Structural basis of selective cannabinoid CB2 receptor activation

Cannabinoid CB₂ receptor (CB₂R) agonists are investigated as therapeutic agents in the clinic. However, their molecular mode-of-action is not fully understood. Here, we report the discovery of LEI-102, a CB₂R agonist, used in conjunction with three other CBR ligands (APD371, HU308, and CP55,940) to investigate the selective CB₂R activation by binding kinetics, site-directed mutagenesis, and cryo-EM studies. We identify key residues for CB₂R activation. Highly lipophilic HU308 and the endocannabinoids, but not the more polar LEI-102, APD371, and CP55,940, reach the binding pocket through a membrane channel in TM1-TM7. Favorable physico-chemical properties of LEI-102 enable oral efficacy in a chemotherapy-induced nephropathy model. This study delineates the molecular mechanism of CB₂R activation by selective agonists and highlights the role of lipophilicity in CB₂R engagement. This may have implications for GPCR drug design and sheds light on their activation by endogenous ligands.

PCSK9 and the Gut-Liver-Brain Axis: A Novel Therapeutic Target for Immune Regulation in Alcohol Use Disorder

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a chronic relapsing disorder characterized by an impaired ability to control or stop alcohol intake and is associated with organ damage including alcohol-associated liver disease (ALD) and progressive neurodegeneration. The etiology of AUD is complex, but organ injury due to chronic alcohol use can be partially attributed to systemic and local inflammation along the gut-liver-brain axis. Excessive alcohol use can result in translocation of bacterial products into circulation, increased expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and activation of immune cells, including macrophages and/or microglia in the liver and brain. One potential mediator of this alcohol-induced inflammation is proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9). PCSK9 is primarily known for its regulation of plasma low-density lipoprotein cholesterol but has more recently been shown to influence inflammatory responses in the liver and brain. In rodent and post-mortem brain studies, chronic alcohol use altered methylation of the PCSK9 gene and increased expression of PCSK9 in the liver and cerebral spinal fluid. Additionally, PCSK9 inhibition in a rat model of ALD attenuated liver inflammation and steatosis. PCSK9 may play an important role in alcohol-induced pathologies along the gut-liver-brain axis and may be a novel therapeutic target for AUD-related liver and brain inflammation.

Interplay of cardiovascular mediators, oxidative stress and inflammation in liver disease and its complications

The liver is a crucial metabolic organ that has a key role in maintaining immune and endocrine homeostasis. Accumulating evidence suggests that chronic liver disease might promote the development of various cardiac disorders (such as arrhythmias and cardiomyopathy) and circulatory complications (including systemic, splanchnic and pulmonary complications), which can eventually culminate in clinical conditions ranging from portal and pulmonary hypertension to pulmonary, cardiac and renal failure, ascites and encephalopathy. Liver diseases can affect cardiovascular function during the early stages of disease progression. The development of cardiovascular diseases in patients with chronic liver failure is associated with increased morbidity and mortality, and cardiovascular complications can in turn affect liver function and liver disease progression. Furthermore, numerous infectious, inflammatory, metabolic and genetic diseases, as well as alcohol abuse can also influence both hepatic and cardiovascular outcomes. In this Review, we highlight how chronic liver diseases and associated cardiovascular effects can influence different organ pathologies. Furthermore, we explore the potential roles of inflammation, oxidative stress, vasoactive mediator imbalance, dysregulated endocannabinoid and autonomic nervous systems and endothelial dysfunction in mediating the complex interplay between the liver and the systemic vasculature that results in the development of the extrahepatic complications of chronic liver disease. The roles of ageing, sex, the gut microbiome and organ transplantation in this complex interplay are also discussed.

Cannabinoid-2 receptor activation ameliorates hepatorenal syndrome

STUDY RATIONALE

Hepatorenal syndrome (HRS) is a life-threatening complication of end-stage liver disease characterized by the rapid decline of kidney function. Herein, we explored the therapeutic potential of targeting the cannabinoid-2 receptor (CB₂-R) utilizing a commonly used mouse model of liver fibrosis and hepatorenal syndrome (HRS), induced by bile duct ligation (BDL).

METHODS

Gene expression analysis, histological evaluation, determination of serum levels of renal injury-biomarkers were used to characterize the BDL-induced organ injury; laser speckle analysis to measure microcirculation in the kidneys.

KEY RESULTS

We found that liver injury triggered marked inflammation and oxidative stress in the kidneys of BDL-operated mice. We detected pronounced histopathological alterations with tubular injury paralleled with increased inflammation, oxidative/nitrative stress and fibrotic remodeling both in hepatic and renal tissues as well as endothelial activation and markedly impaired renal microcirculation. This was accompanied by increased CB₂-R expression in both the liver and the kidney tissues of diseased animals. A selective CB₂-R agonist, HU-910, markedly decreased numerous markers of inflammation, oxidative stress and fibrosis both in the liver and in the kidneys. HU-910 also attenuated markers of kidney injury and improved the impaired renal microcirculation in BDL-operated mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that oxidative stress, inflammation and microvascular dysfunction are key events in the pathogenesis of BDL-associated renal failure. Furthermore, we demonstrate that targeting the CB₂-R by selective agonists may represent a promising new avenue to treat HRS by attenuating tissue and vascular inflammation, oxidative stress, fibrosis and consequent microcirculatory dysfunction in the kidneys.

Interplay of Liver-Heart Inflammatory Axis and Cannabinoid 2 Receptor Signaling in an Experimental Model of Hepatic Cardiomyopathy

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Hepatic cardiomyopathy, a special type of heart failure, develops in up to 50% of patients with cirrhosis and is a major determinant of survival. However, there is no reliable model of hepatic cardiomyopathy in mice. We aimed to characterize the detailed hemodynamics of mice with bile duct ligation (BDL)-induced liver fibrosis, by monitoring echocardiography and intracardiac pressure-volume relationships and myocardial structural alterations. Treatment of mice with a selective cannabinoid-2 receptor (CB₂ -R) agonist, known to attenuate inflammation and fibrosis, was used to explore the impact of liver inflammation and fibrosis on cardiac function.

APPROACH AND RESULTS

BDL induced massive inflammation (increased leukocyte infiltration, inflammatory cytokines, and chemokines), oxidative stress, microvascular dysfunction, and fibrosis in the liver. These pathological changes were accompanied by impaired diastolic, systolic, and macrovascular functions; cardiac inflammation (increased macrophage inflammatory protein 1, interleukin-1, P-selectin, cluster of differentiation 45-positive cells); and oxidative stress (increased malondialdehyde, 3-nitrotyrosine, and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidases). CB₂ -R up-regulation was observed in both livers and hearts of mice exposed to BDL. CB₂ -R activation markedly improved hepatic inflammation, impaired microcirculation, and fibrosis. CB₂ -R activation also decreased serum tumor necrosis factor-alpha levels and improved cardiac dysfunction, myocardial inflammation, and oxidative stress, underlining the importance of inflammatory mediators in the pathology of hepatic cardiomyopathy.

CONCLUSIONS

We propose BDL-induced cardiomyopathy in mice as a model for hepatic/cirrhotic cardiomyopathy. This cardiomyopathy, similar to cirrhotic cardiomyopathy in humans, is characterized by systemic hypotension and impaired macrovascular and microvascular function accompanied by both systolic and diastolic dysfunction. Our results indicate that the liver-heart inflammatory axis has a pivotal pathophysiological role in the development of hepatic cardiomyopathy. Thus, controlling liver and/or myocardial inflammation (e.g., with selective CB₂ -R agonists) may delay or prevent the development of cardiomyopathy in severe liver disease.

Activity-based protein profiling of the human failing ischemic heart reveals alterations in hydrolase activities involving the endocannabinoid system

AIM

Acute myocardial infarction and subsequent post-infarction heart failure are among the leading causes of mortality worldwide. The endocannabinoid system has emerged as an important modulator of cardiovascular disease, however the role of endocannabinoid metabolic enzymes in heart failure is still elusive. Herein, we investigated the endocannabinoids and their metabolic enzymes in ischemic end-stage failing human hearts and non-failing controls.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Quantitative real-time PCR, targeted lipidomics, and activity-based protein profiling (ABPP) enabled assessment of the endocannabinoids and their metabolic enzymes in ischemic end-stage failing human hearts and non-failing controls. Based on lipidomic analysis, two subgroups were identified within the ischemic heart failure group; the first similar to control hearts and the second with decreased levels of the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol (2-AG) and drastically increased levels of the endocannabinoid anandamide (AEA), other N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) and free fatty acids. The altered lipid profile was accompanied by strong reductions in the activity of 13 hydrolases, including the 2-AG hydrolytic enzyme monoacylglycerol lipase (MGLL).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest the presence of different biological states within the ischemic heart failure group, based on alterations in the lipid and hydrolase activity profiles. In addition, this study demonstrates that ABPP is a valuable tool to rapidly analyze enzyme activity in clinical samples with potential for novel drug and biomarker discovery.

Alcohol Binge-Induced Cardiovascular Dysfunction Involves Endocannabinoid-CB1-R Signaling

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Alcohol is one of the most frequently used intoxicants in the United States. Binge alcohol drinking is a major contributor of emergency department visits.

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Binge alcohol drinking may adversely affect cardiovascular function.

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Here we show that acute alcohol intoxication is associated with elevated levels of cardiac endocannabinoid anandamide and profound cardiovascular dysfunction and blood redistribution lasting for several hours.

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The adverse cardiovascular effects of acute alcohol intoxication are attenuated by CB1-R antagonist or in CB1-R knockout mice.

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A single alcohol binge has profound effect on the cardiovascular system, which involves endocannabinoid-CB1-R signaling.

Excessive binge alcohol drinking may adversely affect cardiovascular function. In this study we characterize the detailed hemodynamic effects of an acute alcohol binge in mice using multiple approaches and investigate the role of the endocannabinoid–cannabinoid 1 receptor (CB1-R) signaling in these effects. Acute alcohol binge was associated with elevated levels of cardiac endocannabinoid anandamide and profound cardiovascular dysfunction lasting for several hours and redistribution of circulation. These changes were attenuated by CB1-R antagonist or in CB1-R knockout mice. Our results suggest that a single alcohol binge has profound effects on the cardiovascular system, which involve endocannabinoid–CB1-R signaling.

Novel Myocardial PET/CT Receptor Imaging and Potential Therapeutic Targets

PURPOSE OF THE REVIEW

Activation of myocardial cannabinoid type 1 receptors (CB1-R) and/or angiotensin II type 1 receptors (AT1-R) likely plays an important mechanistic role in determining the left-ventricular remodeling process in systolic heart failure. We provide an overview on novel radiotracer probes and positron emission tomography (PET)/computed tomography (CT) imaging to noninvasively probe the expression of myocardial CB1-R and/or AT1-R.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent translational investigations have demonstrated the feasibility of ¹¹C-OMAR or ¹¹C-KR31173 and PET/CT to image and quantify myocardial CB1-R and/or AT1-R expression, respectively. There is an increasing understanding of the mechanisms of activated myocardial CB1-R and/or AT1-R to influence the left-ventricular remodeling process in systolic heart failure in different disease entities. The review summarizes contributions of PET to image myocardial CB1-R and AT1-R expression that may have the potential to serve as a target to tailor preventive medical care in the individual patient.

Disruption of Renal Arginine Metabolism Promotes Kidney Injury in Hepatorenal Syndrome in Mice

Tubular dysfunction is an important feature of renal injury in hepatorenal syndrome (HRS) in patients with end-stage liver disease. The pathogenesis of kidney injury in HRS is elusive, and there are no clinically relevant rodent models of HRS. We investigated the renal consequences of bile duct ligation (BDL)-induced hepatic and renal injury in mice in vivo by using biochemical assays, real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), Western blot, mass spectrometry, histology, and electron microscopy. BDL resulted in time-dependent hepatic injury and hyperammonemia which were paralleled by tubular dilation and tubulointerstitial nephritis with marked upregulation of lipocalin-2, kidney injury molecule 1 (KIM-1) and osteopontin. Renal injury was associated with dramatically impaired microvascular flow and decreased endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) activity. Gene expression analyses signified proximal tubular epithelial injury, tissue hypoxia, inflammation, and activation of the fibrotic gene program. Marked changes in renal arginine metabolism (upregulation of arginase-2 and downregulation of argininosuccinate synthase 1), resulted in decreased circulating arginine levels. Arginase-2 knockout mice were partially protected from BDL-induced renal injury and had less impairment in microvascular function. In human-cultured proximal tubular epithelial cells hyperammonemia per se induced upregulation of arginase-2 and markers of tubular cell injury.

CONCLUSION

We propose that hyperammonemia may contribute to impaired renal arginine metabolism, leading to decreased eNOS activity, impaired microcirculation, tubular cell death, tubulointerstitial nephritis and fibrosis. Genetic deletion of arginase-2 partially restores microcirculation and thereby alleviates tubular injury. We also demonstrate that BDL in mice is an excellent, clinically relevant model to study the renal consequences of HRS. (Hepatology 2018; 00:000-000).

Neuroprotection in Oxidative Stress-Related Neurodegenerative Diseases: Role of Endocannabinoid System Modulation

SIGNIFICANCE

Redox imbalance may lead to overproduction of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) and subsequent oxidative tissue damage, which is a critical event in the course of neurodegenerative diseases. It is still not fully elucidated, however, whether oxidative stress is the primary trigger or a consequence in the process of neurodegeneration. Recent Advances: Increasing evidence suggests that oxidative stress is involved in the propagation of neuronal injury and consequent inflammatory response, which in concert promote development of pathological alterations characteristic of most common neurodegenerative diseases.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Accumulating recent evidence also suggests that there is an important interplay between the lipid endocannabinoid system [ECS; comprising the main cannabinoid 1 and 2 receptors (CB1 and CB2), endocannabinoids, and their synthetic and metabolizing enzymes] and various key inflammatory and redox-dependent processes.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Targeting the ECS to modulate redox state-dependent cell death and to decrease consequent or preceding inflammatory response holds therapeutic potential in a multitude of oxidative stress-related acute or chronic neurodegenerative disorders from stroke and traumatic brain injury to Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases and multiple sclerosis, just to name a few, which will be discussed in this overview. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 29, 75-108.

Feasibility Evaluation of Myocardial Cannabinoid Type 1 Receptor Imaging in Obesity: A Translational Approach

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of targeted imaging of myocardial cannabinoid type 1 receptor (CB1-R) and its potential up-regulation in obese mice with translation to humans using [11C]-OMAR and positron emission tomography (PET)/computed tomography (CT).

BACKGROUND

Activation of myocardial CB1-R by endocannabinoids has been implicated in cardiac dysfunction in diabetic mice. Obesity may lead to an up-regulation of myocardial CB1-R, potentially providing a mechanistic link between obesity and the initiation and/or progression of cardiomyopathy.

METHODS

Binding specificity of [11C]-OMAR to CB1-R was investigated by blocking studies with rimonabant in mice. The heart was harvested from each mouse, and its radioactivity was determined by γ-counter. Furthermore, [11C]-OMAR dynamic micro-PET/CT was carried out in obese and normal-weight mice. Ex vivo validation was performed by droplet digital polymerase chain reaction (absolute quantification) and RNAscope Technology (an in situ ribonucleic acid analysis platform). Subsequently, myocardial CB1-R expression was probed noninvasively with intravenous injection of CB1-R ligand [11C]-OMAR and PET/CT in humans with advanced obesity and normal-weight human control subjects, respectively.

RESULTS

Rimonabant significantly blocked OMAR uptake in the heart muscle compared with vehicle, signifying specific binding of OMAR to the CB1-R in the myocardium. The myocardial OMAR retention quantified by micro-PET/CT in mice was significantly higher in obese compared with normal-weight mice. Absolute quantification of CB1-R gene expression with droplet digital polymerase chain reaction and in situ hybridization confirmed CB1-R up-regulation in all major myocardial cell types (e.g., cardiomyocytes, endothelium, vascular smooth muscle cells, and fibroblasts) of obese mice. Obese mice also had elevated myocardial levels of endocannabinoids anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol compared with lean mice. Translation to humans revealed higher myocardial OMAR retention in advanced obesity compared with normal-weight subjects.

CONCLUSIONS

Noninvasive imaging of cardiac CB1-R expression in obesity is feasible applying [11C]-OMAR and PET/CT. These results may provide a rationale for further clinical testing of CB1-R-targeted molecular imaging in cardiometabolic diseases.

Cannabidiol attenuates alcohol-induced liver steatosis, metabolic dysregulation, inflammation and neutrophil-mediated injury

Cannabidiol (CBD) is a non-psychoactive component of marijuana, which has anti-inflammatory effects. It has also been approved by FDA for various orphan diseases for exploratory trials. Herein, we investigated the effects of CBD on liver injury induced by chronic plus binge alcohol feeding in mice. CBD or vehicle was administered daily throughout the alcohol feeding study. At the conclusion of the feeding protocol, serums samples, livers or isolated neutrophils were utilized for molecular biology, biochemistry and pathology analysis. CBD significantly attenuated the alcohol feeding-induced serum transaminase elevations, hepatic inflammation (mRNA expressions of TNFα, MCP1, IL1β, MIP2 and E-Selectin, and neutrophil accumulation), oxidative/nitrative stress (lipid peroxidation, 3-nitrotyrosine formation, and expression of reactive oxygen species generating enzyme NOX2). CBD treatment also attenuated the respiratory burst of neutrophils isolated from chronic plus binge alcohol fed mice or from human blood, and decreased the alcohol-induced increased liver triglyceride and fat droplet accumulation. Furthermore, CBD improved alcohol-induced hepatic metabolic dysregulation and steatosis by restoring changes in hepatic mRNA or protein expression of ACC-1, FASN, PPARα, MCAD, ADIPOR-1, and mCPT-1. Thus, CBD may have therapeutic potential in the treatment of alcoholic liver diseases associated with inflammation, oxidative stress and steatosis, which deserves exploration in human trials.

PARP inhibition protects against alcoholic and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, inflammation, and metabolic reprograming are crucial contributors to hepatic injury and subsequent liver fibrosis. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARP) and their interactions with sirtuins play an important role in regulating intermediary metabolism in this process. However, there is little research into whether PARP inhibition affects alcoholic and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (ASH/NASH).

METHODS

We investigated the effects of genetic deletion of PARP1 and pharmacological inhibition of PARP in models of early alcoholic steatohepatitis, as well as on Kupffer cell activation in vitro using biochemical assays, real-time PCR, and histological analyses. The effects of PARP inhibition were also evaluated in high fat or methionine and choline deficient diet-induced steatohepatitis models in mice.

RESULTS

PARP activity was increased in livers due to excessive alcohol intake, which was associated with decreased NAD⁺ content and SIRT1 activity. Pharmacological inhibition of PARP restored the hepatic NAD⁺ content, attenuated the decrease in SIRT1 activation and beneficially affected the metabolic-, inflammatory-, and oxidative stress-related alterations due to alcohol feeding in the liver. PARP1^-/- animals were protected against alcoholic steatohepatitis and pharmacological inhibition of PARP or genetic deletion of PARP1 also attenuated Kupffer cell activation in vitro. Furthermore, PARP inhibition decreased hepatic triglyceride accumulation, metabolic dysregulation, or inflammation and/or fibrosis in models of NASH.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggests that PARP inhibition is a promising therapeutic strategy in steatohepatitis with high translational potential, considering the availability of PARP inhibitors for clinical treatment of cancer.

LAY SUMMARY

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARP) are the most abundant nuclear enzymes. The PARP inhibitor olaparib (Lynparza) is a recently FDA-approved therapy for cancer. This study shows that PARP is overactivated in livers of subjects with alcoholic liver disease and that pharmacological inhibition of this enzyme with 3 different PARP inhibitors, including olaparib, attenuates high fat or alcohol induced liver injury, abnormal metabolic alteration, fat accumulation, inflammation and/or fibrosis in preclinical models of liver disease. These results suggest that PARP inhibition is a promising therapeutic strategy in the treatment of alcoholic and non-alcoholic liver diseases.

β-Caryophyllene protects against alcoholic steatohepatitis by attenuating inflammation and metabolic dysregulation in mice

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

β-Caryophyllene (BCP) is a plant-derived FDA approved food additive with anti-inflammatory properties. Some of its beneficial effects in vivo are reported to involve activation of cannabinoid CB₂ receptors that are predominantly expressed in immune cells. Here, we evaluated the translational potential of BCP using a well-established model of chronic and binge alcohol-induced liver injury.

METHODS

In this study, we investigated the effects of BCP on liver injury induced by chronic plus binge alcohol feeding in mice in vivo by using biochemical assays, real-time PCR and histology analyses. Serum and hepatic BCP levels were also determined by GC/MS.

RESULTS

Chronic treatment with BCP alleviated the chronic and binge alcohol-induced liver injury and inflammation by attenuating the pro-inflammatory phenotypic `M1` switch of Kupffer cells and by decreasing the expression of vascular adhesion molecules intercellular adhesion molecule 1, E-Selectin and P-Selectin, as well as the neutrophil infiltration. It also beneficially influenced hepatic metabolic dysregulation (steatosis, protein hyperacetylation and PPAR-α signalling). These protective effects of BCP against alcohol-induced liver injury were attenuated in CB₂ receptor knockout mice, indicating that the beneficial effects of this natural product in liver injury involve activation of these receptors. Following acute or chronic administration, BCP was detectable both in the serum and liver tissue homogenates but not in the brain.

CONCLUSIONS

Given the safety of BCP in humans, this food additive has a high translational potential in treating or preventing hepatic injury associated with oxidative stress, inflammation and steatosis.

LINKED ARTICLES

This article is part of a themed section on Inventing New Therapies Without Reinventing the Wheel: The Power of Drug Repurposing. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v175.2/issuetoc.

Chronic plus binge ethanol feeding induces myocardial oxidative stress, mitochondrial and cardiovascular dysfunction, and steatosis

Alcoholic cardiomyopathy in humans develops in response to chronic excessive alcohol consumption; however, good models of alcohol-induced cardiomyopathy in mice are lacking. Herein we describe mouse models of alcoholic cardiomyopathies induced by chronic and binge ethanol (EtOH) feeding and characterize detailed hemodynamic alterations, mitochondrial function, and redox signaling in these models. Mice were fed a liquid diet containing 5% EtOH for 10, 20, and 40 days (d) combined with single or multiple EtOH binges (5 g/kg body wt). Isocalorically pair-fed mice served as controls. Left ventricular (LV) function and morphology were assessed by invasive pressure-volume conductance approach and by echocardiography. Mitochondrial complex (I, II, IV) activities, 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NT) levels, gene expression of markers of oxidative stress (gp91phox, p47phox), mitochondrial biogenesis (PGC1α, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α), and fibrosis were examined. Cardiac steatosis and fibrosis were investigated by histological/immunohistochemical methods. Chronic and binge EtOH feeding (already in 10 days EtOH plus single binge group) was characterized by contractile dysfunction (decreased slope of end-systolic pressure-volume relationship and preload recruitable stroke work), impaired relaxation (decreased time constant of LV pressure decay and maximal slope of systolic pressure decrement), and vascular dysfunction (impaired arterial elastance and lower total peripheral resistance). This was accompanied by enhanced myocardial oxidative/nitrative stress (3-NT; gp91phox; p47phox; angiotensin II receptor, type 1a) and deterioration of mitochondrial complex I, II, IV activities and mitochondrial biogenesis, excessive cardiac steatosis, and higher mortality. Collectively, chronic plus binge EtOH feeding in mice leads to alcohol-induced cardiomyopathies (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism models) characterized by increased myocardial oxidative/nitrative stress, impaired mitochondrial function and biogenesis, and enhanced cardiac steatosis.

The novel, orally available and peripherally restricted selective cannabinoid CB2 receptor agonist LEI-101 prevents cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Here, we have characterized 3-cyclopropyl-1-(4-(6-((1,1-dioxidothiomorpholino)methyl)-5-fluoropyridin-2-yl)benzyl)imidazolidine-2,4-dione hydrochloride (LEI-101) as a novel, peripherally restricted cannabinoid CB2 receptor agonist, using both in vitro and in vivo models.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

We investigated the effects of LEI-101 on binding and functional activity. We assessed its in vitro and in vivo selectivity. Efficacy of LEI-101 was determined in a mouse model of cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity.

KEY RESULTS

LEI-101 behaved as a partial agonist at CB2 receptors using β-arrestin and GTPγS assays and was ~100-fold selective in CB2 /CB1 receptor-binding assays. It did not display any activity on endocannabinoid hydrolases and nor did it react with serine hydrolases in an activity-based protein profiling assay. In mice, LEI-101 had excellent oral bioavailability reaching high concentrations in the kidney and liver with minimal penetration into the brain. LEI-101 up to a dose of 60 mg·kg(-1) (p.o.) did not exert any CNS-mediated effects in the tetrad assay, in mice. LEI-101 (p.o. or i.p.) at 3 or 10 mg·kg(-1) dose-dependently prevented kidney dysfunction and/or morphological damage induced by cisplatin in mice. These protective effects were associated with improved renal histopathology, attenuated oxidative stress and inflammation in the kidney. These effects were absent in CB2 receptor knockout mice.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

These results indicate that LEI-101 is a selective, largely peripherally restricted, orally available CB2 receptor agonist with therapeutic potential in diseases that are associated with inflammation and/or oxidative stress, including kidney disease.

Cannabidiol Limits T Cell-Mediated Chronic Autoimmune Myocarditis: Implications to Autoimmune Disorders and Organ Transplantation

Myocarditis is a major cause of heart failure and sudden cardiac death in young adults and adolescents. Many cases of myocarditis are associated with autoimmune processes in which cardiac myosin is a major autoantigen. Conventional immunosuppressive therapies often provide unsatisfactory results and are associated with adverse toxicities during the treatment of autoimmune myocarditis. Cannabidiol (CBD) is a nonpsychoactive constituent of marijuana that exerts antiinflammatory effects independent of classical cannabinoid receptors. Recently, 80 clinical trials have investigated the effects of CBD in various diseases from inflammatory bowel disease to graft versus host disease. CBD-based formulations are used for the management of multiple sclerosis in numerous countries, and CBD also received U.S. Food and Drug Administration approval for the treatment of refractory childhood epilepsy and glioblastoma multiforme. Herein, using a well-established mouse model of experimental autoimmune myocarditis (EAM) induced by immunization with cardiac myosin emmulsified in adjuvant resulting in T cell-mediated inflammation, cardiomyocyte cell death, fibrosis and myocardial dysfunction, we studied the potential beneficial effects of CBD. EAM was characterized by marked myocardial T-cell infiltration, profound inflammatory response and fibrosis (measured by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, histology and immunohistochemistry analyses) accompanied by marked attenuation of both systolic and diastolic cardiac functions measured with a pressure-volume conductance catheter technique. Chronic treatment with CBD largely attenuated the CD3⁺ and CD4⁺ T cell-mediated inflammatory response and injury, myocardial fibrosis and cardiac dysfunction in mice. In conclusion, CBD may represent a promising novel treatment for managing autoimmune myocarditis and possibly other autoimmune disorders and organ transplantation.

Drug-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and cardiotoxicity

Mitochondria has an essential role in myocardial tissue homeostasis; thus deterioration in mitochondrial function eventually leads to cardiomyocyte and endothelial cell death and consequent cardiovascular dysfunction. Several chemical compounds and drugs have been known to directly or indirectly modulate cardiac mitochondrial function, which can account both for the toxicological and pharmacological properties of these substances. In many cases, toxicity problems appear only in the presence of additional cardiovascular disease conditions or develop months/years following the exposure, making the diagnosis difficult. Cardiotoxic agents affecting mitochondria include several widely used anticancer drugs [anthracyclines (Doxorubicin/Adriamycin), cisplatin, trastuzumab (Herceptin), arsenic trioxide (Trisenox), mitoxantrone (Novantrone), imatinib (Gleevec), bevacizumab (Avastin), sunitinib (Sutent), and sorafenib (Nevaxar)], antiviral compound azidothymidine (AZT, Zidovudine) and several oral antidiabetics [e.g., rosiglitazone (Avandia)]. Illicit drugs such as alcohol, cocaine, methamphetamine, ecstasy, and synthetic cannabinoids (spice, K2) may also induce mitochondria-related cardiotoxicity. Mitochondrial toxicity develops due to various mechanisms involving interference with the mitochondrial respiratory chain (e.g., uncoupling) or inhibition of the important mitochondrial enzymes (oxidative phosphorylation, Szent-Györgyi-Krebs cycle, mitochondrial DNA replication, ADP/ATP translocator). The final phase of mitochondrial dysfunction induces loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and an increase in mitochondrial oxidative/nitrative stress, eventually culminating into cell death. This review aims to discuss the mechanisms of mitochondrion-mediated cardiotoxicity of commonly used drugs and some potential cardioprotective strategies to prevent these toxicities.

Role of the endocannabinoid system in diabetes and diabetic complications

Increasing evidence suggests that an overactive endocannabinoid system (ECS) may contribute to the development of diabetes by promoting energy intake and storage, impairing both glucose and lipid metabolism, by exerting pro-apoptotic effects in pancreatic beta cells and by facilitating inflammation in pancreatic islets. Furthermore, hyperglycaemia associated with diabetes has also been implicated in triggering perturbations of the ECS amplifying the pathological processes mentioned above, eventually culminating in a vicious circle. Compelling evidence from preclinical studies indicates that the ECS also influences diabetes-induced oxidative stress, inflammation, fibrosis and subsequent tissue injury in target organs for diabetic complications. In this review, we provide an update on the contribution of the ECS to the pathogenesis of diabetes and diabetic microvascular (retinopathy, nephropathy and neuropathy) and cardiovascular complications. The therapeutic potential of targeting the ECS is also discussed.

LINKED ARTICLES

This article is part of a themed section on Endocannabinoids. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v173.7/issuetoc.

Cannabidiol Protects against Doxorubicin-Induced Cardiomyopathy by Modulating Mitochondrial Function and Biogenesis

Doxorubicin (DOX) is a widely used, potent chemotherapeutic agent; however, its clinical application is limited because of its dose-dependent cardiotoxicity. DOX's cardiotoxicity involves increased oxidative/nitrative stress, impaired mitochondrial function in cardiomyocytes/endothelial cells and cell death. Cannabidiol (CBD) is a nonpsychotropic constituent of marijuana, which is well tolerated in humans, with antioxidant, antiinflammatory and recently discovered antitumor properties. We aimed to explore the effects of CBD in a well-established mouse model of DOX-induced cardiomyopathy. DOX-induced cardiomyopathy was characterized by increased myocardial injury (elevated serum creatine kinase and lactate dehydrogenase levels), myocardial oxidative and nitrative stress (decreased total glutathione content and glutathione peroxidase 1 activity, increased lipid peroxidation, 3-nitrotyrosine formation and expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase mRNA), myocardial cell death (apoptotic and poly[ADP]-ribose polymerase 1 [PARP]-dependent) and cardiac dysfunction (decline in ejection fraction and left ventricular fractional shortening). DOX also impaired myocardial mitochondrial biogenesis (decreased mitochondrial copy number, mRNA expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1-alpha, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha, estrogen-related receptor alpha), reduced mitochondrial function (attenuated complex I and II activities) and decreased myocardial expression of uncoupling protein 2 and 3 and medium-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase mRNA. Treatment with CBD markedly improved DOX-induced cardiac dysfunction, oxidative/nitrative stress and cell death. CBD also enhanced the DOX-induced impaired cardiac mitochondrial function and biogenesis. These data suggest that CBD may represent a novel cardioprotective strategy against DOX-induced cardiotoxicity, and the above-described effects on mitochondrial function and biogenesis may contribute to its beneficial properties described in numerous other models of tissue injury.

Interplay of oxidative, nitrosative/nitrative stress, inflammation, cell death and autophagy in diabetic cardiomyopathy

Diabetes is a recognized risk factor for cardiovascular diseases and heart failure. Diabetic cardiovascular dysfunction also underscores the development of diabetic retinopathy, nephropathy and neuropathy. Despite the broad availability of antidiabetic therapy, glycemic control still remains a major challenge in the management of diabetic patients. Hyperglycemia triggers formation of advanced glycosylation end products (AGEs), activates protein kinase C, enhances polyol pathway, glucose autoxidation, which coupled with elevated levels of free fatty acids, and leptin have been implicated in increased generation of superoxide anion by mitochondria, NADPH oxidases and xanthine oxidoreductase in diabetic vasculature and myocardium. Superoxide anion interacts with nitric oxide forming the potent toxin peroxynitrite via diffusion limited reaction, which in concert with other oxidants triggers activation of stress kinases, endoplasmic reticulum stress, mitochondrial and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1-dependent cell death, dysregulates autophagy/mitophagy, inactivates key proteins involved in myocardial calcium handling/contractility and antioxidant defense, activates matrix metalloproteinases and redox-dependent pro-inflammatory transcription factors (e.g. nuclear factor kappaB) promoting inflammation, AGEs formation, eventually culminating in myocardial dysfunction, remodeling and heart failure. Understanding the complex interplay of oxidative/nitrosative stress with pro-inflammatory, metabolic and cell death pathways is critical to devise novel targeted therapies for diabetic cardiomyopathy, which will be overviewed in this brief synopsis. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Autophagy and protein quality control in cardiometabolic diseases.

Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 is a key mediator of liver inflammation and fibrosis

Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP-1) is a constitutive enzyme, the major isoform of the PARP family, which is involved in the regulation of DNA repair, cell death, metabolism, and inflammatory responses. Pharmacological inhibitors of PARP provide significant therapeutic benefits in various preclinical disease models associated with tissue injury and inflammation. However, our understanding the role of PARP activation in the pathophysiology of liver inflammation and fibrosis is limited. In this study we investigated the role of PARP-1 in liver inflammation and fibrosis using acute and chronic models of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4 )-induced liver injury and fibrosis, a model of bile duct ligation (BDL)-induced hepatic fibrosis in vivo, and isolated liver-derived cells ex vivo. Pharmacological inhibition of PARP with structurally distinct inhibitors or genetic deletion of PARP-1 markedly attenuated CCl4 -induced hepatocyte death, inflammation, and fibrosis. Interestingly, the chronic CCl4 -induced liver injury was also characterized by mitochondrial dysfunction and dysregulation of numerous genes involved in metabolism. Most of these pathological changes were attenuated by PARP inhibitors. PARP inhibition not only prevented CCl4 -induced chronic liver inflammation and fibrosis, but was also able to reverse these pathological processes. PARP inhibitors also attenuated the development of BDL-induced hepatic fibrosis in mice. In liver biopsies of subjects with alcoholic or hepatitis B-induced cirrhosis, increased nitrative stress and PARP activation was noted.

CONCLUSION

The reactive oxygen/nitrogen species-PARP pathway plays a pathogenetic role in the development of liver inflammation, metabolism, and fibrosis. PARP inhibitors are currently in clinical trials for oncological indications, and the current results indicate that liver inflammation and liver fibrosis may be additional clinical indications where PARP inhibition may be of translational potential.