected to differ among optimal/automatic (Type 1), optimal/controlled (Type 2), suboptimal/controlled (Type 3), and suboptimal/automatic (Type 4) performance experiences. We collected performance (target pistol shots), cognitive-affective (perceived control, accuracy, and hedonic tone), and cortical activity data (32-channel EEG) of an elite shooter. Idiosyncratic descriptive analyses revealed differences in perceived accuracy in regard to optimal and suboptimal performance states. Event-Related Desynchronization/Synchronization analysis supported the notion that optimal-automatic performance experiences (Type 1) were characterized by a global synchronization of cortical arousal associated with the shooting task, whereas suboptimal controlled states (Type 3) were underpinned by high cortical activity levels in the attentional brain network. Results are addressed in light of the neural efficiency hypothesis and reinvestment theory. Perceptual training recommendations aimed at restoring optimal performance levels are discussed. Key pointsWe investigated the neural markers underlying optimal and suboptimal performance experiences of an elite air-pistol shooter.Optimal/automatic performance is characterized by a global synchronization of cortical activity associated with the shooting task.Suboptimal controlled performance is characterized by high cortical arousal levels in the attentional brain networks.Focused Event Related Desynchronization activity during Type 1 performance in frontal midline theta was found, with a clear distribution of Event Related Synchronization in the frontal and central areas just prior to shot release.Event Related Desynchronization patterns in low Alpha band for Type 3 performance suggest that higher levels of general cortical arousal are associated with suboptimal-controlled performance states.

Proficient brain for optimal performance: the MAP model perspective

Background. The main goal of the present study was to explore theta and alpha event-related desynchronization/synchronization (ERD/ERS) activity during shooting performance. We adopted the idiosyncratic framework of the multi-action plan (MAP) model to investigate different processing modes underpinning four types of performance. In particular, we were interested in examining the neural activity associated with optimal-automated (Type 1) and optimal-controlled (Type 2) performances.

Methods. Ten elite shooters (6 male and 4 female) with extensive international experience participated in the study. ERD/ERS analysis was used to investigate cortical dynamics during performance. A 4 × 3 (performance types × time) repeated measures analysis of variance was performed to test the differences among the four types of performance during the three seconds preceding the shots for theta, low alpha, and high alpha frequency bands. The dependent variables were the ERD/ERS percentages in each frequency band (i.e., theta, low alpha, high alpha) for each electrode site across the scalp. This analysis was conducted on 120 shots for each participant in three different frequency bands and the individual data were then averaged.

Results. We found ERS to be mainly associated with optimal-automatic performance, in agreement with the “neural efficiency hypothesis.” We also observed more ERD as related to optimal-controlled performance in conditions of “neural adaptability” and proficient use of cortical resources.

Discussion. These findings are congruent with the MAP conceptualization of four performance states, in which unique psychophysiological states underlie distinct performance-related experiences. From an applied point of view, our findings suggest that the MAP model can be used as a framework to develop performance enhancement strategies based on cognitive and neurofeedback techniques.

Athletic performance and recovery-stress factors in cycling: An ever changing balance

We sought to examine whether the relationship between recovery-stress factors and performance would differ at the beginning (Stage 1) and the end (Final Stage) of a multi-stage cycling competition. Sixty-seven cyclists with a mean age of 21.90 years (SD = 1.60) and extensive international experience participated in the study. The cyclists responded to the Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ-Sport) and rated their performance (1 = extremely poor to 10 = excellent) in respect to the first and last stage. Two step-down multiple regression models were used to estimate the relationship among recovery (nine factors; e.g. Physical Recovery, Sleep Quality) and stress factors (10 factors; e.g. Lack of Energy, Physical Complaints), as assessed by the RESTQ-Sport and in relation to performance. Model 1 pertained to Stage 1, whereas Model 2 used data from the Final Stage. The final Model 1 revealed that Physical Recovery (β = .46, p = .01), Injury (β = -.31, p = .01) and General Well-being (β = -.26, p = .04) predicted performance in Stage 1 (R(2) = .21). The final Model 2 revealed a different relationship between recovery-stress factors and performance. Specifically, being a climber (β = .28, p = .01), Conflicts/Pressure (β = .33, p = .01), and Lack of Energy (β = -.37, p = .01) were associated with performance at the Final Stage (R(2) = .19). Collectively, these results suggest that the relationship among recovery and stress factors changes greatly over a relatively short period of time, and dynamically influences performance in multi-stage competitions.