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Burks J, Nadella S, Mahmud A, Mankongpaisarnrung C, Wang J, Hahm JI, Tucker RD, Shivapurkar N, Stern ST, Smith JP. Cholecystokinin Receptor-Targeted Polyplex Nanoparticle Inhibits Growth and Metastasis of Pancreatic Cancer. Cell Mol Gastroenterol Hepatol 2018; 6:17-32. [PMID: 29928669 PMCID: PMC6008260 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcmgh.2018.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2017] [Accepted: 02/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) remains the most aggressive malignancy with the lowest 5-year survival rate of all cancers in part owing to the lack of tumor-specific therapy and the rapid metastatic nature of this cancer. The gastrointestinal peptide gastrin is a trophic peptide that stimulates growth of PDAC in an autocrine fashion by interaction with the cholecystokinin receptor that is overexpressed in this malignancy. METHODS We developed a therapeutic novel polyplex nanoparticle (NP) that selectively targets the cholecystokinin receptor on PDAC. The NP was characterized in vitro and stability testing was performed in human blood. The effects of the target-specific NP loaded with gastrin small interfering RNA (siRNA) was compared with an untargeted NP and with an NP loaded with a scrambled siRNA in vitro and in 2 orthotopic models of PDAC. A polymerase chain reaction metastasis array examined differentially expressed genes from control tumors compared with tumors of mice treated with the targeted polyplex NP. RESULTS The polyplex NP forms a micelle that safely delivers specific gastrin siRNA to the tumor without off-target toxicity. Consistent with these findings, cellular uptake was confirmed only with the targeted fluorescently labeled NP by confocal microscopy in vitro and by IVIS fluorescent based imaging in mice bearing orthotopic pancreatic cancers but not found with untargeted NPs. Tumor uptake and release of the gastrin siRNA NP was verified by decreased cellular gastrin gene expression by quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction and peptide expression by immunohistochemistry. Growth of PDAC was inhibited in a dose-related fashion in cell culture and in vivo. The targeted NP therapy completely blocked tumor metastasis and altered tumor-specific genes. CONCLUSIONS Our polyplex nanoparticle platform establishes both a strong foundation for the development of receptor-targeted therapeutics and a unique approach for the delivery of siRNA in vivo, thus warranting further exploration of this approach in other types of cancers.
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Key Words
- CCK Receptor
- CCK, cholecystokinin
- Ex/Em, maximal excitation and emission wavelengths
- Ga-10, gastrin 10 peptide
- Gastrin
- Gene Therapy
- MW, molecular weight
- N/P, ratio of “amines” of poly (L-lysine) unit and “phosphates” of siRNA complexed in the polyplex
- NMR, nuclear magnetic resonance
- NP, nanoparticle
- Nanotechnology
- Orthotopic
- PBS, phosphate-buffered saline
- PDAC, pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma
- PEG, polyethylene glycol
- PanIN, pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia
- mRNA, messenger RNA
- qRT-PCR, quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction
- siRNA, small interfering RNA
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Burks
- Department of Oncology, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Sandeep Nadella
- Department of Medicine, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Abdullah Mahmud
- National Institutes of Health Nanotechnology Characterization Laboratory, Cancer Research Technology Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, Maryland
| | | | - Juan Wang
- Department of Medicine, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Jong-In Hahm
- Department of Chemistry, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Robin D. Tucker
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Narayan Shivapurkar
- Department of Medicine, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Stephan T. Stern
- National Institutes of Health Nanotechnology Characterization Laboratory, Cancer Research Technology Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, Maryland
| | - Jill P. Smith
- Department of Medicine, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia,Correspondence Address correspondence to: Jill P. Smith, MD, Department of Medicine, Georgetown University, 4000 Reservoir Road, NW, Building D, Room 338, Washington, District of Columbia 20007.
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Mashima H, Watanabe N, Sekine M, Matsumoto S, Asano T, Yuhashi K, Sagihara N, Urayoshi S, Uehara T, Fujiwara J, Ishii T, Tsuboi R, Miyatani H, Ohnishi H. The role of Gα q/Gα 11 signaling in intestinal epithelial cells. Biochem Biophys Rep 2018; 13:93-98. [PMID: 29387814 PMCID: PMC5789759 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2018.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Revised: 12/01/2017] [Accepted: 01/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Intestinal homeostasis and the coordinated actions of digestion, absorption and excretion are tightly regulated by a number of gastrointestinal hormones. Most of them exert their actions through G-protein-coupled receptors. Recently, we showed that the absence of Gαq/Gα11 signaling impaired the maturation of Paneth cells, induced their differentiation toward goblet cells, and affected the regeneration of the colonic mucosa in an experimental model of colitis. Although an immunohistochemical study showed that Gαq/Gα11 were highly expressed in enterocytes, it seemed that enterocytes were not affected in Int-Gq/G11 double knock-out intestine. Thus, we used an intestinal epithelial cell line to examine the role of signaling through Gαq/Gα11 in enterocytes and manipulated the expression level of Gαq and/or Gα11. The proliferation was inhibited in IEC-6 cells that overexpressed Gαq/Gα11 and enhanced in IEC-6 cells in which Gαq/Gα11 was downregulated. The expression of T-cell factor 1 was increased according to the overexpression of Gαq/Gα11. The expression of Notch1 intracellular cytoplasmic domain was decreased by the overexpression of Gαq/Gα11 and increased by the downregulation of Gαq/Gα11. The relative mRNA expression of Muc2, a goblet cell marker, was elevated in a Gαq/Gα11 knock-down experiment. Our findings suggest that Gαq/Gα11-mediated signaling inhibits proliferation and may support a physiological function, such as absorption or secretion, in terminally differentiated enterocytes.
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Key Words
- ACh, acetylcholine
- Ab, antibody
- Atoh1, atonal homolog 1
- CCK, cholecystokinin
- CCK2R, cholecystokinin-2 receptor
- DKO, double knock-out
- Enterocyte
- GIP, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide
- GLP-1, glucagon-like-peptide-1
- GPCR, G-protein coupled receptor
- Gα11
- Gαq
- HE, hematoxylin and eosin
- IEC, intestinal epithelial cell
- NICD, Notch1 intracellular cytoplasmic domain
- Notch
- Proliferation
- TA, transit amplifying
- Tcf1, T-cell factor 1
- VIP, vasoactive intestinal peptide
- Wnt/β-catenin
- mAChR, muscarinic acetylcholine receptor
- qPCR, quantitative real-time PCR
- siRNA, small interfering RNA
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirosato Mashima
- Department of Gastroenterology, Saitama Medical Center, Jichi Medical University, Saitama 330-8503, Japan
| | - Noboru Watanabe
- Department of Gastroenterology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita 010-8543, Japan
| | - Masanari Sekine
- Department of Gastroenterology, Saitama Medical Center, Jichi Medical University, Saitama 330-8503, Japan
| | - Satohiro Matsumoto
- Department of Gastroenterology, Saitama Medical Center, Jichi Medical University, Saitama 330-8503, Japan
| | - Takeharu Asano
- Department of Gastroenterology, Saitama Medical Center, Jichi Medical University, Saitama 330-8503, Japan
| | - Kazuhito Yuhashi
- Department of Gastroenterology, Saitama Medical Center, Jichi Medical University, Saitama 330-8503, Japan
| | - Noriyoshi Sagihara
- Department of Gastroenterology, Saitama Medical Center, Jichi Medical University, Saitama 330-8503, Japan
| | - Shunsuke Urayoshi
- Department of Gastroenterology, Saitama Medical Center, Jichi Medical University, Saitama 330-8503, Japan
| | - Takeshi Uehara
- Department of Gastroenterology, Saitama Medical Center, Jichi Medical University, Saitama 330-8503, Japan
| | - Junichi Fujiwara
- Department of Gastroenterology, Saitama Medical Center, Jichi Medical University, Saitama 330-8503, Japan
| | - Takehiro Ishii
- Department of Gastroenterology, Saitama Medical Center, Jichi Medical University, Saitama 330-8503, Japan
| | - Rumiko Tsuboi
- Department of Gastroenterology, Saitama Medical Center, Jichi Medical University, Saitama 330-8503, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Miyatani
- Department of Gastroenterology, Saitama Medical Center, Jichi Medical University, Saitama 330-8503, Japan
| | - Hirohide Ohnishi
- Department of Gastroenterology, Saitama Medical Center, Jichi Medical University, Saitama 330-8503, Japan
- Japan Organization of Occupational Health and Safety, Kawasaki 211-0021, Japan
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Denroche HC, Kwon MM, Glavas MM, Tudurí E, Philippe M, Quong WL, Kieffer TJ. The role of autonomic efferents and uncoupling protein 1 in the glucose-lowering effect of leptin therapy. Mol Metab 2016; 5:716-724. [PMID: 27656409 PMCID: PMC5021671 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2016.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2016] [Accepted: 06/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective Leptin reverses hyperglycemia in rodent models of type 1 diabetes (T1D). Direct application of leptin to the brain can lower blood glucose in diabetic rodents, and can activate autonomic efferents and non-shivering thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue (BAT). We investigated whether leptin reverses hyperglycemia through a mechanism that requires autonomic innervation, or uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1)-mediated thermogenesis. Methods To examine the role of parasympathetic and sympathetic efferents in the glucose-lowering action of leptin, mice with a subdiaphragmatic vagotomy or 6-hydroxydopamine induced chemical sympathectomy were injected with streptozotocin (STZ) to induce hyperglycemia, and subsequently leptin treated. To test whether the glucose-lowering action of leptin requires activation of UCP1-mediated thermogenesis in BAT, we administered leptin in STZ-diabetic Ucp1 knockout (Ucp1−/−) mice and wildtype controls. Results Leptin ameliorated STZ-induced hyperglycemia in both intact and vagotomised mice. Similarly, mice with a partial chemical sympathectomy did not have an attenuated response to leptin-mediated glucose lowering relative to sham controls, and showed intact leptin-induced Ucp1 expression in BAT. Although leptin activated BAT thermogenesis in STZ-diabetic mice, the anti-diabetic effect of leptin was not blunted in Ucp1−/− mice. Conclusions These results suggest that leptin lowers blood glucose in insulin-deficient diabetes through a manner that does not require parasympathetic or sympathetic innervation, and thus imply that leptin lowers blood glucose through an alternative CNS-mediated mechanism or redundant target tissues. Furthermore, we conclude that the glucose lowering action of leptin is independent of UCP1-dependent thermogenesis. Leptin does not require vagal innervation to reverse hyperglycemia. Leptin therapy reverses hyperglycemia in mice with a partial chemical sympathectomy. Leptin reverses hyperglycemia independent of uncoupling protein 1.
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Key Words
- 6OHDA, 6-hydroxydopamine
- ANS, autonomic nervous system
- BAT, brown adipose tissue
- Brown adipose tissue
- CCK, cholecystokinin
- CNS, central nervous system
- Glucose
- STZ, streptozotocin
- Streptozotocin
- Sympathectomy
- T1D, type 1 diabetes
- TH, tyrosine hydroxylase
- Type 1 diabetes
- UCP1, uncoupling protein 1
- Vagotomy
- iBAT, interscapular BAT
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather C Denroche
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Michelle M Kwon
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Maria M Glavas
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Eva Tudurí
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Marion Philippe
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Whitney L Quong
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Timothy J Kieffer
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada; Department of Surgery, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
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Val-Laillet D, Aarts E, Weber B, Ferrari M, Quaresima V, Stoeckel L, Alonso-Alonso M, Audette M, Malbert C, Stice E. Neuroimaging and neuromodulation approaches to study eating behavior and prevent and treat eating disorders and obesity. Neuroimage Clin 2015; 8:1-31. [PMID: 26110109 PMCID: PMC4473270 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2015.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 275] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2014] [Revised: 03/18/2015] [Accepted: 03/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Functional, molecular and genetic neuroimaging has highlighted the existence of brain anomalies and neural vulnerability factors related to obesity and eating disorders such as binge eating or anorexia nervosa. In particular, decreased basal metabolism in the prefrontal cortex and striatum as well as dopaminergic alterations have been described in obese subjects, in parallel with increased activation of reward brain areas in response to palatable food cues. Elevated reward region responsivity may trigger food craving and predict future weight gain. This opens the way to prevention studies using functional and molecular neuroimaging to perform early diagnostics and to phenotype subjects at risk by exploring different neurobehavioral dimensions of the food choices and motivation processes. In the first part of this review, advantages and limitations of neuroimaging techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), positron emission tomography (PET), single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), pharmacogenetic fMRI and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) will be discussed in the context of recent work dealing with eating behavior, with a particular focus on obesity. In the second part of the review, non-invasive strategies to modulate food-related brain processes and functions will be presented. At the leading edge of non-invasive brain-based technologies is real-time fMRI (rtfMRI) neurofeedback, which is a powerful tool to better understand the complexity of human brain-behavior relationships. rtfMRI, alone or when combined with other techniques and tools such as EEG and cognitive therapy, could be used to alter neural plasticity and learned behavior to optimize and/or restore healthy cognition and eating behavior. Other promising non-invasive neuromodulation approaches being explored are repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) and transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS). Converging evidence points at the value of these non-invasive neuromodulation strategies to study basic mechanisms underlying eating behavior and to treat its disorders. Both of these approaches will be compared in light of recent work in this field, while addressing technical and practical questions. The third part of this review will be dedicated to invasive neuromodulation strategies, such as vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) and deep brain stimulation (DBS). In combination with neuroimaging approaches, these techniques are promising experimental tools to unravel the intricate relationships between homeostatic and hedonic brain circuits. Their potential as additional therapeutic tools to combat pharmacorefractory morbid obesity or acute eating disorders will be discussed, in terms of technical challenges, applicability and ethics. In a general discussion, we will put the brain at the core of fundamental research, prevention and therapy in the context of obesity and eating disorders. First, we will discuss the possibility to identify new biological markers of brain functions. Second, we will highlight the potential of neuroimaging and neuromodulation in individualized medicine. Third, we will introduce the ethical questions that are concomitant to the emergence of new neuromodulation therapies.
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Key Words
- 5-HT, serotonin
- ADHD, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
- AN, anorexia nervosa
- ANT, anterior nucleus of the thalamus
- B N, bulimia nervosa
- BAT, brown adipose tissue
- BED, binge eating disorder
- BMI, body mass index
- BOLD, blood oxygenation level dependent
- BS, bariatric surgery
- Brain
- CBF, cerebral blood flow
- CCK, cholecystokinin
- Cg25, subgenual cingulate cortex
- DA, dopamine
- DAT, dopamine transporter
- DBS, deep brain stimulation
- DBT, deep brain therapy
- DTI, diffusion tensor imaging
- ED, eating disorders
- EEG, electroencephalography
- Eating disorders
- GP, globus pallidus
- HD-tDCS, high-definition transcranial direct current stimulation
- HFD, high-fat diet
- HHb, deoxygenated-hemoglobin
- Human
- LHA, lateral hypothalamus
- MER, microelectrode recording
- MRS, magnetic resonance spectroscopy
- Nac, nucleus accumbens
- Neuroimaging
- Neuromodulation
- O2Hb, oxygenated-hemoglobin
- OCD, obsessive–compulsive disorder
- OFC, orbitofrontal cortex
- Obesity
- PD, Parkinson's disease
- PET, positron emission tomography
- PFC, prefrontal cortex
- PYY, peptide tyrosine tyrosine
- SPECT, single photon emission computed tomography
- STN, subthalamic nucleus
- TMS, transcranial magnetic stimulation
- TRD, treatment-resistant depression
- VBM, voxel-based morphometry
- VN, vagus nerve
- VNS, vagus nerve stimulation
- VS, ventral striatum
- VTA, ventral tegmental area
- aCC, anterior cingulate cortex
- dTMS, deep transcranial magnetic stimulation
- daCC, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex
- dlPFC, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
- fMRI, functional magnetic resonance imaging
- fNIRS, functional near-infrared spectroscopy
- lPFC, lateral prefrontal cortex
- pCC, posterior cingulate cortex
- rCBF, regional cerebral blood flow
- rTMS, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation
- rtfMRI, real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging
- tACS, transcranial alternate current stimulation
- tDCS, transcranial direct current stimulation
- tRNS, transcranial random noise stimulation
- vlPFC, ventrolateral prefrontal cortex
- vmH, ventromedial hypothalamus
- vmPFC, ventromedial prefrontal cortex
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Affiliation(s)
| | - E. Aarts
- Radboud University, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - B. Weber
- Department of Epileptology, University Hospital Bonn, Germany
| | - M. Ferrari
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L'Aquila, Italy
| | - V. Quaresima
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L'Aquila, Italy
| | - L.E. Stoeckel
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, USA
| | - M. Alonso-Alonso
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, USA
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Engelstoft MS, Park WM, Sakata I, Kristensen LV, Husted AS, Osborne-Lawrence S, Piper PK, Walker AK, Pedersen MH, Nøhr MK, Pan J, Sinz CJ, Carrington PE, Akiyama TE, Jones RM, Tang C, Ahmed K, Offermanns S, Egerod KL, Zigman JM, Schwartz TW. Seven transmembrane G protein-coupled receptor repertoire of gastric ghrelin cells. Mol Metab 2013; 2:376-92. [PMID: 24327954 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2013.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 228] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2013] [Accepted: 08/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms regulating secretion of the orexigenic-glucoregulatory hormone ghrelin remain unclear. Based on qPCR analysis of FACS-purified gastric ghrelin cells, highly expressed and enriched 7TM receptors were comprehensively identified and functionally characterized using in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo methods. Five Gαs-coupled receptors efficiently stimulated ghrelin secretion: as expected the β1-adrenergic, the GIP and the secretin receptors but surprisingly also the composite receptor for the sensory neuropeptide CGRP and the melanocortin 4 receptor. A number of Gαi/o-coupled receptors inhibited ghrelin secretion including somatostatin receptors SSTR1, SSTR2 and SSTR3 and unexpectedly the highly enriched lactate receptor, GPR81. Three other metabolite receptors known to be both Gαi/o- and Gαq/11-coupled all inhibited ghrelin secretion through a pertussis toxin-sensitive Gαi/o pathway: FFAR2 (short chain fatty acid receptor; GPR43), FFAR4 (long chain fatty acid receptor; GPR120) and CasR (calcium sensing receptor). In addition to the common Gα subunits three non-common Gαi/o subunits were highly enriched in ghrelin cells: GαoA, GαoB and Gαz. Inhibition of Gαi/o signaling via ghrelin cell-selective pertussis toxin expression markedly enhanced circulating ghrelin. These 7TM receptors and associated Gα subunits constitute a major part of the molecular machinery directly mediating neuronal and endocrine stimulation versus metabolite and somatostatin inhibition of ghrelin secretion including a series of novel receptor targets not previously identified on the ghrelin cell.
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Key Words
- 7TM, seven transmembrane segment
- BAC, bacterial artificial chromosome
- CCK, cholecystokinin
- CFMB, (S)-2-(4-chlorophenyl)-3,3-dimethyl-N-(5-phenylthiazol-2-yl)butamide
- CGRP, calcitonin gene-related peptide
- CHBA, 3-chloro-5-hydroxybenzoic acid
- Enteroendocrine
- G protein signaling
- GIP, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide
- GLP-1, glucagon-like peptide 1
- GPCR
- Ghrelin
- Metabolites
- PTx, Bordetella pertussis toxin
- PYY, peptide YY
- Secretion
- hrGFP, humanized Renilla reniformis green fluorescent protein
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Affiliation(s)
- Maja S Engelstoft
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, Section for Metabolic Receptology and Enteroendocrinology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark ; Laboratory for Molecular Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
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