Comparative growth in the olfactory system of the developing chick with considerations for evolutionary studies

Despite the long-held assumption that olfaction plays a relatively minor role in the behavioral ecology of birds, crown-group avians exhibit marked phylogenetic variation in the size and form of the olfactory apparatus. As part of a larger effort to better understand the role of olfaction and olfactory tissues in the evolution and development of the avian skull, we present the first quantitative analysis of ontogenetic scaling between olfactory features [olfactory bulbs (OBs) and olfactory turbinates] and neighboring structures (cerebrum, total brain, respiratory turbinates) based on the model organism Gallus gallus. The OB develops under the predictions of a concerted evolutionary model with rapid early growth that is quickly overcome by the longer, sustained growth of the larger cerebrum. A similar pattern is found in the nasal cavity where the morphologically simple (non-scrolled) olfactory turbinates appear and mature early, with extended growth characterizing the larger and scrolled respiratory turbinates. Pairwise regressions largely recover allometric relationships among the examined structures, with a notable exception being the isometric trajectory of the OB and olfactory turbinate. Their parallel growth suggests a unique regulatory pathway that is likely driven by the morphogenesis of the olfactory nerve, which serves as a structural bridge between the two features. Still, isometry was not necessarily expected given that the olfactory epithelium covers more than just the turbinate. These data illuminate a number of evolutionary hypotheses that, moving forward, should inform tradeoffs and constraints between the olfactory and neighboring systems in the avian head.

Guideline Values for Minimum Nasal Cross-Sectional Area in Children

OBJECTIVE

The purpose was to determine age-specific values of the minimum cross-sectional area of the nasal airway in children without cleft lip or palate and to assess whether gender differences occur with growth in order to develop guidelines for assessment in children with clefts.

PARTICIPANTS

All schoolchildren aged 8 to 17 years who met the research criteria were studied during rest breathing using the pressure-flow technique. The children came from a rural area of 3800 inhabitants. Consecutive age cohorts were used for comparisons.

RESULTS

Nasal cross-sectional area increased in females from 0.38 cm² in 8-year-olds to 0.58 cm² in 17-year-olds. There was a decrease in size at ages 10 to 11 and 14 to 15 years. In males, the area increased from 0.40 to 0.68 cm² and decreased slightly from 9 to 10 and 14 to 15 years. The annual changes were statistically significant in females between 8 and 9 and 11 to 13 years of age, and in males from 11 to 12, 13 to 14, and 15 to 17 years of age. Across gender, the only significant difference occurred at age 16.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that the increase in nasal airway size is not consistent during growth. Nasal airway size showed almost equal values for both genders in young children but was systematically larger in boys from 14 years of age on. The results refer that by 17 years of age nasal airway may not have reached adult size in males.

Analysis of nasal cavity morphology and nasolabial development of the normal Han ethnic people under age of 12

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to establish the three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction model of nasal cavity for China's Han ethnic population (0-12 years) by laser scanning and photogrammetry, and thus to elucidate the developmental mechanism of nasal cavity morphology and nasolabial region.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A total of 260 normal people of the Han ethnic aged 0-12 were recruited as subjects, among whom 60 were scanned for nasal cavity morphology in order to get reconstructed models with the computer engineering software. Photogrammetry was performed for the remaining 200 subjects to measure the 7 parameters that reflect vertically or horizontally the anatomical features of the nasolabial region.

RESULTS

The interior morphology of nasal cavity was accurately established by 3D laser scanning and photogrammetry with the optimal morphology of nasal cavity simulated through 3D reconstruction. Development of nasal cavity and nasolabial region was also analyzed.

CONCLUSIONS

The 3D laser scanning analysis is the ideal method to analyze the interior morphology of nasal cavity by reconstructing the normal interior morphology of nasal cavity and quantitatively analyze the change of nasal cavity morphology with age. Photogrammetry can be applied to conduct the morphological measurement for the nasolabial region and, thus, assessing the development of the nasolabial region with age, which provides information for choosing the timing and options of surgery in treating harelip and nasal deformity.

Changes in nasal cavity dimensions in children and adults by gender and age

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was to establish the dynamics of changes in the intranasal spaces of children and adults by gender and age.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Each side of the nasal cavity was evaluated separately in 366 healthy subjects 9 to 74 years old. The following acoustic rhinometry parameters were analyzed: 1) I-C, distance between the isthmus nasi (I) and the head of the inferior turbinate (C); 2) CA-I, cross-sectional area at the isthmus nasi; 3) CA-C, at the head of the inferior turbinate; and 4) CA-F, the highest point on the rhinometric curve between points I and C.

RESULTS

Before age 11 years, the intranasal spaces were slightly larger in girls than in boys. After age 11 years the nasal parameters were larger in boys than in girls. The growth rates before age 17 years were as follows: I-C: 0.073 cm/yr, 0.135 cm/yr, CA-F: 0.055 cm2/yr, 0.133 cm2/yr (P < .00001), and CA-C: 0.010 cm2/yr, 0.034 cm2/yr (P < .02) in girls and boys, respectively. In subjects older than 16 years, the mean values of I-C were 1.707 cm, 1.934 cm (P < .0001), and of CA-C, 0.493 cm2, 0.611 cm2 (P < .0001) in women and men, respectively, and changed slightly over the year.

CONCLUSIONS

The parameters of intranasal spaces depend on age and gender. The dynamics of the changes is greater in boys than in girls and usually the growth is completed by the age of 16. After this age, nasal cavities are bigger in men than in women.

A Review of the Effects of Expansion of the Nasal Base on Nasal Airflow and Resistance

PURPOSE

The purpose of this article is to inform the reader of the current literature regarding nasal airflow resistance. The anatomy and physiology of nasal airflow resistance will be examined and the known effects of widening of the nasal airway upon airflow will be described.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This article is a review of the current literature regarding nasal airflow and resistance and the effects of widening of the nasal base. No patient data were collected.

RESULTS

The literature shows that nasal airflow resistance can be changed by surgical manipulation and by rapid palatal expansion, but that the effects on airflow resistance and future growth and development are unpredictable.

CONCLUSION

Patients with a maxilla that is constricted in the transverse dimension and nasal airflow problems may benefit from expansion of the nasal base. The resultant effects upon nasal airflow resistance and subsequent growth and development are unpredictable and therefore airflow issues alone may not be a primary reason to increase the transverse dimension of the nasal base.

Histological changes in rat nasal epithelia after unilateral neonatal naris occlusion

The authors studied the extent of the different epithelia lining the nasal fossae of the albino rat after neonatal closure of one naris. Newborn pups were anesthetized by hypothermia and the external opening of their right naris cauterized, while littermates served as controls. Animals were sacrificed at 3 months, and the occluded (OCF) and nonoccluded (NOF) fossae of experimental animals as well as both fossae of control animals (CTF) were histologically studied. In both control and experimental animals, nasal fossae were lined by five different types of epithelia: squamous stratified, transitional, metaplastic, respiratory, and olfactory epithelia. It was found that closure of one naris provokes reorganization of the epithelial lining in both the occluded and nonoccluded side. In CTF airflow, physical conditions as well as pollutants and biological agents irritate the epithelial lining, causing squamous metaplasia as well as metaplastic epithelium showing inflammation in rostral levels. In CTF caudal levels, the metaplastic epithelium appears to a lesser degree and the respiratory epithelium prevails, except for the most caudal level where the olfactory epithelium is prevalent. In OCF, the protected environment created prevents the occurrence of metaplastic epithelium, the transitional, respiratory, and olfactory epithelia developing in the corresponding area instead. In NOF, where the airflow is double, the same pattern occurs as in CTF, although metaplastic epithelium values are approximately double, suggesting a clear linear effect. An outstanding feature observed was the increased extent of the olfactory epithelium in OCF regarding NOF, although changes in its morphological structure were not found. Airflow properties, including pressure, coldness, velocity, and turbulence, as well as biological and chemical hazards present in inflow, cause histological reorganization of the nasal epithelium lining during postnatal development. Results prove the need to consider airflow changes in nasal fossae surgery and point to the protective value of naris closure in ENT clinics, supporting it as a treatment of atrophic rhinitis.

Ontogeny and homology of the paranasal sinuses in Platyrrhini (Mammalia: Primates)

The identity and taxonomic distribution of paranasal sinuses among living platyrrhines has remained a contentious issue (e.g., Cave [1967] Am J Phys Anthropol 26:277-288 vs. Hershkovitz [1977] Chicago: University of Chicago Press) largely because the ontogenetic data required for their detection and identification (e.g., Cave [1967]; Maier [2000] Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 99-132.) were not attainable without sacrificing valuable juvenile and subadult specimens. Non-invasive computed tomography (CT) scanning of ontogenetic series of skulls for 10 platyrrhine genera demonstrates the presence of maxillary and ethmoid sinuses, as well as homologs of the human sphenoid and frontal sinuses. Differences in the latter two sinuses between platyrrhines and hominoids highlight the need for early developmental data in establishing sinus homology. In particular, the identification of homologous recesses in the cartilaginous nasal capsule, from which sinuses later develop, emerges as the critical step. This developmental approach also reveals that the anterior and posterior ethmoid sinuses are each sets of serial homologs, a point which reconciles previous difficulties in establishing sinus homologies across mammalian orders (e.g., Paulli [1900] Gegenbaurs Morphol Jahrb 28:147-178, 179-251, 483-564).

Olfactory metamorphosis in the Coastal Giant Salamander (Dicamptodon tenebrosus)

This study examined the gross morphology and ultrastructure of the olfactory organ of larvae, neotenic adults, and terrestrial adults of the Coastal Giant Salamander (Dicamptodon tenebrosus). The olfactory organ of all aquatic animals (larvae and neotenes) is similar in structure, forming a tube extending from the external naris to the choana. A nonsensory vestibule leads into the main olfactory cavity. The epithelium of the main olfactory cavity is thrown into a series of transverse valleys and ridges, with at least six dorsal and nine ventral valleys lined with olfactory epithelium, and separated by ridges of respiratory epithelium. The ridges enlarge with growth, forming large flaps extending into the lumen in neotenes. The vomeronasal organ is a diverticulum off the ventrolateral side of the main olfactory cavity. In terrestrial animals, by contrast, the vestibule has been lost. The main olfactory cavity has become much broader and dorsoventrally compressed. The prominent transverse ridges are lost, although small diagonal ridges of respiratory epithelium are found in the lateral region of the ventral olfactory epithelium. The posterior and posteromedial wall of the main olfactory cavity is composed of respiratory epithelium, in contrast to the olfactory epithelium found here in aquatic forms. The vomeronasal organ remains similar to that in large larvae, but is now connected to the mouth by a groove that extends back through the choana onto the palate. Bowman's glands are present in the main olfactory cavity at all stages, but are most abundant and best developed in terrestrial adults. They are lacking in the lateral olfactory epithelium of the main olfactory cavity. At the ultrastructural level, in aquatic animals receptor cells of the main olfactory cavity can have cilia, short microvilli, a mix of the two, or long microvilli. Supporting cells are of two types: secretory supporting cells with small, electron-dense secretory granules, and ciliated supporting cells. Receptor cells of the vomeronasal organ are exclusively microvillar, but supporting cells are secretory or ciliated, as in the main olfactory cavity. After metamorphosis two distinct types of sensory epithelium occur in the main olfactory cavity. The predominant epithelium, covering most of the roof and the medial part of the floor, is characterized by supporting cells with large, electron-lucent vesicles. The epithelium on the lateral floor of the main olfactory cavity, by contrast, resembles that of aquatic animals. Both types have both microvillar and ciliated receptor cells. No important changes are noted in cell types of the vomeronasal organ after metamorphosis. A literature survey suggests that some features of the metamorphic changes described here are characteristic of all salamanders, while others appear unique to D. tenebrosus.

Fgf8 expression defines a morphogenetic center required for olfactory neurogenesis and nasal cavity development in the mouse

In vertebrate olfactory epithelium (OE), neurogenesis proceeds continuously, suggesting that endogenous signals support survival and proliferation of stem and progenitor cells. We used a genetic approach to test the hypothesis that Fgf8 plays such a role in developing OE. In young embryos, Fgf8 RNA is expressed in the rim of the invaginating nasal pit (NP), in a small domain of cells that overlaps partially with that of putative OE neural stem cells later in gestation. In mutant mice in which the Fgf8 gene is inactivated in anterior neural structures, FGF-mediated signaling is strongly downregulated in both OE proper and underlying mesenchyme by day 10 of gestation. Mutants survive gestation but die at birth, lacking OE, vomeronasal organ (VNO), nasal cavity, forebrain, lower jaw, eyelids and pinnae. Analysis of mutants indicates that although initial NP formation is grossly normal, cells in the Fgf8-expressing domain undergo high levels of apoptosis, resulting in cessation of nasal cavity invagination and loss of virtually all OE neuronal cell types. These findings demonstrate that Fgf8 is crucial for proper development of the OE, nasal cavity and VNO, as well as maintenance of OE neurogenesis during prenatal development. The data suggest a model in which Fgf8 expression defines an anterior morphogenetic center, which is required not only for the sustenance and continued production of primary olfactory (OE and VNO) neural stem and progenitor cells, but also for proper morphogenesis of the entire nasal cavity.

Longitudinal posteroanterior changes in transverse and vertical craniofacial structures between 10 and 14 years of age

Longitudinal growth changes in the transverse and vertical craniofacial dimensions occurring between 10 and 14 years of age were evaluated in 22 female and 23 male subjects. All subjects were healthy, had a clinically acceptable occlusion, and had not received orthodontic or orthopedic therapy before. Serial cephalometric radiographs were taken at ages 10, 11, 12, and 14 years. In studying the P-A cephalograms, seven transverse and five vertical measurements were used. The effects of age and sex on the transverse and vertical growth of the craniofacial structures were investigated by means of analysis of variance and Bonferroni multiple comparison test. The results of the study revealed that all measurements studied were affected by age, and cranial, facial, nasal, and maxillary widths were affected by sex. The most pronounced age-related increases occurred in the mandibular width for transverse measurements and in the total facial height for vertical measurements in both sexes during this study.

Facial growth after middle turbinate resection: an experimental study in the rabbit

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to determine the effects of total middle turbinate resection on midfacial growth through a morphometric analysis on an animal model.

METHODS

Twenty-eight male New Zealand white rabbits were used. The animals were divided into three groups: group 1, elevation and relocation of the nasal bone was performed; group 2, concha resection was performed; group 3, control group with no surgical procedure. The surgery was done at 8-10 weeks of age and the skull of each subject was sampled as they reached maturity. The determined distances then were measured by using landmarks identified on skull. The supplied data were evaluated by using the Mann-Whitney U test.

RESULTS

Deviation of the nasal axis to the opposite side of the resected concha and an increase in the width of nasal bone were observed only in group 2. In group 1, an increase of nasal bone length and zygomaticonasal distances was determined in both the operated and the unoperated sides of nasal bones.

CONCLUSION

This animal experiment showed that operations on the nasal bone or concha resection affected the midfacial growth in rabbits. The effects of middle turbinate resection to midfacial development should be evaluated by additional studies. We recommend only limited, conservative surgical procedures on the middle turbinate, saving all the vital mucosa, periosteum, and bone.

Internal nasal floor configuration in Homo with special reference to the evolution of Neandertal facial form

The presence of a steeply sloping or depressed nasal floor within the nasal cavity of Neandertals is frequently mentioned as a likely specialization or autapomorphy. The depressed nasal floor has also been seen as contributing to a relatively more capacious nasal cavity in Neandertals, which is tied to cold-climate respiratory adaptation and energetics. These observations have been limited largely to a relatively few intact crania, and the character states associated with this trait have not been as precisely codified or analyzed as those published for Plio-Pleistocene hominins (McCollum et al., 1993, J. Hum. Evol. 24, 87; McCollum, 2000, Am. J. Phys. Anthrop. 112, 275). This study examines the internal nasal floor topography in complete crania and isolated maxillae in European, west Asian, and African fossil Homo (n=158) including 25 Neandertals, and a wide range of recent humans from Europe, the Near East, and Africa (n=522). The configuration of the internal nasal floor relative to the nasal cavity entrance is codified as: 1) level, forming a smooth continuous plane; 2) sloped or mildly stepped; or 3) bilevel with a pronounced vertical depression. The frequency of these nasal floor configurations, and their relationship to both nasal margin cresting patterning and a comprehensive set of nasofacial metrics is examined. Neandertals show a high frequency of the bilevel (depressed) configuration in both adults and subadults (80%), but this configuration is also present in lower frequencies in Middle Pleistocene African, Late Pleistocene non-Neandertal (Skhul, Qafzeh), and European Later Upper Paleolithic samples (15%-50%). The bilevel configuration is also present in lower frequencies (ca. 10%) in all recent human samples, but attains nearly 20% in some sub-Saharan African samples. Across extinct and extant Homo (excluding Neandertals), internal nasal floor configuration is not associated with piriform aperture nasal margin patterning, but the two are strongly linked in Neandertals. Variation in internal nasal floor configuration in recent humans is primarily associated with internal nasal fossa breadth and nasal bridge elevation, whereas in fossil hominins, it is associated primarily with variation in facial height. Cold-climate and activity-related thermal adaptation as an explanation for the high frequency of pronounced nasal floor depression in Neandertals is inconsistent with all available data. Alternatively, variation in internal nasal floor configuration is more likely related to stochastically derived populational differences in fetal nasofacial growth patterns that do not sharply differentiate genus Homo taxa (i.e., cladistically), but do phenetically differentiate groups, in particular the Neandertals, especially when considered in combination with other nasofacial features.

Surgery of the lateral nasal wall and ethmoid: effects on sinonasal growth: an experimental study in rabbits

OBJECTIVE

To assess the impact of lateral nasal wall surgery on sinonasal growth

METHODS

Twenty young New Zealand White rabbits, 6 weeks of age, were included in this experimental study. Surgery was performed on two groups of ten animals each (series I and II). Entrance to the left nasal cavity is achieved through the nasal dorsum via mobilization and rotation of the left nasal bone. Series I: partial resection of the lateral nasal wall (including the ostium to the maxillary sinus) on the left side. Series II: partial resection of the lateral nasal wall and anterior ethmoid. Follow-up period was 20 weeks. Twenty rabbits served as controls.

RESULTS

In series I, all skulls have grown normally. In series II the nasal dorsum has also developed symmetrically. Snout length and growth of upper jaw are normal; there is no malocclusion. Three skulls show a slight deviation of the nasal dorsum (two to the left, one to the right). Morphometric measurements of 20 points on the skulls show no significant difference between the control group and the experimental series I and II.

CONCLUSION

This experimental study demonstrates that visually controlled partial resection of the bony sinonasal wall, with or without resection of the anterior ethmoid does not affect later development of nose and upper jaw on condition that eventually underlying cartilage is preserved. Contradictory results from other experimental studies, previously published and concerning negative effects of sinus surgery, might be attributed to surgical traumatization of intranasal cartilage structures, in particular, the upper lateral cartilages.

Arterial ligation for pediatric epistaxis: developmental anatomy

BACKGROUND

Anatomic studies of adult skulls have aided in the design of operations for the surgical ligation of nasal feeding vessels in the treatment of severe epistaxis. Lack of appropriate specimens has prevented similar studies in children. We performed an anthropometric study of archeological specimens to learn the effects of growth on key anatomic relationships.

METHODS

We studied the skulls of children who died between 200 and 8000 years ago, recovered from archeological digs around the world. Measurements of the distances from the posterior lacrimal crest to the foramina of anterior and posterior ethmoidal arteries and optic canal and the pyriform aperture to the foramen of the sphenopalatine artery were made and compared with postnatal age, estimated from facial growth and dental eruption patterns.

RESULTS

There is rapid growth in the orbit and midface during the first 6 years of life and gradual growth between 7 years and adulthood. The length of the medial wall of the orbit doubles during development with disproportionate enlargement of its anterior half.

CONCLUSION

Arterial ligation is sometimes required for intractable pediatric epistaxis, especially after trauma. The changing relationships of critical structures in the orbital must be understood to allow safe ethmoidal artery ligation. The transantral approach to the maxillary artery is greatly limited by lack of midfacial development and maxillary pneumatization. We describe the necessary parameters for endoscopic, transnasal sphenopalatine artery ligation in growing children.

Expression of netrin-1 and netrin-1 receptor, DCC, in the rat olfactory nerve pathway during development and axonal regeneration

Netrin-1 is a bifunctional secreted protein that directs axon extension in various groups of developing axonal tracts. The transmembrane DCC (deleted in colorectal cancer) receptor is described as netrin-1 receptor and is involved in the attractive effects of netrin-1. In this study, we examined the spatio-temporal expression patterns of both netrin-1 and DCC in the rat olfactory system at different stages of development and during axonal regeneration following unilateral bulbectomy. High DCC expression was detected on the pioneer olfactory axons as they are extending toward the telencephalon. This expression was transient since from embryonic day 16 onwards, DCC was no longer detected along the olfactory nerve path. From embryonic day 14 until birth, DCC was also expressed within the mesenchyme surrounding the olfactory epithelium. During the same period, netrin-1 protein was detected along the trajectory of olfactory axons up to the olfactory bulb and its expression pattern in the nasal mesenchyme largely overlapped that of DCC. Moreover, netrin-1 continued to be present during the two first post-natal weeks, and a weak protein expression still persisted in the dorso-medial region of the olfactory epithelium in adult rats. While unilateral bulbectomy induced a transient up-regulation of netrin-1 in the lamina propria, particularly in the dorso-medial region of the neuroepithelium, no DCC expression was detected on the regenerating olfactory axons. In the developing olfactory bulb, the extension of mitral cell axons was associated with DCC presence while netrin-1 was absent along this axonal path. DCC was also highly expressed in the newly formed glomeruli after birth, and a weak DCC expression was still detected in the glomerular layer in adult rats. Taken together, these data support the notion that netrin-1, via DCC expressed on axons, may play a role in promoting outgrowth and/or guidance of pioneering olfactory axons toward the olfactory bulb primordium. Moreover, association of netrin-1 with mesenchymal DCC may provide a permissive environment to the growth of both pioneer and later-growing axons. The maintenance of netrin-1 expression in the nasal mesenchyme of adult rats as well as its regional up-regulation following unilateral bulbectomy infer that netrin-1, even in the absence of DCC, may be involved in the process of axonal growth of newly differentiated olfactory receptor neurons probably through the use of other receptors.

Effects of a modified acrylic bonded rapid maxillary expansion appliance and vertical chin cap on dentofacial structures

The aim of this study was to determine the sagittal, transverse, and vertical effects of a modified acrylic bonded rapid maxillary expansion (RME) device used with a vertical chin cap on dentofacial structures. The study group consisted of 34 patients (25 girls and 9 boys) who were selected without regard to their skeletal class and gender. All subjects had permanent dentition (mean age, 12.7 years) and needed maxillary expansion. Study Group I (RME only) was composed of 17 subjects, and study Group II (RME with vertical chin cap) was composed of 17 subjects. Twenty-nine measurements were made on the patients' cephalometric films and plaster models. The means and standard deviations for linear and angular cephalometric measurements were analyzed statistically, and intra-group and inter group changes were evaluated by paired and Student's t-tests using SPSS 10.1 for windows. We found that the maxilla moved anteriorly relative to the anterior cranial base. The nasal width, maxillary width, intercanine width, mandibular intermolar width, maxillary intermolar width, and overjet all increased, while the upper molars tipped buccally in both groups. In Group I, the mandible rotated posteriorly, the lower anterior facial height increased, and the overbite decreased. These effects were reduced in Group II. We conclude that the vertical chin cap is an effective appliance for preventing the adverse vertical effects of RME in patients with a crossbite and a vertical growth pattern.

[Development of the maxilla in patients with complete unilateral cleft palate surgically treated by a periosteal transplantation technic. A retrospective study of 15 surgical cases with an 18 year follow-up]

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to assess retrospectively the long-term growth of the maxilla in subjects with unilateral total cleft treated initially with the tibial periosteal graft technique.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

The study group included 15 patients with a mean 18 years follow-up (range 15-20 years). All patients had been operated on by the same surgeon. Only patients in stage DP3, one to two years after peak growth were retained for review. Delaire's architectural analysis was used to study anteroposterior and vertical growth of the maxilla. Transverse growth was studied with the Mars occlusal score. Bone generation induced by the periosteum was studied using the Björk Holmgren analysis. The quality of the palatine and nasal repair was studied using Pruzansky's criteria.

RESULTS

Anteroposterior and vertical growth led to a normal maxilla in 53.3% of the cases and a moderate to severe retromaxilla (> 5 mm) in 46.7%. Complete symmetry was achieved for the nasal fossae in 20% of the cases and marked asymmetry was noted in 26%. The height of the nasal fossae was symmetrical in 60% of the cases with marked asymmetry in 26%. Mean production of alveolar bone reached 58% of the height of the alveolar bone filling. It was good in 46.6% of the cases, fair in 26.7% and weak in 26.7%. The occlusal score evidenced crossed occlusion in 33.3% of the cases for a hemisection and in 46.7% of the cases for an anterior section. Normal occlusion was achieved in 20%. The quality of palatine repair was found to be good with a normal mucosa in 86.7% of the cases. A fistula was present in 13.3%.

CONCLUSION

The preoperative objectives of periosteal graft repair of unilateral complete clefts were achieved. This technique provides a closed scar-free palate. Nasal repair favored the development of an ample and functional airway. The periosteal graft produced bone in the anterior portion allowing a harmonious premaxillary region and stable nose support.

Acoustic rhinometry in infants and children

Acoustic rhinometry (AR), introduced a decade ago for assessment of the nasal airways of adults, has several attractive features relevant to application in a paediatric population. Its non-invasive nature, simplicity and rapidity are prime assets when examining infants and small children. Valid AR measurements can be obtained in a few seconds and require minimal co-operation. The striking consistency of AR studies of healthy subjects and the agreement with CT-derived and directly measured choanal dimensions are a strong indication of its reliability. Acoustic rhinometry optimised for infants and small children opens new perspectives and possibilities in the assessment of nasal airway dimensions and their relationship to pathological conditions in both the upper and the lower airways. The objective of this paper is to describe the advantages of AR in infants and children, but also point out its limitations and potential sources of error. Practical guidelines as to the measurement procedure and analysis and interpretation of AR-data are outlined.

[Changes in the shape of choanal openings and airflow rates during development]

The shape of the choanal openings were examined in 173 babies aged zero to six months using digital video fiberscope inserted via nose. A numerical analysis and the fluid mechanics were then calculated for each recorded choanal opening. The choanal openings in one month old babies were a flat oval shape. Vertical development was faster than that of horizontal development, and the choanal openings changed from a flat oval to a round and finally a vertical oval shapes as the babies aged from two to four months. Both the air resistance and airflow ratio in the choanae can be calculated by Navier-Stoke's equation, if the choanae are assumed to be an oval tube. Using this equation, it was calculated that the air resistance ratio was one to five and the airflow ratio increased five times from neonates to six month old babies.

Olfactory epithelium consisting of supporting cells and horizontal basal cells in the posterior nasal cavity of mice

The olfactory epithelium of mice generally consists of olfactory cells, progenitors of olfactory cells (globose basal cells), supporting cells, and horizontal basal cells. However, in the dorsal fossa (the roof) of the posterior nasal cavity of mice, we found seven epithelial patches consisting of only non-neuronal cell types, i.e., supporting cells and horizontal basal cells, among the normal olfactory epithelium. The supporting cells occupied three or four layers in the apical to middle regions; in the basal region, horizontal basal cells were localized in a single row adjacent to the basement membrane. Bowman's gland ducts were also present in the epithelium. Neuronal cells (olfactory cells and globose basal cells) were totally absent. The ultrastructure of the supporting cells, horizontal basal cells, and Bowman's glands was essentially similar to that in the normal olfactory epithelium. In the early postnatal period (P1-P7), cell types in the epithelium were the same as those in the normal olfactory epithelium. From P10 to P21, olfactory cells and globose basal cells had disappeared from the olfactory epithelium. At this period, the number of TUNEL-positive cells was significantly higher than that in the surrounding olfactory epithelium; ultrastructurally, many apoptotic figures were observed. This suggests that the epithelium consisting of supporting cells and horizontal basal cells is generated by the apoptotic death of olfactory cells and globose basal cells during postnatal development.

The robust australopithecine face: a morphogenetic perspective

The robust australopithecines were a side branch of human evolution. They share a number of unique craniodental features that suggest their monophyletic origin. However, virtually all of these traits appear to reflect a singular pattern of nasomaxillary modeling derived from their unusual dental proportions. Therefore, recent cladistic analyses have not resolved the phylogenetic history of these early hominids. Efforts to increase cladistic resolution by defining traits at greater levels of anatomical detail have instead introduced substantial phyletic error.

Anuran postnasal wall homology: an experimental extirpation study

The nasal placode was extirpated unilaterally in Gosner stage 18-20 embryos of Rana sylvatica, R. palustris and R. pipiens, in order to test alternative proposed schemes of homology for the ethmoidal attachment of the palatoquadrate in anurans and urodeles. Absence of the nasal sac has no pronounced effect on the formation of larval chondrocranial structures. In contrast, in metamorphosed animals the lamina orbitonasalis and inferior prenasal process are the only nasal capsule structures present on the operated side. The medial nasal branch of the deep ophthalmic nerve passes forward over the dorsal surface of the lamina orbitonasalis, rather than through an orbitonasal foramen. Comparison with previous experimental work on urodeles supports the traditional homology of the anuran lamina orbitonasalis with the antorbital process of urodeles and other vertebrates.

Expression of neuropsin in the keratinizing epithelial tissue-immunohistochemical analysis of wild-type and nude mice

Neuropsin is a trypsin-type serine protease that was first cloned from the mouse brain as a factor related to neural plasticity. Subsequent in situ hybridization histochemical analysis indicated a broad localization of its mRNA throughout the whole body, although the details remain obscure. In this study, we showed that neuropsin immunoreactivity is localized in the keratinized stratified epithelia of the mouse epidermis, hair, tongue, palate, nasal cavity, pharynges, esophagus, and forestomach. In the skin and mucous membranes, neuropsin immunoreactivity was found in the stratum spinosum and the stratum granulosum. The immunoreactivity in the former sublayer was mainly present in the cytoplasm, but that in the latter sublayer was exclusively present in the intercellular space or on the outer surface of the cell membrane and thus exhibited a lamellar-like peripheral distribution. During development, the appearance of neuropsin immunoreactivity in the various epithelia was found at embryonic days 14.5-15.5, prior to formation of the stratum corneum. More extensive expression of neuropsin immunoreactivity was found in the nude mouse skin and mucous membranes than in wild-type mice. Because the nude mouse is characterized by genetic impairment of keratinization, such abnormal neuropsin expression might be caused or affected by this impairment. Therefore, neuropsin, an extracellular serine protease, is suggested to be involved in keratinization in the stratified epithelia.

Ontogenesis and cytomorphology of the nasal olfactory organs in the Oman shark, Iago omanensis (Triakidae), in the Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea

BACKGROUND

Sharks (Selachi) are among the largest predators in deep and shallow seas, feeding on live and dead prey. Olfaction is one of the central senses by which they forage, especially at night and in deep water. The organs responsible for this function are the olfactory rosettes, which are situated in their nares. This study follows the ontogenesis and cytological development of the olfactory rosettes of the Oman shark, Iago omanensis, found in the Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea, at depths of 150-1500 m.

METHODS

The sharks were collected bimonthly by means of a specially designed vertical standing net and sacrificed by an overdose of MS222. The olfactory rosettes were extracted from the adults and embryos, then fixed and prepared for EM and LM studies.

RESULTS

Iago is a placental, matrotrophic species with a maximal dimension of 800 mm TL (total length). It reproduces all year round, giving birth to a maximum of four (occasionally five) young of 170-180 mm TL. In newborn and adult fish the nasal olfactory organs are as described for other sharks, composed of olfactory lamellae with secondary folds. The number of lamellae increases during embryogenesis up to a maximum of 28-32 in adults. The primary nasal placodes first appear in larvae of 10-14 mm on the dorso-lateral part of the head and then become gradually displaced to the ventral position, typical for adults. Ontogenesis of the nasal rosettes is characterized by a gradual development of the lamellae and their secondary folds, with a concomitant ripening of the sensory elements (ciliated, microvillar, and rod-like bearing cells), as well as glandular and supporting cells and cells containing kinocilia that agitate the nasal water flow.

CONCLUSIONS

The released young possess functional olfactory organs and developed neural transmission across the olfactory bulb and tract, to the olfactory lobes in the brain, enabling them to forage from birth. Presented data show the occurrence in I. omanensis of two types of ciliated and microvillar cells. Ciliated and rod-bearing sensory neurons are described for the first time in sharks.

Cephalometric comparison of craniofacial morphology between primary bone grafted and nongrafted complete unilateral cleft lip and palate adults

The effect of primary bone grafts on craniofacial growth was evaluated in adult patients with complete unilateral cleft lip and palate (UCLP). The subjects were 18 UCLP patients with primary bone grafts and a control group of 36 UCLP patients without bone grafts. The former received primary transplantation of autogenous rib bone simultaneously with primary cheiloplasty by the same surgeon between 1963 and 1969. Frontal and lateral cephalograms taken after 16 years of age were traced. Skeletal landmarks were identified on them, and their x,y-coordinates were digitized. The effects of gender and/or primary bone graft on the craniofacial morphology were tested by ANOVA using 21 angles, 8 breadths, 13 distances, and 2 ratios. Nasal cavity breadth was wider in the primary bone grafted group. However, the anterior maxilla in that group was more upward and retruded than that in the nongrafted group. The primary bone grafted group was divided into two subgroups based on the overjet of the incisors: group N = normal overjet; group C = anterior cross-bite. There was no difference in the maxilla between groups N and C. However, the mandible in group C was more anterior and superior than in group N. In conclusion, primary bone graft may impede maxillary horizontal and vertical growth to a certain degree, and severe anterior cross-bite in primary bone grafted subjects may be brought about by mandibular closure.

[Primary headache and orthognathorhinodontia in childhood]

The aim of the research was to study the interrelationship between the primary neurovascular headaches, the various levels dimension of nasal pyramid and the rapid palatal expansion. Twenty-five patients, of both sexes and on developmental age, were studied before and after the rapid palatal expansion. All patients showed palatal hypoplasia and were suffering from primary neurovascular headache. The research was based on the cephalometric and rhinomanometric data. The radiographic documentation of each patient consisted of three postero-anterior teleradiographic projection; the first before application of the disjunction device, the second immediately after disjunction and the third at the end of the contention period. The rhinomanometric evaluation studied the reduction of nasal resistance values before and after palatal expansion. In all patients a constant increase in the values relating both skeletal and dental structures was observed. The nasal septum, if deviated, appeared straightend. The nasal resistances were decreased. The concomitant headache symptomatology presented resolution or recovery in the 98% of treated patients. The results should confirm the hypothesis of the central-peripheral theory of "primary headaches" and the possibility to treat the primary headaches by rapid palatal disjunction in eliminating the stenosis at various levels of nasal pyramid.

Nasal cavity dimensions in the newborn measured by acoustic reflections

The acoustic reflections technique was used to measure nasal cavity dimensions in 27 newborns. The results were expressed in terms of curves describing cross-sectional area as a function of the distance into the nose. From these curves, a mean curve with 95% confidence limits, nasal cavity volumes between the nostril and 4.5 cm into the nasal cavity (V45 = 1.05 (0.24) cm3), the cross-sectional area at the narrowest site (Amin = 0.114 (0.033) cm2), and the distance from the nostril to Amin (DAmin = 1.14 (0.47) cm), expressed as mean and SD were calculated. There was a weak correlation between Amin and length and weight at birth, but otherwise nasal cavity dimensions did not correlate with sex, race, birth weight, birth length, head circumference, or duration of gestation. Comparison of the curves from the newborns with curves from adults showed a facial growth in vertical/transverse directions (area) of 600% and anterior/posterior directions of 120%. The technique of acoustic rhinometry is noninvasive, and can be performed rapidly, and is therefore eminently suitable for pediatric application. Further investigations are needed to demonstrate the value as a diagnostic tool in pathological cases.

Does nasal septal deviation influence adult posterior choanal size?

Despite the development of modern imaging techniques, no study has been carried out to establish the normal size (particularly the area) of the adult posterior choanae. In this study we present our findings of the normal anatomical sizes of the adult posterior choanae and its relationship to septal deviation, by analysing MRI images of 70 patients. Coronal sections through the sphenoid rostrum and axial sections through the nasal septum were used. There were 32 males and 38 female patients. The age ranged between 18 and 73 years (mean 35.6). Our results show that the posterior choanal dimensions were as follows: right area: 1.35-6.1 cm2 (mean 2.7 cm2); left area: 1.4-5.9 cm2 (mean 2.7 cm2); right width: 0.9-2.1 cm (mean 1.5 cm); left width: 0.9-2.2 cm (mean 1.5 cm); right height: 2.5-4.0 cm (mean 2.6 cm); and left height: 1.5-4.0 cm (mean 2.5 cm). Chi-square analysis showed no statistically significant differences between left- and right-sided measurements. Twenty-three patients had a deviated septum towards the left side, 22 patients towards the right side, and 25 patients had no septal deviation. Chi-square analysis showed no statistical correlation between deviation of the nasal septum and any of the three dimensions of the posterior choanae studied.

Unilateral naris closure and olfactory system development

In most animals there is bilateral access of odorants to the olfactory sensory epithelium. Air enters the nose through two external nares and passes back through the nasal cavity, which is divided down the midline by a cartilaginous nasal septum. The olfactory mucosa, a sheet of ciliated bipolar receptor cells, is found in the caudal two thirds of the nasal cavity. Axons from the sensory cells project to an ipsilateral extension of the telencephalon known as the olfactory bulb. If a single external naris of a rat pup is surgically closed (usually via brief cauterization) on the day after the day of birth (P1) and the subject is examined on P30, the size of the ipsilateral olfactory bulb is reduced by approximately 25%. The large reduction in size, coupled with the clear lamination and other features of the olfactory system, indicates that the manipulation is an ideal preparation for examining the regulation of early growth. We know that both olfactory bulbs are of equal size at the time of occlusion, but that 30 days later there is a large discrepancy. What series of events produces the changes? The present paper outlines what is known about the anatomical, biochemical and physiological changes introduced by naris occlusion in order to lay a framework for further work.

Comparative cephalometric study of nasal cavity growth patterns in seven animal models

Although primates have been the craniofacial growth models of choice, recent circumstances have stimulated the search for nonprimate models. In a series of studies we have described changes in various regions of the craniofacial complex for seven commonly used animal models. The present study examined the bony nasal cavity. One hundred and forty-four serial and cross-sectional lateral head x-rays were obtained for unoperated controls from previous growth studies. The sample consisted of data from 26 rats, 21 rabbits, 21 domestic cats, 23 domestic dogs, 17 baboons, 16 rhesus monkeys, and 20 chimpanzees. Comparative human data was taken from the Bolton Standards. The samples were divided into three age categories based on dental and somatic development. Midsagittal nasal cavity measurements included length, height, shape index, and area. Analysis was based on the percent increase in measures from the infant condition. Three major shapes were discerned at adulthood (1) vertical quadrangles (humans and cats); (2) triangles (chimpanzees, rhesus monkeys, and baboons), and (3) horizontal quadrangles (rabbits, rats, and dogs). Results showed that overall shape was best modeled by the chimpanzee and, as a nonprimate model, the laboratory cat. Rabbits and rats also showed similar percent changes for length or height dimensions at different ages, suggesting that these animals may be acceptable, inexpensive alternatives to primates in some experimental situations.

Development of the paranasal sinuses in children: implications for paranasal sinus surgery

The pediatric nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses, when compared to those in adults, differ not only in size but also in proportion. Knowledge of the unique anatomy and pneumatization of children's sinuses is an important prerequisite to understanding the pathogenesis of sinusitis and its complications. It is also important in evaluation of radiographs and in planning surgical interventions. In order to study the development of the paranasal sinuses in children and relate clinical anatomy to sinus surgery, the sinuses in 102 pediatric skulls and cadaver heads were measured. The results were classified by stage of development into 4 different age groups: newborn and 1 to 4, 4 to 8, and 8 to 12 years. The characteristics of each group and their clinical importance for paranasal sinus surgery are described.

Acoustic rhinometry in pre-school children

Acoustic rhinometry was performed in 35 normal nose-breathing children between 3 and 6 years. The average cross-sectional areas at the nasal valve, at the anterior end of the turbinates, and in the nasopharynx were 0.34 +/- 0.06 cm2, 0.35 +/- 0.08 cm2 and 1.37 +/- 0.48 cm2 respectively. The average minimal cross-sectional area was 0.29 +/- 0.06 cm2. The minimal cross-sectional area was located at the nasal valve in 14 and at the anterior end of nasal turbinates in 21 of the 35 children. As would be expected, the cross-sectional areas at different sites of the nasal cavity increased with increasing age of the children. But, whereas the minimal cross-sectional area increased by 0.024 cm2 per year, the nasopharyngeal cross-sectional area increased by 0.20 cm2 per year. No significant differences were found between boys and girls. Measurements of the posterior nasal and nasopharyngeal cross-sectional areas were unreliable, whenever the minimal cross-sectional area was less than 0.2 cm2. Furthermore, assessment of the nasopharynx may be difficult because of involuntary movements of the soft palate.

Variations of the ethmoid labyrinth and sphenoid sinus and CT imaging

Three hundred macerated and partly isolated postmortem mid-facial bones were studied for the development, variations and dimensions of the structures of the nasal cavity. On 184 axial CT scans of bones (102 male, 82 female) from patients ranging in age from 1 to 90 years old, the dimensions of the ethmoid labyrinth and sphenoid sinus were studied in detail in order to determine which anatomic situation might be unsafe during clinical endoscopic interventions. Six anatomic variations were identified. Most unsafe for surgery seemed to be the following types: type III, in which the anterior diameter of the ethmoid labyrinth was large and the posterior ethmoid and sphenoid diameters were relatively narrow; type V, in which both ethmoid dimensions were large and the sphenoid diameter was narrow: type VI, in which the ethmoid labyrinth had an "hour-glass" shape. Present findings indicate that CT orientation before any endoscopic intervention might help to avoid serious complications.

Growth patterns of the nasolabial region: a morphometric study

Age-related growth changes in the nasolabial region were analyzed through six measurements taken between 1 year and 18 years of age in 1,593 North American Caucasians. By 1 year of age, the length of the cutaneous portion of the upper lip and the width of the nose showed the highest levels of development compared with their adult size, 80.3 and 79.5%, respectively. By 5 years, the developmental level of the nasolabial region except nasal tip protrusion approached their maturation level. Our nasal measurements indicated that growth of the nose between 5 and 18 years was significantly greater than that of the upper lip, which revealed significantly greater growth increments between 1 and 5 years of age. The cutaneous upper lip height reached its adult size in 3-year-old females (12.7 mm) and 6-year-old males (14.4 mm). Nose width and height were fully developed in females by age 12 and in males by age 14 or 15. Rapid growth occurred in the upper lip, nose height, and nasal tip protrusion between the ages of 1 and 4 years. Knowledge of these age-related morphologic variations within the nose and upper lip may be useful in planning the time and type of reconstructive surgery and in anticipating further change in the operated regions after the surgical reconstruction.

Retinal growth in foveated teleosts: nasotemporal asymmetry keeps the fovea in temporal retina

Fish retinas continue to grow throughout life by adding neurons at the margin, with the result that cells born at a peripheral site are steadily displaced toward the center of the enlarging retina. This presents a functional problem for fish with specialized temporal areas such as a fovea--how to reconcile continual growth with the maintenance of a temporal location for the fovea. One possibility is that the retina grows asymmetrically, with most new retina added nasally, relatively little temporally. I have tested this hypothesis by evaluating retinal growth in marine teleosts from 15 families, both foveated and unfoveated. The pattern of growth was revealed by exploiting the fact that each new generation of ganglion cells sends its axons into the optic nerve as a cohort; small grains of the carbocyanine dye 1,1'-dioctadecyl-3,3,3',3'-tetramethyl-indocarbocyanine were applied to various sites in the cross section of the optic nerves of adults, and the retrogradely labeled cell bodies in the retina were visualized in whole-mounts. The labeled cells lay in annuli, each one a generation of ganglion cells. Representatives of seven of the families showed clearly asymmetric growth: the labeled annuli were close together on the temporal side and more distant nasally, the embryonic fissure curved from its ventral origin toward the temporal side, and in six of these families, labeled fibers from temporal retina skirted the fovea. Members of the other eight families, without specialized areas, had more symmetric retinal growth: labeled annuli were equally spaced on all sides, the embryonic fissure was vertical, and there were no skirting fibers. The following hypothesis is supported: the retina grows asymmetrically, and maintains the area for acute vision oriented toward the anterior field.

A scanning electron microscopic study of the opossum nasal cavity prior to and shortly after birth

The nasal cavities of opossums prior to and shortly after birth were examined by scanning electron microscopy. Numerous morphologically mature olfactory receptor neurons are observed in the dorso-rostral-most extent of the olfactory epithelium positioned adjacent to the opening of the nares in all prenatal stages and newborn animals examined. The remainder of the olfactory epithelium, occupying a more dorso-caudal position within the nasal cavity, is undifferentiated, and lacks morphologically mature receptor neurons. A short transition zone of stratified squamous epithelium lies between the epithelium lining the nares and olfactory epithelium. It forms an abrupt junction with the latter. The remainder of the nasal cavity in this group of animals is lined by a non-ciliated pseudostratified type (undifferentiated respiratory) of epithelium. By the end of the second postnatal week the morphologically mature olfactory epithelium is no longer observed in the vestibular area of the nasal cavity, which is lined by stratified squamous epithelium at this time. Mature receptor neurons are now observed within the olfactory epithelium lining the roof of the nasal cavity and covering the turbinates. The greater part of the nasal cavity is lined by a ciliated respiratory epithelium. It is proposed that the precocious differentiation of mature olfactory receptor neurons within the rostral-most extent of the olfactory epithelium just prior to birth is important in guiding the newborn young to the pouch.

Frontal cephalometric evaluation of transverse dentofacial morphology and growth of children with isolated cleft palate

The transverse dentofacial morphology and growth of 64 children operated on for clefting of the hard and soft palate was studied by means of a frontal proportional cephalometric analysis and was compared to a normal sample at the ages 3-4, 8-9 and 12 years. The cross-sectional comparison of the cleft palate and normal samples at the three periods indicated: (a) The presence in the cleft group of significantly increased ratios of the inner orbital width to the interorbital width and of the width of the nasal cavity to the interorbital width; (b) the absence of any significant differences in the ratio of the maxillary intermolar width to the interorbital width; and (c) the presence of almost identical ratios of the intergonial width of the mandible to the interorbital width and of the width of the maxilla to the intergonial width of the mandible. Evaluation of the changes of all cephalometric variables during the period 8-12 years showed the absence of any significant difference between the cleft palate and normal groups.

[Critical study of the development of pneumatic cavities of the skull]

This paper aims to show how nasal respiration exert no influx on the nasal-pneumatization. This is demonstrated by the fact congenital coanal atresia does not alters the normal pneumatization and development of the homolateral sinus.

Effect of age on nasal cross-sectional area and respiratory mode in children

Although nasal cross-sectional size has been reported for adults, no information is available concerning the effects of age on nasal area and breathing mode in children. Determination of the effect of age on nasal size is necessary in order to define nasal airway impairment in children. The purpose of this study was to determine mean nasal cross-sectional size in children between the ages of 6 and 15 years. One hundred two children were assessed during resting breathing. The pressure-flow technique was used to estimate nasal cross-sectional size, and inductive plethysmography was used to assess nasal-oral breathing. The results indicate that nasal airway size increased approximately 0.032 cm2 each year. Mean nasal cross-sectional area increased from 0.21 +/- 0.05 cm2 at age 6 to 0.46 +/- 0.15 cm2 at age 14. The percentage of nasal breathing also increased with age.

Developmental morphology of the solum nasi in the mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus)

The solum nasi of Microcebus murinus is characterized by the presence of a zona annularis, continuity between the anterior transverse lamina and the paraseptal cartilage, a continuous paraseptal cartilage, a palatine cartilage and a posterior transverse lamina. It lacks a fibula reuniens and possibly a cartilage of the nasopalatine duct as well as a palatine papillary cartilage. The morphology in M. murinus closely resembles that seen in Tupaia and Galago. This affinity results from the retention of primitive traits. However, Galago is reported to lack a zona annularis, thus displaying a specialization not shared with M. murinus. Therefore, the zona annularis provides a useful trait for distinguishing between the ontogenies of M. murinus and Galago.

An immunohistochemical study on the postnatal development of rat nasal-associated lymphoid tissue (NALT)

This study concerns the development of nasal-associated lymphoid tissue in the rat, using immuno- and enzyme-histochemical staining techniques on cryostat sections. Nasal-associated lymphoid tissue is present at birth as a small accumulation of mainly T lymphocytes and nonlymphoid cells; B cells are rare. Distinct areas of T and B cells appear at 10 days after birth; by that time high endothelial venules are also observed. Intra-epithelial lymphocytes are present, most of them being T-helper cells. ED1+ macrophages are seen throughout the tissue. The proportion of ED1+ cells does not change during ontogeny. ED2+ cells (tissue macrophages) are present predominantly at the border between the lymphoid tissue and the surrounding connective tissue, in all age-groups. ED3+ mononuclear cells are scattered throughout the nasal-associated lymphoid tissue of young animals. Later on, the ED3+ cells migrate into the border-area between lymphoid and connective tissue. Ia+ non-lymphoid cells in the nasal lymphoid tissue increase in number during ontogeny. Only a few of them show acid phosphatase activity, indicating that the proportion of classical scavenger macrophages is low. Some of them may be antigen presenting (dendritic) cells. Ia+ dendritic cells also occur between the epithelial cells. Moreover, some epithelial cells express the Ia marker.

Statistical analysis of changes of pediatric nasal patency with growth

The purpose of this study was to further investigate the changes of pediatric nasal patency with growth. The nasal patency of Japanese children aged 6 to 14 years was measured by active anterior mask rhinomanometry in terms of effective cross-sectional area (ECSA). The total nasal ECSA of the boys studied was larger than that of the girls of the same age groups. Total nasal ECSA was significantly correlated to age and height, as not transformed, and to weight as logarithmically transformed. Moreover, our study suggests that pediatric nasal resistance is inversely proportional to the second power of age, of height, and of body weight; however, it was concluded that the parameter of height was in itself sufficient to permit an approximate calculation of the total nasal ECSA in normal subjects.

[Postnatal growth of the nasal cavity]

The postnatal growth of the nasal bones, the piriform aperture, the choanae, the anterior and posterior nasal spine, and the floor of the nasal cavity were investigated. The development of weight and width of the nasal cavity as much as some results of the postnatal development of the inferior and medical conchae are connected with out investigations. Moreover the increase of the distance between Nasospinale and the sphenoidal sinus aperture and also the development of height and width of the nasal crista of the palatine bone were determined.

A longitudinal study of morphological craniofacial patterns via P-A x-ray headfilms in cleft patients from birth to six years of age

652 P-A X-ray headfilms of 51 unilateral cleft lip and palat, UCLP; 27 bilateral cleft lip and palate, BCLP; and 62 isolated cleft palate, CP were studied longitudinally at 0-3 months, 4-6 months, and annually from 1:0-6:0 years. Breadth change, height change, and growth direction of nine paired landmarks were investigated by means of the rectangular coordinate system with right to left zygomatico-frontal suture (Zf) point line as the X-axis and the perpendicular line to this X-axis at the mid-point between the right and left Zf points as the X-axis. Major findings were: (1) Study of Sphenoid body, interorbital, bizygomatico-frontal suture, and bizygomatic arch breadths showed that BCLP had a significantly broader face than either UCLP or CP. An apparent tendency to hypertelorism still remained at 6:0 in this group while UCLP and CP groups were both close to the Bolton Standards. (2) Nasal and maxillary bredths of BCLP and UCLP were significantly wider during the first year than in CP, but they showed only a slight growth change after the age of one year, compared to constant growth in CP. (3) All marked structural differences disappeared by 6:0 suggesting the effects of lip and/or palate surgery. (4) A slight cross-bite was found in UCLP and BCLP, but there was no such cross-bite in CP. (5) The effect of clefting was seen in mandibular dimensions where the bigonial notch was slightly broader than in non-cleft averages. (6) Upper facial height occlusal height, and posterior total facial height in each cleft group seemed to be larger than the Standard, though both maxillary height and gonial notch height approximated the Standard by 6:0 (7) From 0:3-6:0, there was no noteworthy difference among the cleft groups in either growth direction or facial symmetry of upper face and mandible. It was only in the mid-facial and dental areas that notable characteristics peculiar to the type of cleft were found. The landmarks of nasal aperture, maxilla, and dental arch showed a slight medial displacement on the affected side, although the degree and amount depended on the cleft-type.