Cellular dormancy: A widespread phenomenon that perpetuates infectious diseases

Under adverse environmental conditions, microorganisms are able to enter a state of cellular dormancy which consists of cell cycle arrest and interruption of multiplication. This process ensures their perpetuation in the infected host organism and enables the spread of disease. Throughout biological evolution, dormancy allowed microorganisms to persist in a harsh niche until favorable conditions for their reactivation were re-established. Here, we propose to discuss the dormancy of bacteria and protozoa pathogens focusing on the potential mechanisms and components associated with dormancy.

The importance, benefits, and future of nanobiosensors for infectious diseases

Infectious diseases, caused by pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, or fungi, are crucial for efficient disease management, reducing morbidity and mortality rates and controlling disease spread. Traditional laboratory-based diagnostic methods face challenges such as high costs, time consumption, and a lack of trained personnel in resource-poor settings. Diagnostic biosensors have gained momentum as a potential solution, offering advantages such as low cost, high sensitivity, ease of use, and portability. Nanobiosensors are a promising tool for detecting and diagnosing infectious diseases such as coronavirus disease, human immunodeficiency virus, and hepatitis. These sensors use nanostructured carbon nanotubes, graphene, and nanoparticles to detect specific biomarkers or pathogens. They operate through mechanisms like the lateral flow test platform, where a sample containing the biomarker or pathogen is applied to a test strip. If present, the sample binds to specific recognition probes on the strip, indicating a positive result. This binding event is visualized through a colored line. This review discusses the importance, benefits, and potential of nanobiosensors in detecting infectious diseases.

The subversion of toll-like receptor signaling by bacterial and viral proteases during the development of infectious diseases

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that respond to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). The recognition of specific microbial ligands by TLRs triggers an innate immune response and also promotes adaptive immunity, which is necessary for the efficient elimination of invading pathogens. Successful pathogens have therefore evolved strategies to subvert and/or manipulate TLR signaling. Both the impairment and uncontrolled activation of TLR signaling can harm the host, causing tissue destruction and allowing pathogens to proliferate, thus favoring disease progression. In this context, microbial proteases are key virulence factors that modify components of the TLR signaling pathway. In this review, we discuss the role of bacterial and viral proteases in the manipulation of TLR signaling, highlighting the importance of these enzymes during the development of infectious diseases.

[Medication law and mechanism of traditional Chinese medicine in prevention and treatment of epidemic diseases: based on traditional Chinese medicine theory of cold pestilence]

Epidemic diseases have caused huge harm to the society. Traditional Chinese medicine(TCM) has made great contributions to the prevention and treatment of them. It is of great reference value for fighting diseases and developing drugs to explore the medication law and mechanism of TCM under TCM theory. In this study, the relationship between the TCM theory of cold pestilence and modern epidemic diseases was investigated. Particularly, the the relationship of coronavirus disease 2019(COVID-19), severe acute respiratory syndrome(SARS), and influenza A(H1 N1) with the cold pestilence was identified and analyzed. The roles of TCM theory of cold pestilence in preventing and treating modern epidemic diseases were discussed. Then, through data mining and textual research, prescriptions for the treatment of cold pestilence were collected from major databases and relevant ancient books, and their medication laws were examined through analysis of high-frequency medicinals and medicinal pairs, association rules analysis, and cluster analysis. For example, the prescriptions with high confidence levels were identified: "Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma-Bupleuri Radix-Paeoniae Radix Alba" "Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma-Pinelliae Rhizoma-Bupleuri Radix", and TCM treatment methods with them were analyzed by clustering analysis to yield the medicinal combinations: "Zingiberis Rhizoma-Aconiti Lateralis Radix Praeparata-Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma" "Poria-Atractylodis Macrocephalae Rhizoma" "Cinnamomi Ramulus-Asari Radix et Rhizoma" "Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium-Perillae Folium" "Pinelliae Rhizoma-Magnoliae Officinalis Cortex-Atractylodis Rhizoma" "Paeoniae Radix Alba-Angelicae Sinensis Radix-Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma-Bupleuri Radix-Scutellariae Radix-Rhizoma Zingiberis Recens" "Ephedrae Herba-Armeniacae Semen Amarum-Gypsum Fibrosum" "Chuanxiong Rhizoma-Notopterygii Rhizoma et Radix-Angelicae Dahuricae Radix-Platycodonis Radix-Saposhnikoviae Radix". Then, according to the medication law for cold pestilence, the antiviral active components of medium-frequency and high-frequency medicinals were retrieved. It was found that these components exerted the antiviral effect by inhibiting virus replication, regulating virus proteins and antiviral signals, and suppressing protease activity. Based on network pharmacology, the mechanisms of the medicinals against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus(SARS-CoV), 2019 novel coronavirus(2019-nCoV), and H1 N1 virus were explored. It was determined that the key targets were tumor necrosis factor(TNF), endothelial growth factor A(VEGFA), serum creatinine(SRC), epidermal growth factor receptor(EGFR), matrix metalloproteinase 9(MMP9), mitogen-activated protein kinase 14(MAPK14), and prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2(PTGS2), which were involved the mitogen-activated protein kinase(MAPK) pathway, advanced glycation end-products(AGE)-receptor for AGE(RAGE) pathway, COVID-19 pathway, and mTOR pathway. This paper elucidated the medication law and mechanism of TCM for the prevention and treatment of epidemic diseases under the guidance of TCM theory of cold pestilence, in order to build a bridge between the theory and modern epidemic diseases and provide reference TCM methods for the prevention and treatment of modern epidemic diseases and ideas for the application of data mining to TCM treatment of modern diseases.

VEuPathDB: the eukaryotic pathogen, vector and host bioinformatics resource center

The Eukaryotic Pathogen, Vector and Host Informatics Resource (VEuPathDB, https://veupathdb.org) represents the 2019 merger of VectorBase with the EuPathDB projects. As a Bioinformatics Resource Center funded by the National Institutes of Health, with additional support from the Welllcome Trust, VEuPathDB supports >500 organisms comprising invertebrate vectors, eukaryotic pathogens (protists and fungi) and relevant free-living or non-pathogenic species or hosts. Designed to empower researchers with access to Omics data and bioinformatic analyses, VEuPathDB projects integrate >1700 pre-analysed datasets (and associated metadata) with advanced search capabilities, visualizations, and analysis tools in a graphic interface. Diverse data types are analysed with standardized workflows including an in-house OrthoMCL algorithm for predicting orthology. Comparisons are easily made across datasets, data types and organisms in this unique data mining platform. A new site-wide search facilitates access for both experienced and novice users. Upgraded infrastructure and workflows support numerous updates to the web interface, tools, searches and strategies, and Galaxy workspace where users can privately analyse their own data. Forthcoming upgrades include cloud-ready application architecture, expanded support for the Galaxy workspace, tools for interrogating host-pathogen interactions, and improved interactions with affiliated databases (ClinEpiDB, MicrobiomeDB) and other scientific resources, and increased interoperability with the Bacterial & Viral BRC.

A Multicenter Study of Real-world Practice for Management of Abnormal Liver Function Tests in Children with Acute Infectious Diseases

BACKGROUND

Abnormal liver function tests (LFTs) are commonly seen in pediatric patients with acute infectious diseases. Few studies and no definite clinical guidelines for these conditions are available. The present study aimed to elucidate the causes and factors associated with prolongation of liver enzyme elevation. We also investigated actual real-world practices in Korea.

METHODS

A retrospective study was performed on all patients younger than 18 years, who visited six tertiary teaching hospitals around Korea in 2018 for acute infectious diseases and showed alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels above 60 IU/L without other specific conditions that could cause ALT elevation. We categorized the infections that cause LFT elevation into six groups: respiratory infection, gastrointestinal infection, urinary tract infection, other febrile disease, Epstein-Barr virus infection, and cytomegalovirus infection. We collected data on the medical specialty of the attending physician who followed up the subject, follow-up duration, percentage of follow-up loss, and their investigation.

RESULTS

A total of 613 patients were enrolled in this study, half of whom (50.7%) were younger than 12 months. The mean initial aspartate aminotransferase and ALT values were 171.2 ± 274.1 and 194.9 ± 316.1 IU/L (range 23-2,881, 60-2,949 IU/L), respectively; however, other LFTs were within the normal range. Respiratory infection was the most common diagnosis (45.0%), and rhinovirus was the most commonly identified pathogen (9.8%). The follow-up rate was higher with pediatric gastroenterologists (90.5%) and non-gastroenterology pediatricians (76.4%) than with pediatric residents and emergency doctors. Older age was related to better ALT recovery (odds ratio [OR] of age for month = 1.003; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.001-1.004; P = 0.004), while the number of infection episodes (OR = 0.626; 95% CI, 0.505-0.777; P < 0.001) was associated with poor ALT recovery. Abdominal sonography was the most commonly used diagnostic tool (36.9%), followed by the hepatotropic virus workup. The modalities of hepatitis workup were significantly differently applied by physicians based on their specialties and institutions.

CONCLUSION

Abnormal liver function test after a systemic infection was common in respiratory infection and under the age of 1 year. Age, number of infections, and initial results of LFTs were related to ALT recovery time. Inter-physician, inter-institution, and inter-specialty variances were observed in real-world practice.

A retrospective observational study of the impact of 16s and 18s ribosomal RNA PCR on antimicrobial treatment over seven years: A tertiary hospital experience

Background

Although culture-based methods remain a staple element of microbiology analysis, advanced molecular methods increasingly supplement the testing repertoire. Since the advent of 16s and 18s ribosomal RNA PCR in the 2000s, there has been interest in its utility for pathogen detection. Nonetheless, studies assessing the impact on antimicrobial prescribing are limited. We report a single-centre experience of the influence of 16s and 18s PCR testing on antimicrobial treatment, including a cost-analysis.

Methods

Data were collected retrospectively for all samples sent for 16s and 18s PCR testing between January 2014 and December 2020. Results were compared to any culture-based result. Assessment focused on any change of antimicrobial treatment based on PCR result, or use of the result as supportive evidence for microbiological diagnosis.

Results

310 samples relevant to 268 patients were referred for 16s/18s rRNA PCR testing during the period. Culture was performed for 234 samples. Enrichment culture was performed for 83 samples. 82 of 300 samples sent for 16s PCR had positive results (20.8%). When culture was performed, enrichment reduced the outcome of 16s PCR only positive results (4/36 [11.1%] versus 14/35 [40.0%], p = 0.030 where a pathogen found). 18s PCR yielded 9 positive results from 67 samples. The 16s PCR result influenced antimicrobial change for 6 patients (2.2%). We estimated the cost for 16s PCR testing to result in one significant change in antimicrobial therapy to be €3,340. 18s PCR did not alter antimicrobial treatment.

Conclusion

There was limited impact of 16s PCR results on antimicrobial treatments. Relevance to practice was affected by relatively long turn-around-time for results. Utility may be increased in specialised surgical centres, or by reducing turn-around-time. Enrichment culture should be considered on samples where 16s PCR is requested. There remains limited evidence for use of 18s PCR in clinical management, and further studies in this area are likely warranted.

Caco-2/HT29-MTX co-cultured cells as a model for studying physiological properties and toxin-induced effects on intestinal cells

Infectious gastrointestinal diseases are frequently caused by toxins secreted by pathogens which may impair physiological functions of the intestines, for instance by cholera toxin or by heat-labile enterotoxin. To obtain a functional model of the human intestinal epithelium for studying toxin-induced disease mechanisms, differentiated enterocyte-like Caco-2 cells were co-cultured with goblet cell-like HT29-MTX cells. These co-cultures formed a functional epithelial barrier, as characterized by a high electrical resistance and the presence of physiological intestinal properties such as glucose transport and chloride secretion which could be demonstrated electrophysiologically and by measuring protein expression. When the tissues were exposed to cholera toxin or heat-labile enterotoxin in the Ussing chamber, cholera toxin incubation resulted in an increase in short-circuit currents, indicating an increase in apical chloride secretion. This is in line with typical cholera toxin-induced secretory diarrhea in humans, while heat-labile enterotoxin only showed an increase in short-circuit-current in Caco-2 cells. This study characterizes for the first time the simultaneous measurement of physiological properties on a functional and structural level combined with the epithelial responses to bacterial toxins. In conclusion, using this model, physiological responses of the intestine to bacterial toxins can be investigated and characterized. Therefore, this model can serve as an alternative to the use of laboratory animals for characterizing pathophysiological mechanisms of enterotoxins at the intestinal level.

Oligonucleotide aptamers for pathogen detection and infectious disease control

During an epidemic or pandemic, the primary task is to rapidly develop precise diagnostic approaches and effective therapeutics. Oligonucleotide aptamer-based pathogen detection assays and control therapeutics are promising, as aptamers that specifically recognize and block pathogens can be quickly developed and produced through simple chemical synthesis. This work reviews common aptamer-based diagnostic techniques for communicable diseases and summarizes currently available aptamers that target various pathogens, including the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Moreover, this review discusses how oligonucleotide aptamers might be leveraged to control pathogen propagation and improve host immune system responses. This review offers a comprehensive data source to the further develop aptamer-based diagnostics and therapeutics specific for infectious diseases.

The State of Microbiome Science at the Intersection of Infectious Diseases and Antimicrobial Resistance

Along with the rise in modern chronic diseases, ranging from diabetes to asthma, there are challenges posed by increasing antibiotic resistance, which results in difficult-to-treat infections, as well as sepsis. An emerging and unifying theme in the pathogenesis of these diverse public health threats is changes in the microbial communities that inhabit multiple body sites. Although there is great promise in exploring the role of these microbial communities in chronic disease pathogenesis, the shorter timeframe of most infectious disease pathogenesis may allow early translation of our basic scientific understanding of microbial ecology and host-microbiota-pathogen interactions. Likely translation avenues include development of preventive strategies, diagnostics, and therapeutics. For example, as basic research related to microbial pathogenesis continues to progress, Clostridioides difficile infection is already being addressed clinically through at least 2 of these 3 avenues: targeted antibiotic stewardship and treatment of recurrent disease through fecal microbiota transplantation.

Hematopoietic mosaic chromosomal alterations increase the risk for diverse types of infection

Age is the dominant risk factor for infectious diseases, but the mechanisms linking age to infectious disease risk are incompletely understood. Age-related mosaic chromosomal alterations (mCAs) detected from genotyping of blood-derived DNA, are structural somatic variants indicative of clonal hematopoiesis, and are associated with aberrant leukocyte cell counts, hematological malignancy, and mortality. Here, we show that mCAs predispose to diverse types of infections. We analyzed mCAs from 768,762 individuals without hematological cancer at the time of DNA acquisition across five biobanks. Expanded autosomal mCAs were associated with diverse incident infections (hazard ratio (HR) 1.25; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.15-1.36; P = 1.8 × 10-7), including sepsis (HR 2.68; 95% CI = 2.25-3.19; P = 3.1 × 10-28), pneumonia (HR 1.76; 95% CI = 1.53-2.03; P = 2.3 × 10-15), digestive system infections (HR 1.51; 95% CI = 1.32-1.73; P = 2.2 × 10-9) and genitourinary infections (HR 1.25; 95% CI = 1.11-1.41; P = 3.7 × 10-4). A genome-wide association study of expanded mCAs identified 63 loci, which were enriched at transcriptional regulatory sites for immune cells. These results suggest that mCAs are a marker of impaired immunity and confer increased predisposition to infections.

Modulation of cathelicidin and defensins by histone deacetylase inhibitors: A potential treatment for multi-drug resistant infectious diseases

Infectious diseases are an important growing public health problem, which perspective has worsened due to the increasing number of drug-resistant strains in the last few years. Although diverse solutions have been proposed, one viable solution could be the use of immune system modulators. The induction of the immune response can be increased by histone deacetylase inhibitors (iHDAC), which in turn modulate the chromatin and increase the activation of different cellular pathways and nuclear factors such as STAT3, HIF-1α NF-kB, C/EBPα and, AP-1. These pathways are capable to promote several immune response-related molecules including those with antimicrobial properties such as antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) that lead to the elimination of pathogens including multi drug-resistant strains.

Etiology of Infectious Diseases in Acutely Ill Children at a Pediatric Hospital in Finland

This is a brief report of the etiology of infectious diseases in a pediatric emergency department. Our cohort study of 4647 children demonstrated rhinovirus as the most common etiology in a pediatric emergency department (23%) and intensive care (48%). The population-based incidence of rhinovirus-related visits was 1796/100,000/yr in children <5 years. The most common bacterial pathogen was Escherichia coli (5%).

Protection against severe infectious disease in the past

Before the 20th century many deaths in England, and most likely a majority, were caused by infectious diseases. The focus here is on the biggest killers, plague, typhus, smallpox, tuberculosis, cholera, typhoid, dysentery, childhood infections, pneumonia, and influenza. Many other infectious diseases including puerperal fever, relapsing fever, malaria, syphilis, meningitis, tetanus and gangrene caused thousands of deaths. This review of preventive measures, public health interventions and changes in behavior that reduced the risk of severe infections puts the response to recent epidemic challenges in historical perspective. Two new respiratory viruses have recently caused pandemics: an H1N1 influenza virus genetically related to pig viruses, and a bat-derived coronavirus causing COVID-19. Studies of infectious diseases emerging in human populations in recent decades indicate that the majority were zoonotic, and many of the causal pathogens had a wildlife origin. As hunter-gatherers, humans contracted pathogens from other species, and then from domesticated animals and rodents when they began to live in settled communities based on agriculture. In the modern world of large inter-connected urban populations and rapid transport, the risk of global transmission of new infectious diseases is high. Past and recent experience indicates that surveillance, prevention and control of infectious diseases are critical for global health. Effective interventions are required to control activities that risk dangerous pathogens transferring to humans from wild animals and those reared for food.

Accessory Genome Dynamics and Structural Variation of Shigella from Persistent Infections

Shigellosis is a diarrheal disease caused mainly by Shigella flexneri and Shigella sonnei Infection is thought to be largely self-limiting, with short- to medium-term and serotype-specific immunity provided following clearance. However, cases of men who have sex with men (MSM)-associated shigellosis have been reported where Shigella of the same serotype were serially sampled from individuals between 1 and 1,862 days apart, possibly due to persistent carriage or reinfection with the same serotype. Here, we investigate the accessory genome dynamics of MSM-associated S. flexneri and S. sonnei isolates serially sampled from individual patients at various days apart to shed light on the adaptation of these important pathogens during infection. We find that pairs likely associated with persistent infection/carriage and with a smaller single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) distance, demonstrated significantly less variation in accessory genome content than pairs likely associated with reinfection, and with a greater SNP distance. We observed antimicrobial resistance acquisition during Shigella carriage, including the gain of an extended-spectrum beta-lactamase gene during carriage. Finally, we explored large chromosomal structural variations and rearrangements in seven (five chronic and two reinfection associated) pairs of S. flexneri 3a isolates from an MSM-associated epidemic sublineage, which revealed variations at several common regions across isolate pairs, mediated by insertion sequence elements and comprising a distinct predicted functional profile. This study provides insight on the variation of accessory genome dynamics and large structural genomic changes in Shigella during persistent infection/carriage. In addition, we have also created a complete reference genome and biobanked isolate of the globally important pathogen, S. flexneri 3a.IMPORTANCEShigella spp. are Gram-negative bacteria that are the etiological agent of shigellosis, the second most common cause of diarrheal illness among children under the age of five in low-income countries. In high-income countries, shigellosis is also a sexually transmissible disease among men who have sex with men. Within the latter setting, we have captured prolonged and/or recurrent infection with shigellae of the same serotype, challenging the belief that Shigella infection is short lived and providing an early opportunity to study the evolution of the pathogen over the course of infection. Using this recently emerged transmission scenario, we comprehensively characterize the genomic changes that occur over the course of individual infection with Shigella and uncover a distinct functional profile of variable genomic regions, findings that have relevance for other Enterobacteriaceae.

Nanotechnology approaches for global infectious diseases

Infectious diseases are a major driver of morbidity and mortality globally. Treatment of malaria, tuberculosis and human immunodeficiency virus infection are particularly challenging, as indicated by the ongoing transmission and high mortality associated with these diseases. The formulation of new and existing drugs in nano-sized carriers promises to overcome several challenges associated with the treatment of these diseases, including low on-target bioavailability, sub-therapeutic drug accumulation in microbial sanctuaries and reservoirs, and low patient adherence due to drug-related toxicities and extended therapeutic regimens. Further, nanocarriers can be used for formulating vaccines, which represent a major weapon in our fight against infectious diseases. Here we review the current burden of infectious diseases with a focus on major drivers of morbidity and mortality. We then highlight how nanotechnology could aid in improving existing treatment modalities. We summarize our progress so far and outline potential future directions to maximize the impact of nanotechnology on the global population.

Drosophila as a Model for Infectious Diseases

The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, has been used to understand fundamental principles of genetics and biology for over a century. Drosophila is now also considered an essential tool to study mechanisms underlying numerous human genetic diseases. In this review, we will discuss how flies can be used to deepen our knowledge of infectious disease mechanisms in vivo. Flies make effective and applicable models for studying host-pathogen interactions thanks to their highly conserved innate immune systems and cellular processes commonly hijacked by pathogens. Drosophila researchers also possess the most powerful, rapid, and versatile tools for genetic manipulation in multicellular organisms. This allows for robust experiments in which specific pathogenic proteins can be expressed either one at a time or in conjunction with each other to dissect the molecular functions of each virulent factor in a cell-type-specific manner. Well documented phenotypes allow large genetic and pharmacological screens to be performed with relative ease using huge collections of mutant and transgenic strains that are publicly available. These factors combine to make Drosophila a powerful tool for dissecting out host-pathogen interactions as well as a tool to better understand how we can treat infectious diseases that pose risks to public health, including COVID-19, caused by SARS-CoV-2.

An Overview of the Potential Therapeutic Applications of Essential Oils

The emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has urged researchers to explore therapeutic alternatives, one of which includes the use of natural plant products such as essential oils (EO). In fact, EO obtained from clove, oregano, thymus, cinnamon bark, rosemary, eucalyptus, and lavender have been shown to present significant inhibitory effects on bacteria, fungi, and viruses; many studies have been done to measure EO efficacy against microorganisms. The strategy of combinatory effects via conventional and non-conventional methods revealed that the combined effects of EO-EO or EO-antibiotic exhibit enhanced efficacy. This paper aims to review the antimicrobial effects of EO, modes of EO action (membrane disruption, efflux inhibition, increase membrane permeability, and decrease in intracellular ATP), and their compounds' potential as effective agents against bacteria, fungi, and viruses. It is hoped that the integration of EO applications in this work can be used to consider EO for future clinical applications.

Preserve a Voucher Specimen! The Critical Need for Integrating Natural History Collections in Infectious Disease Studies

Despite being nearly 10 months into the COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) pandemic, the definitive animal host for SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2), the causal agent of COVID-19, remains unknown. Unfortunately, similar problems exist for other betacoronaviruses, and no vouchered specimens exist to corroborate host species identification for most of these pathogens. This most basic information is critical to the full understanding and mitigation of emerging zoonotic diseases. To overcome this hurdle, we recommend that host-pathogen researchers adopt vouchering practices and collaborate with natural history collections to permanently archive microbiological samples and host specimens. Vouchered specimens and associated samples provide both repeatability and extension to host-pathogen studies, and using them mobilizes a large workforce (i.e., biodiversity scientists) to assist in pandemic preparedness. We review several well-known examples that successfully integrate host-pathogen research with natural history collections (e.g., yellow fever, hantaviruses, helminths). However, vouchering remains an underutilized practice in such studies. Using an online survey, we assessed vouchering practices used by microbiologists (e.g., bacteriologists, parasitologists, virologists) in host-pathogen research. A much greater number of respondents permanently archive microbiological samples than archive host specimens, and less than half of respondents voucher host specimens from which microbiological samples were lethally collected. To foster collaborations between microbiologists and natural history collections, we provide recommendations for integrating vouchering techniques and archiving of microbiological samples into host-pathogen studies. This integrative approach exemplifies the premise underlying One Health initiatives, providing critical infrastructure for addressing related issues ranging from public health to global climate change and the biodiversity crisis.

Magnesium in Infectious Diseases in Older People

Reduced magnesium (Mg) intake is a frequent cause of deficiency with age together with reduced absorption, renal wasting, and polypharmacotherapy. Chronic Mg deficiency may result in increased oxidative stress and low-grade inflammation, which may be linked to several age-related diseases, including higher predisposition to infectious diseases. Mg might play a role in the immune response being a cofactor for immunoglobulin synthesis and other processes strictly associated with the function of T and B cells. Mg is necessary for the biosynthesis, transport, and activation of vitamin D, another key factor in the pathogenesis of infectious diseases. The regulation of cytosolic free Mg in immune cells involves Mg transport systems, such as the melastatin-like transient receptor potential 7 channel, the solute carrier family, and the magnesium transporter 1 (MAGT1). The functional importance of Mg transport in immunity was unknown until the description of the primary immunodeficiency XMEN (X-linked immunodeficiency with Mg defect, Epstein–Barr virus infection, and neoplasia) due to a genetic deficiency of MAGT1 characterized by chronic Epstein–Barr virus infection. This and other research reporting associations of Mg deficit with viral and bacterial infections indicate a possible role of Mg deficit in the recent coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and its complications. In this review, we will discuss the importance of Mg for the immune system and for infectious diseases, including the recent pandemic of COVID-19.

Cannabinoids in Medicine: Cancer, Immunity, and Microbial Diseases

Recently, there has been a growing interest in the medical applications of Cannabis plants. They owe their unique properties to a group of secondary metabolites known as phytocannabinoids, which are specific for this genus. Phytocannabinoids, and cannabinoids generally, can interact with cannabinoid receptors being part of the endocannabinoid system present in animals. Over the years a growing body of scientific evidence has been gathered, suggesting that these compounds have therapeutic potential. In this article, we review the classification of cannabinoids, the molecular mechanisms of their interaction with animal cells as well as their potential application in the treatment of human diseases. Specifically, we focus on the research concerning the anticancer potential of cannabinoids in preclinical studies, their possible use in cancer treatment and palliative medicine, as well as their influence on the immune system. We also discuss their potential as therapeutic agents in infectious, autoimmune, and gastrointestinal inflammatory diseases. We postulate that the currently ongoing and future clinical trials should be accompanied by research focused on the cellular and molecular response to cannabinoids and Cannabis extracts, which will ultimately allow us to fully understand the mechanism, potency, and safety profile of cannabinoids as single agents and as complementary drugs.