Towards the Affective Cognition Approach to Human Performance in Space

INTRODUCTION: In recent decades, there has been investigation into the effects of microgravity and microgravity-like environments on cognition and emotion separately. Here we highlight the need of focusing on emotion-cognition interactions as a framework for explaining cognitive performance in space. In particular, by referring to the affective cognition hypothesis, the significant interplay between emotional variables and cognitive processing in space is briefly analyzed. Altogether, this approach shows an interesting pattern of data pointing to a dynamic relation that may be sensitive to microgravity. The importance of examining interactions between emotion and cognition for space performance remains fundamental (e.g., stress-related disorders) and deserves further attention. This approach is ultimately interesting considering the potential effects that microgravity may play on human performance during long-term space missions and on return to Earth.Mammarella N. Towards the affective cognition approach to human performance in space. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2020; 91(6):532-534.

Influence of Microgravity on Apoptosis in Cells, Tissues, and Other Systems In Vivo and In Vitro

All life forms have evolved under the constant force of gravity on Earth and developed ways to counterbalance acceleration load. In space, shear forces, buoyance-driven convection, and hydrostatic pressure are nullified or strongly reduced. When subjected to microgravity in space, the equilibrium between cell architecture and the external force is disturbed, resulting in changes at the cellular and sub-cellular levels (e.g., cytoskeleton, signal transduction, membrane permeability, etc.). Cosmic radiation also poses great health risks to astronauts because it has high linear energy transfer values that evoke complex DNA and other cellular damage. Space environmental conditions have been shown to influence apoptosis in various cell types. Apoptosis has important functions in morphogenesis, organ development, and wound healing. This review provides an overview of microgravity research platforms and apoptosis. The sections summarize the current knowledge of the impact of microgravity and cosmic radiation on cells with respect to apoptosis. Apoptosis-related microgravity experiments conducted with different mammalian model systems are presented. Recent findings in cells of the immune system, cardiovascular system, brain, eyes, cartilage, bone, gastrointestinal tract, liver, and pancreas, as well as cancer cells investigated under real and simulated microgravity conditions, are discussed. This comprehensive review indicates the potential of the space environment in biomedical research.

Behavioral Health Policy for Human Spaceflight

INTRODUCTION: Government space agencies and commercial spaceflight companies are seeking to expand human space exploration. Spaceflight can place considerable psychological stressors on humans, yet policies to support behavioral health in human spaceflight are still in their nascent stages. This article reviews international and domestic space policy relevant to behavioral health, as well as existing gaps in policy frameworks regarding the behavioral health of spaceflight crew and passengers. This article highlights behavioral health policy for human spaceflight as an emerging issue and suggests principles to guide the development of such policy moving forward.Morris NP. Behavioral health policy for human spaceflight. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2018; 89(12):1068-1075.

Searching for Life on Mars Before It Is Too Late

Decades of robotic exploration have confirmed that in the distant past, Mars was warmer and wetter and its surface was habitable. However, none of the spacecraft missions to Mars have included among their scientific objectives the exploration of Special Regions, those places on the planet that could be inhabited by extant martian life or where terrestrial microorganisms might replicate. A major reason for this is because of Planetary Protection constraints, which are implemented to protect Mars from terrestrial biological contamination. At the same time, plans are being drafted to send humans to Mars during the 2030 decade, both from international space agencies and the private sector. We argue here that these two parallel strategies for the exploration of Mars (i.e., delaying any efforts for the biological reconnaissance of Mars during the next two or three decades and then directly sending human missions to the planet) demand reconsideration because once an astronaut sets foot on Mars, Planetary Protection policies as we conceive them today will no longer be valid as human arrival will inevitably increase the introduction of terrestrial and organic contaminants and that could jeopardize the identification of indigenous martian life. In this study, we advocate for reassessment over the relationships between robotic searches, paying increased attention to proactive astrobiological investigation and sampling of areas more likely to host indigenous life, and fundamentally doing this in advance of manned missions. Key Words: Contamination-Earth Mars-Planetary Protection-Search for life (biosignatures). Astrobiology 17, 962-970.

[Shuttle Challenger disaster: what lessons can be learned for management of patients in the operating room?]

For many years hospitals have been implementing crew resource management (CRM) programs, inspired by the aviation industry, in order to improve patient safety. However, while contributing to improved patient care, CRM programs are controversial because of their limited impact, a decrease in effectiveness over time, and the underinvestment by some caregivers. By analyzing the space shuttle Challenger accident, the objective of this article is to show the potential impact of the professional culture in decision-making processes. In addition, to present an approach by cultural factors which are an essential complement to current CRM programs in order to enhance the safety of care.

Ethical considerations for planetary protection in space exploration: a workshop

With the recognition of an increasing potential for discovery of extraterrestrial life, a diverse set of researchers have noted a need to examine the foundational ethical principles that should frame our collective space activities as we explore outer space. A COSPAR Workshop on Ethical Considerations for Planetary Protection in Space Exploration was convened at Princeton University on June 8-10, 2010, to examine whether planetary protection measures and practices should be extended to protect planetary environments within an ethical framework that goes beyond "science protection" per se. The workshop had been in development prior to a 2006 NRC report on preventing the forward contamination of Mars, although it responded directly to one of the recommendations of that report and to several peer-reviewed papers as well. The workshop focused on the implications and responsibilities engendered when exploring outer space while avoiding harmful impacts on planetary bodies. Over 3 days, workshop participants developed a set of recommendations addressing the need for a revised policy framework to address "harmful contamination" beyond biological contamination, noting that it is important to maintain the current COSPAR planetary protection policy for scientific exploration and activities. The attendees agreed that there is need for further study of the ethical considerations used on Earth and the examination of management options and governmental mechanisms useful for establishing an environmental stewardship framework that incorporates both scientific input and enforcement. Scientists need to undertake public dialogue to communicate widely about these future policy deliberations and to ensure public involvement in decision making. A number of incremental steps have been taken since the workshop to implement some of these recommendations.

Aerospace Medical Association Commercial Spaceflight Working Group. Suborbital commercial spaceflight crewmember medical issues

As directed by the Council of the Aerospace Medical Association, the Commercial Spaceflight Working Group has developed the following position paper concerning medical issues for commercial suborbital spaceflight crewmembers. This position paper has been approved by the AsMA Council to become a policy of the AsMA.

[Results of study concerning possible influence of rocket space activities on public health]

Using special medical examination results and specified criteria of objective evaluation, the authors summarized results of studies concerning health state of population dwelling in area possibly influenced by rocket space activities factors.

Medical qualification of a commercial spaceflight participant: not your average astronaut

BACKGROUND

Candidates for commercial spaceflight may be older than the typical astronaut and more likely to have medical problems that place them at risk during flight. Since the effects of microgravity on many medical conditions are unknown, physicians have little guidance when evaluating and certifying commercial spaceflight participants. This dynamic new era in space exploration may provide important data for evaluating medical conditions, creating appropriate medical standards, and optimizing treatment alternatives for long-duration spaceflight.

CASE

A 57-yr-old spaceflight participant for an ISS mission presented with medical conditions that included moderately severe bullous emphysema, previous spontaneous pneumothorax with talc pleurodesis, a lung parenchymal mass, and ventricular and atrial ectopy. The medical evaluation required for certification was extensive and included medical studies and monitoring conducted in analogue spaceflight environments including altitude chambers, high altitude mixed-gas simulation, zero-G aircraft, and high-G centrifuge. To prevent recurrence of pneumothorax, we performed video-assisted thoracoscopic pleurodesis, and to assess lung masses, several percutaneous or direct biopsies. The candidate's 10-d mission was without incident.

CONCLUSION

Non-career astronauts applying for commercial suborbital and orbital spaceflight will, at least in the near future, challenge aerospace physicians with unknowns regarding safety during training and flight, and highlight important ethical and risk-assessment problems. The information obtained from this new group of space travelers will provide important data for the evaluation and in-flight treatment of medical problems that space programs have not yet addressed systematically, and may improve the medical preparedness of exploration-class missions.

[Drinking water decontamination with isolative sorbent disinfectants]

Drinking water can be decontaminated with the use of isolative sorbent disinfectants. Consideration of the effectiveness of water disinfectants and the sorptive power of porous materials against bacteria and viruses attested to the favour of iodine and silver-containing disinfectants and their compositions on porous aggressive carriers to be employed in extreme conditions such as on board crewed space vehicles.

Discussion for animal experiments in space: ethical standard and responsibility of researchers for space experiments using laboratory animals

International efforts to standardize regulations and study designs and to promote the principles of Reduction, Replacement, and Refinement (the 3 Rs) have reduced and refined animal use. In NASA ARC and KSC, researchers are responsible only for activities related directly to the conduct of their animal experiments. The IACUC plays an important role in conformity with NIH policies. Even if researchers design protocols of the space life science in Japan, the animal experiments should be carried out under the global harmonized conditions in accordance with NIH/NASA policies, guides and rules. It is important that researchers himself must look forward the ethical animal experiment.

Risk management in international manned space program operations

New, innovative joint safety policies and requirements were developed in support of the Shuttle/Mir program, which is the first phase of the International Space Station program. This work has resulted in a joint multinational analysis culminating in joint certification for mission readiness. For these planning and development efforts, each nation's risk programs and individual safety practices had to be integrated into a comprehensive and compatible system that reflects the joint nature of the endeavor. This paper highlights the major incremental steps involved in planning and program integration during development of the Shuttle/Mir program. It traces the transition from early development to operational status and highlights the valuable lessons learned that apply to the International Space Station program (Phase 2). Also examined are external and extraneous factors that affected mission operations and the corresponding solutions to ensure safe and effective Shuttle/Mir missions.

Problems and conception of ensuring radiation safety during Mars missions

The Mars mission differs from near-Earth manned space flights by radiation environment and duration. The importance of effective using the weight of the spacecraft increases greatly because all the necessary things for the mission must be included in its starting weight. For this reason the development of optimal systems of radiation safety ensuring (RSES) acquires especial importance. It is the result of sharp change of radiation environment in the interplanetary space as compared to the one in the near-Earth orbits and significant increase of the interplanetary flight duration. The demand of a harder limitation of unfavorable factors effects should lead to radiation safety (RS) standards hardening. The main principles of ensuring the RS of the Mars mission (optimizing, radiation risk, ALARA) and the conception of RSES, developed on the basis of the described approach and the experience obtained during orbital flights are presented in the report. The problems that can impede the ensuring of the crew members' RS are also given here.

Implementation of ALARA radiation protection on the ISS through polyethylene shielding augmentation of the Service Module Crew Quarters

With 5-7 month long duration missions at 51.6 degrees inclination in Low Earth Orbit, the ionizing radiation levels to which International Space Station (ISS) crewmembers are exposed will be the highest planned occupational exposures in the world. Even with the expectation that regulatory dose limits will not be exceeded during a single tour of duty aboard the ISS, the "as low as reasonably achievable" (ALARA) precept requires that radiological risks be minimized when possible through a dose optimization process. Judicious placement of efficient shielding materials in locations where crewmembers sleep, rest, or work is an important means for implementing ALARA for spaceflight. Polyethylene (CnHn) is a relatively inexpensive, stable, and, with a low atomic number, an effective shielding material that has been certified for use aboard the ISS. Several designs for placement of slabs or walls of polyethylene have been evaluated for radiation exposure reduction in the Crew Quarters (CQ) of the Zvezda (Star) Service Module. Optimization of shield designs relies on accurate characterization of the expected primary and secondary particle environment and modeling of the predicted radiobiological responses of critical organs and tissues. Results of the studies shown herein indicate that 20% or more reduction in equivalent dose to the CQ occupant is achievable. These results suggest that shielding design and risk analysis are necessary measures for reducing long-term radiological risks to ISS inhabitants and for meeting legal ALARA requirements. Verification of shield concepts requires results from specific designs to be compared with onboard dosimetry.

The Interplanetary Internet: a communications infrastructure for Mars exploration

A strategy is being developed whereby the current set of internationally standardized space data communications protocols can be incrementally evolved so that a first version of an operational "Interplanetary Internet" is feasible by the end of the decade. This paper describes its architectural concepts, discusses the current set of standard space data communications capabilities that exist to support Mars exploration and reviews proposed new developments. We also speculate that these current capabilities can grow to support future scenarios where human intelligence is widely distributed across the Solar System and day-to-day communications dialog between planets is routine.

Electronic nose for space program applications

The ability to monitor air contaminants in the shuttle and the International Space Station is important to ensure the health and safety of astronauts, and equipment integrity. Three specific space applications have been identified that would benefit from a chemical monitor: (a) organic contaminants in space cabin air; (b) hypergolic propellant contaminants in the shuttle airlock; (c) pre-combustion signature vapors from electrical fires. NASA at Kennedy Space Center (KSC) is assessing several commercial and developing electronic noses (E-noses) for these applications. A short series of tests identified those E-noses that exhibited sufficient sensitivity to the vapors of interest. Only two E-noses exhibited sufficient sensitivity for hypergolic fuels at the required levels, while several commercial E-noses showed sufficient sensitivity of common organic vapors. These E-noses were subjected to further tests to assess their ability to identify vapors. Development and testing of E-nose models using vendor supplied software packages correctly identified vapors with an accuracy of 70-90%. In-house software improvements increased the identification rates between 90 and 100%. Further software enhancements are under development. Details on the experimental setup, test protocols, and results on E-nose performance are presented in this paper along with special emphasis on specific software enhancements.

The Use of Rice Hulls for Sustainable Control of NOx Emissions in Deep Space Missions

The use of the activated carbon produced from rice hulls to control NOx emissions for future deep space missions has been demonstrated. The optimal carbonization temperature range was found to be between 600 and 750 degrees C. A burnoff of 61.8% was found at 700 degrees C in pyrolysis and 750 degrees C in activation. The BET surface area of the activated carbon from rice hulls was determined to be 172 m2/g when prepared at 700 degrees C. The presence of oxygen in flue gas is essential for effective adsorption of NO by activated carbon. On the contrary, water vapor inhibits the adsorption efficiency of NO. Consequently, water vapor in flue gas should be removed by drying agents before adsorption to ensure high NO adsorption efficiency. All of the NO in the flue gas was removed for more than 1.5 h when 10% oxygen was present and the ratio of the carbon weight to the flue gas flow rate (W/F) was 15.4 g min/L. Reduction of the adsorbed NO to form N2 could be effectively accomplished under anaerobic conditions at 550 degrees C. The adsorption capacity of NO on the activated carbon was found to be 5.02 mg of NO/g of carbon. The loss of carbon mass was determined to be about 0.16% of the activated carbon per cycle of regeneration if the regeneration occurred when the NO in the flue gas after the carbon bed reached 4.8 ppm, the space maximum allowable concentration. The reduction of the adsorbed NO also regenerated the activated carbon, and the regenerated activated carbon exhibited an improved NO adsorption efficiency.

On the use of LiF:Mg,Ti thermoluminescence dosemeters in space--a critical review

The use of LiF:Mg,Ti thermoluminescence dosemeters (TLDs) in space radiation fields is reviewed. It is demonstrated in the context of modified track structure theory and microdosimetric track structure theory that there is no unique correlation between the relative thermoluminescence (TL) efficiency of heavy charged particles, neutrons of all energies and linear energy transfer (LET). Many experimental measurements dating back more than two decades also demonstrate the multivalued, non-universal, relationship between relative TL efficiency and LET. It is further demonstrated that the relative intensities of the dosimetric peaks and especially the high-temperature structure are dependent on a large number of variables, some controllable, some not. It is concluded that TL techniques employing the concept of LET (e.g. measurement of total dose, the high-temperature ratio (HTR) methods and other combinations of the relative TL efficiency of the various peaks used to estimate average Q or simulate Q-LET relationships) should be regarded as lacking a sound theoretical basis, highly prone to error and, as well, lack of reproducibility/universality due to the absence of a standardised experimental protocol essential to reliable experimental methodology.

Planetary protection and the search for life beneath the surface of Mars

The search for traces of extinct and extant life on Mars will be extended to beneath the surface of the planet. Current data from Mars missions suggesting the presence of liquid water early in Mars' history and mathematical modeling of the fate of water on Mars imply that liquid water may exist deep beneath the surface of Mars. This leads to the hypothesis that life may exist deep beneath the Martian surface. One possible scenario to look for life on Mars involves a series of unmanned missions culminating with a manned mission drilling deep into the Martian subsurface (approximately 3Km), collecting samples, and conducting preliminary analyses to select samples for return to earth. This mission must address both forward and back contamination issues, and falls under planetary protection category V. Planetary protection issues to be addressed include provisions stating that the inevitable deposition of earth microbes by humans should be minimized and localized, and that earth microbes and organic material must not contaminate the Martian subsurface. This requires that the drilling equipment be sterilized prior to use. Further, the collection, containment and retrieval of the sample must be conducted such that the crew is protected and that any materials returning to earth are contained (i.e., physically and biologically isolated) and the chain of connection with Mars is broken.

Medical guidelines for space passengers--II

It now appears likely that commercial entities will carry paying passengers on suborbital spaceflights in this decade. The stresses of spaceflight, the effects of microgravity, and the limited capability for medical care onboard make it advisable to develop a system of medical clearance for such space tourists. The Aerospace Medical Association, therefore, organized a Space Passenger Task Force whose first report on medical guidelines was published in 2001. That report consisted of a list of conditions that would disqualify potential passengers for relatively long orbital flights. The Task Force reconvened in 2002 to focus on less stringent medical screening appropriate for short duration suborbital flights. It was assumed that such commercial flights would involve: 1) small spacecraft carrying 4-6 passengers; 2) a cabin maintained at sea-level "shirt-sleeve" condition; 3) maximum accelerations of 2.0-4.5 G; 4) about 30 min in microgravity. The Task Force addressed specific medical problems, including space motion sickness, pregnancy, and medical conditions involving the risk of sudden incapacitation. The Task Force concluded that a medical history should be taken from potential passengers with individualized follow-up that focuses on areas of concern.

Planetary protection guidelines for outer planet missions

Facilities, techniques, and operational procedures used to implement Planetary Protection (PP) requirements for the Viking Project are reviewed in order to better define the COSPAR resolution which proposes that Outer Planet spacecraft be assembled using Viking-like clean room technology. It is concluded that, for such missions, PP requirements can be met by adopting Viking clean room standards, personnel and operation procedures, and by establishing PP as an official entity in project management.

Once we know all the radiobiology we need to know, how can we use it to predict space radiation risks and achieve fame and fortune?

It has been over 40 years since occupational radiation exposures to NASA's astronauts began and more than 300 individuals have been exposed to low and intermediate doses of trapped protons and galactic cosmic rays (GCR). The International Space Station (ISS) will add substantially to this number and significantly increase average lifetime doses. We review these exposures in this report. After many years of investigation, the method used to assess risk have not changed significantly. However, molecular biology and genetics have made enormous progress in establishing the mechanisms of cancer formation, damage to the central nervous system, and individual variation in sensitivity to radiation. We discuss critical questions and possible new approaches to the prediction of risk from space radiation exposures. Experimental models can lead to testable theories that along with extensive biophysical and informatics approaches, will lead to fame and fortune by allowing for accurate projections of astronaut risks and for the development of biological countermeasures.

The International Space Station as a microgravity research platform

The International Space Station will provide a "World Class" environment for microgravity research. Ensuring this environment requires care in all aspects of its design. These aspects include consideration of the acceleration at near-orbit-tune-periods, such as gravity gradients and station drag, as well as controlling station structural dynamic modes, mechanical disturbances, and crew disturbances. Station designers must also ensure that the required acceleration environment is provided for long duration. The microgravity requirements placed on ISS will be reviewed, along with major considerations for achieving such an environment. Further, a description of the Space Station program strategy and implementation for meeting those requirements will be discussed.

Space health requirements: the challenges

This article explores the application of theoretical knowledge to clinical situations based on general systems theory and space health requirements to familiarize health care providers with requirements for the space environment. Preparation for extended periods of humans living in the space environment requires carefully planned delivery system that will promote and maintain health. Past, present, and future efforts for the establishment of'space health delivery systems are discussed. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Man-systems integration standards, NASA-STD-3000 Volume 1-MSIS, Revision B (1995, July), Houston, TX, National Aeronautics and Space Administration documents will be reviewed. Health care services will be supported by the available crew health care and emergency services systems. Providing health care in the extreme space environment with limited resources in which to carry out health practices offers challenges to health care providers.

Astronaut-centered philosophy for designing manned space system

Astronaut-centered design philosophy is a new concept suggested by the authors for manned space system design. It stems from human-centered design philosophy. Human-centered design means that human role is regarded as important basis and foundation for system design. At the beginning, the engineers used to adopt technology-centered philosophy for designing complex system, but much practice proved that the technology-centered design philosophy won't work, resulting in lower system safety and performance. So it has been currently replaced by human-centered philosophy. As examples, the principles of human-centered automation of the International Civil Aviation Organization and NASA JSC's Human-rating Requirements were introduced. At last, the astronaut-centered design philosophy and its requirements were put forward by the authors. These requirements consist of: general requirements, man-machine interaction requirements, man-environment interaction requirements and interpersonal relationship requirements.

Issues in life support and human factors in crew rescue from the ISS

The design and development of crew emergency response systems, particularly to provide an unplanned emergency return to Earth, requires an understanding of crew performance challenges in space. The combined effects of psychological and physiological adaptation during long-duration missions will have a significant effect on crew performance in the unpredictable and potentially life-threatening conditions of an emergency return to Earth. It is therefore important that the systems to be developed for emergency egress address these challenges through an integrated program to produce optimum productivity and safety in times of utmost stress. Fundamental to the success of the CRV is the Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS), which provides the necessary conditions for the crew to survive their return mission in a shirtsleeve environment. This article will discuss the many issues in the design of an ECLSS system for CRV and place it in the context of the human performance challenges of the mission.

The CERN-EU high-energy reference field (CERF) facility for dosimetry at commercial flight altitudes and in space

A reference facility for the calibration and intercomparison of active and passive detectors in broad neutron fields has been available at CERN since 1992. A positively charged hadron beam (a mixture of protons and pions) with momentum of 120 GeV/c hits a copper target, 50 cm thick and 7 cm in diameter. The secondary particles produced in the interaction traverse a shield, at 90 degrees with respect to the direction of the incoming beam. made of either 80 to 160 cm of concrete or 40 cm of iron. Behind the iron shield, the resulting neutron spectrum has a maximum at about 1 MeV, with an additional high-energy component. Behind the 80 cm concrete shield, the neutron spectrum has a second pronounced maximum at about 70 MeV and resembles the high-energy component of the radiation field created by cosmic rays at commercial flight altitudes. This paper describes the facility, reports on the latest neutron spectral measurements, gives an overview of the most important experiments performed by the various collaborating institutions over recent years and briefly addresses the possible application of the facility to measurements related to the space programme.

A comparison of quality factors and weighting factors for characterizing astronaut radiation exposures

Radiation exposures are typically characterized by two quantities. The first is the absorbed dose, or the energy deposited per unit mass for specific types of radiation passing through specified materials. The same amount of energy deposited in material by two different types of radiation, however, can result in two different levels of risk. Because of this, for the purpose of radiation protection operations, absorbed dose is modified by a second factor intended to normalize the risk associated with a given exposure. We present here an inter-comparison of methods for this modification. First is the radiation quality factor (Q), as defined by ICRP publication 60. This quantity is related functionally to the unrestricted linear energy transfer (LET) of a given radiation, and is multiplied by the absorbed dose to derive the dose equivalent (H). The second method for modifying absorbed dose is the radiation weighting factor, also given in ICRP-60, or as modified in NCRP report 115. To implement the weighting factor, the absorbed dose resulting from incidence of a particular radiation is multiplied by a factor assigned to that type of radiation, giving the equivalent dose. We compare calculations done based on identical fields of radiation representative of that encountered by the MIR space station, applying each of these two methods.

Radiation protection guidance for activities in low-Earth orbit

Scientific Committee 75 (SC 75) of the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) was assembled for the purpose of providing guidance to NASA concerning radiation protection in low-Earth orbit. The report of SC 75 was published in December 2000 as NCRP Report No. 132. In this presentation an overview of the findings and recommendations of the committee report will be presented.

Solar particle event organ doses and dose equivalents for interplanetary crews: variations due to body size

Proper assessments of spacecraft shielding requirements and concomitant estimates of risk to critical body organs of spacecraft crews from energetic space radiation require accurate, quantitative methods of characterizing the compositional changes in these radiation fields as they pass through the spacecraft and overlying tissue. When estimating astronaut radiation organ doses and dose equivalents it is customary to use the Computerized Anatomical Man (CAM) model of human geometry to account for body self-shielding. Usually, the distribution for the 50th percentile man (175 cm height; 70 kg mass) is used. Most male members of the U.S. astronaut corps are taller and nearly all have heights that deviate from the 175 cm mean. In this work, estimates of critical organ doses and dose equivalents for interplanetary crews exposed to an event similar to the October 1989 solar particle event are presented for male body sizes that vary from the 5th to the 95th percentiles. Overall the results suggest that calculations of organ dose and dose equivalent may vary by as much as approximately 15% as body size is varied from the 5th to the 95th percentile in the population used to derive the CAM model data.

NASDA aquatic animal experiment facilities for Space Shuttle and ISS

National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) has developed aquatic animal experiment facilities for NASA Space Shuttle use. Vestibular Function Experiment Unit (VFEU) was firstly designed and developed for physiological research using carp in Spacelab-J (SL-J, STS-47) mission. It was modified as Aquatic Animal Experiment Unit (AAEU) to accommodate small aquatic animals, such as medaka and newt, for second International Microgravity Laboratory (IML-2, STS-65) mission. Then, VFEU was improved to accommodate marine fish and to perform neurobiological experiment for Neurolab (STS-90) and STS-95 missions. We have also developed and used water purification system which was adapted to each facility. Based on these experiences of Space Shuttle missions, we are studying to develop advanced aquatic animal experiment facility for both Space Shuttle and International Space Station (ISS).

Tracking reliability for space cabin-borne equipment in development by Crow model

Objective. To study and track the reliability growth of manned spaceflight cabin-borne equipment in the course of its development. Method. A new technique of reliability growth estimation and prediction, which is composed of the Crow model and test data conversion (TDC) method was used. Result. The estimation and prediction value of the reliability growth conformed to its expectations. Conclusion. The method could dynamically estimate and predict the reliability of the equipment by making full use of various test information in the course of its development. It offered not only a possibility of tracking the equipment reliability growth, but also the reference for quality control in manned spaceflight cabin-borne equipment design and development process.

Approach and issues relating to shield material design to protect astronauts from space radiation

One major obstacle to human space exploration is the possible limitations imposed by the adverse effects of long-term exposure to the space environment. Even before human spaceflight began, the potentially brief exposure of astronauts to the very intense random solar energetic particle (SEP) events was of great concern. A new challenge appears in deep space exploration from exposure to the low-intensity heavy-ion flux of the galactic cosmic rays (GCR) since the missions are of long duration and the accumulated exposures can be high. Since aluminum (traditionally used in spacecraft to avoid potential radiation risks) leads to prohibitively expensive mission launch costs, alternative materials need to be explored. An overview of the materials related issues and their impact on human space exploration will be given.

Space radiation dosimetry in low-Earth orbit and beyond

Space radiation dosimetry presents one of the greatest challenges in the discipline of radiation protection. This is a result of both the highly complex nature of the radiation fields encountered in low-Earth orbit (LEO) and interplanetary space and of the constraints imposed by spaceflight on instrument design. This paper reviews the sources and composition of the space radiation environment in LEO as well as beyond the Earth's magnetosphere. A review of much of the dosimetric data that have been gathered over the last four decades of human space flight is presented. The different factors affecting the radiation exposures of astronauts and cosmonauts aboard the International Space Station (ISS) are emphasized. Measurements made aboard the Mir Orbital Station have highlighted the importance of both secondary particle production within the structure of spacecraft and the effect of shielding on both crew dose and dose equivalent. Roughly half the dose on ISS is expected to come from trapped protons and half from galactic cosmic rays (GCRs). The dearth of neutron measurements aboard LEO spacecraft and the difficulty inherent in making such measurements have led to large uncertainties in estimates of the neutron contribution to total dose equivalent. Except for a limited number of measurements made aboard the Apollo lunar missions, no crew dosimetry has been conducted beyond the Earth's magnetosphere. At the present time we are forced to rely on model-based estimates of crew dose and dose equivalent when planning for interplanetary missions, such as a mission to Mars. While space crews in LEO are unlikely to exceed the exposure limits recommended by such groups as the NCRP, dose equivalents of the same order as the recommended limits are likely over the course of a human mission to Mars.

[Global harmonization in the care and use of laboratory animals for the space life science research]

Space researches are supported with the international space agencies, NASA and NASDA. Animal experiments on the space life science must conform to the NIH policies and the NASA guide for the care and use of laboratory animals. The goal of the NIH policies is to promote the humane care of animals used biomedical and behavioral research, teaching, and testing. In each institute, the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) plays an important role in conformity with NIH policies. The IACUC is charged with developing, recommending and monitoring NIH/NASA (ARC and KSC) policies, guides and rules relating to animal acquisition, care and use. In ARC and KSC, investigators will be responsible only for activities directly related to the conduct of their animal experiments. Even if researchers have protocols of the space science in Japan, the animal experiment should be carried out under the global harmonized conditions in accordance with NIH policies and NASA guides.

Engineering challenges to the long term operation of the International Space Station

The U.S. Congress has maintained an intense interest in the ISS program since its inception. In the Appropriations Act of 1997, the Senate of the United States included language directing National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to have the National Research Council (NRC) under take a study that evaluates the engineering challenges posed by extravehicular activity (EVA) requirements, United States and non-United States space launch requirements, the potential need to upgrade or replace equipment and components after Assembly Complete, and the requirement to decommission and disassemble the facility. NASA and the NRC decided the focus should be on the anticipated challenges in the continuous operation and maintenance of the ISS after assembly of the on-orbit facility has been completed. This would encompass the operational years, from late 2004 (if the current schedule holds) to 2020-2025. This executive summary overviews the results of this NRC study. It focuses on the U.S. operation of the ISS after Assembly Complete, including cooperative efforts by the United States and Russia. The paper summarizes the primary findings and recommendations in each of the areas considered during this two-year NRC study.

The code of conduct for International Space Station crews

On 15 September 2000 in Washington DC, the Multilateral Coordination Board (MCB), the highest-level cooperative body established by the Memoranda of Understanding (MOUs) pertaining to the International Space Station (ISS) Programme signed early in 1998 by NASA and each of the Cooperating Agencies designated by the other ISS Partners (i.e. the Russian Space Agency, ESA, the Government of Japan and the Canadian Space Agency), approved the Code of Conduct for International Space Station Crews. This document contains a set of standards agreed by all Partners to govern the conduct of ISS crew members, starting with the first expedition crew launched from Baikonur in Kazakhstan on 31 October 2000. These standards had been developed over the previous six months by teams of Agency officials, working in close consultation with the competent authorities of the Partner States.

Implementing planetary protection requirements for sample return missions

NASA is committed to exploring space while avoiding the biological contamination of other solar system bodies and protecting the Earth against potential harm from materials returned from space. NASA's planetary protection program evaluates missions (with external advice from the US National Research Council and others) and imposes particular constraints on individual missions to achieve these objectives. In 1997 the National Research Council's Space Studies Board published the report, Mars Sample Return: Issues and Recommendations, which reported advice to NASA on Mars sample return missions, complementing their 1992 report, The Biological Contamination of Mars Issues and Recommendations. Meanwhile, NASA has requested a new Space Studies Board study to address sample returns from bodies other than Mars. This study recognizes the variety of worlds that have been opened up to NASA and its partners by small, relatively inexpensive, missions of the Discovery class, as well as the reshaping of our ideas about life in the solar system that have been occasioned by the Galileo spacecraft's discovery that an ocean under the ice on Jupiter's moon Europa might, indeed, exist. This paper will report on NASA's planned implementation of planetary protection provisions based on these recent National Research Council recommendations, and will suggest measures for incorporation in the planetary protection policy of COSPAR.

Integrating public perspectives in sample return planning

Planning for extraterrestrial sample returns--whether from Mars or other solar system bodies--must be done in a way that integrates planetary protection concerns with the usual mission technical and scientific considerations. Understanding and addressing legitimate societal concerns about the possible risks of sample return will be a critical part of the public decision making process ahead. This paper presents the results of two studies, one with lay audiences, the other with expert microbiologists designed to gather information on attitudes and concerns about sample return risks and planetary protection. Focus group interviews with lay subjects, using generic information about Mars sample return and a preliminary environmental impact assessment, were designed to obtain an indication of how the factual content is perceived and understood by the public. A research survey of microbiologists gathered information on experts' views and attitudes about sample return, risk management approaches and space exploration risks. These findings, combined with earlier research results on risk perception, will be useful in identifying levels of concern and potential conflicts in understanding between experts and the public about sample return risks. The information will be helpful in guiding development of the environmental impact statement and also has applicability to proposals for sample return from other solar system bodies where scientific uncertainty about extraterrestrial life may persist at the time of mission planning.

Planetary protection issues for Mars sample acquisition flight projects

The planned NASA sample acquisition flight missions to Mars pose several interesting planetary protection issues. In addition to the usual forward contamination procedures for the adequate protection of Mars for the sake of future missions, there are reasons to ensure that the sample is not contaminated by terrestrial microbes from the acquisition mission. Recent recommendations by the Space Studies Board (SSB) of the National Research Council (United States), would indicate that the scientific integrity of the sample is a planetary protection concern (SSB, 1997). Also, as a practical matter, a contaminated sample would interfere with the process for its release from quarantine after return for distribution to the interested scientists. These matters are discussed in terms of the first planned acquisition mission.

Globalizing animal care and use: making the dream a reality

What will drive the globalization of animal care in the 21st century? Will targeted concerns from privately funded groups be the motivating factors? Will the threat of disease, and the concomitant hue and cry from a threatened public, be responsible for bringing nations together to collaborate on rules and regulations? The author, who is responsible for the animal use protocols on NASA's space station, explains why globalization on Planet Earth may be guided by what happens in outer space.