Inhibition of endoproteolytic cleavage of cytomegalovirus (HCMV) glycoprotein B by palmitoyl-peptidyl-chloromethyl ketone

Endoproteolytic cleavage of glycoprotein B (gB) of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is inhibited by palmitoylated peptidyl-chloromethyl ketone (palFAKR-CEK) at concentrations above 30 microM. Inhibitor treatment of HCMV-infected human fibroblasts neither interfered with exposure of gB on the plasma membrane, detected by surface membrane immunostaining, nor reduced production of intracellular infectious viral progeny. Release of infectious virus, on the other hand, was impaired.

Murine leukemia inhibitory factor enhances retroviral-vector infection efficiency of hematopoietic progenitors

We have investigated the in vitro effects of the cytokine leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) on normal murine hematopoietic progenitors by measuring recovery and retroviral vector infection efficiency of 13-day posttransplant, spleen-colony-forming cell (CFU-S 13) in short-term culture. Up to a twofold increase in CFU-S13 recovery was observed, from 9.7 x 10(-5) cells in untreated controls to 17.8 to 19.5 x 10(-5) cells, depending on the concentration of LIF. Histologic analysis of spleen colonies from control and LIF-treated marrows demonstrated that there was no detectable alteration in the differentiative potential of CFU-S13. The efficiency of CFU-S13 infection was increased from 15% in untreated controls to 84% to 91% in LIF-treated marrows. Analysis of proviral integration sites in spleen colonies indicated that some CFU-S13 precursors were infected in the LIF-treated marrows.

Identification of two additional v-sea-encoded proteins in avian erythroblastosis virus, S13-infected fibroblasts

Rabbit antibodies prepared against a v-sea-encoded polypeptide expressed in bacteria were used to characterize the v-sea-encoded proteins in cells transformed by the avian erythroblastosis virus, S13. In addition to the two previously described v-sea-encoded proteins, gp155 and gp70, two additional proteins were identified of molecular weights 38,000 and 36,000 Da. Interestingly, these two proteins were found only in fibroblasts infected with the S13 virus and not in S13-transformed erythroid cells. These two proteins were phosphoproteins, but, unlike the two previously characterized v-sea-encoded proteins, they did not appear to be modified by the addition of N-linked sugars. Possible mechanisms for the biosynthesis of these two new proteins are discussed.

Surface characteristics of Wolinella recta ATCC 33238 and human clinical isolates: correlation of structure with function

Selected characteristics of the surface of Wolinella recta ATCC 33238 and three W. recta clinical isolates (CI) were studied as well as the adherence of these strains to human gingival fibroblasts (HGF). W. recta ATCC 33238 and the CI were examined by electron microscopy, electrophoresis, isoelectric focusing, and adherence to HGF. Electron microscopic examination of CI revealed the presence of a periodic paracrystalline layer external to and associated with the outer membrane. This surface layer (S layer) was not observed on ATCC 33238. Whole cells and outer envelope protein profiles of the CI revealed major bands of 159- to 138-kilodalton proteins which were barely detectable in ATCC 33238. Repeated in vitro subculturing of the CI on solid or liquid medium resulted in both the physical loss of this layer and the loss of the high-molecular-weight proteins. Low-passage-number CI demonstrated 40 to 60% less adherence to HGF than ATCC 33238. These observations suggest that short term in vitro-subcultured W. recta strains possess surface characteristics which are significantly different from those of their long-term in vitro-subcultured counterparts. These differences may have significant effects on host cell interactions.

Human cytomegalovirus. Stimulation of [3H] release from [3H]-arachidonic acid prelabelled cells

Exposure of human lung fibroblasts to human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) stimulated a rapid increase in the release of [3H] from cells prelabelled with radiolabelled arachidonic acid ([3H]AA). Maximum stimulation of [3H] release was observed at 20 min postinfection and was quantitatively similar to that induced by the tumor promoter 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA: 10 nM) or fetal calf serum (5%). The level of [3H] release was dependent on the multiplicity of infection, and appeared to be mediated by a component(s) of the virion, since the findings from three series of experiments suggested that neither infectious virus, nor HCMV-specific macromolecular synthesis was required for stimulation of [3H] release. (1) Inactivation of HCMV infectivity with ultra-violet (UV) light (approximately 254 nm, 4.80 x 10(4) ergs/mm2) did not diminish the stimulation of [3H] release. (2) Significant reduction in the level of [3H] release was not observed when infected cells were maintained in the presence of a protein synthesis inhibitor, cycloheximide (50 micrograms/ml), or an inhibitor of mRNA synthesis, 3'-deoxyadenosine (cordycepin, 50 micrograms/ml). (3) No correlation was established between the expression of HCMV immediate early (IE) antigens and the induction of [3H] release, since there was little, if any, synthesis of HCMV IE antigen detectable by anticomplement immunofluorescence through the first 30 min postinfection. These findings suggesting that the HCMV particle rapidly stimulates AA metabolism are consistent with the view that the interaction of a HCMV virion component(s) with the cell surface may initiate membrane-associated events similar to those induced by growth factors.

Entry and intracellular localization of Brucella spp. in Vero cells: fluorescence and electron microscopy

Vero cells were inoculated with the six species of Brucella (B. abortus, B. melitensis, B. suis, B. neotomae, B. canis, and B. ovis) and examined by fluorescence and electron microscopy. All Brucella spp. were internalized by Vero cells. In all cells except those inoculated with B. canis, the numbers of intracellular brucellae increased with time after inoculation. Intracellular brucellae were first seen within phagosomes and phagolysosomes. Subsequent localization within cisternae of the rough endoplasmic reticulum was seen with all species of Brucella, except B. canis, which was restricted to phagolysosomes. Although rough brucellae were more adherent and entered a greater number of Vero cells, intracellular replication occurred in a larger percentage of cells with smooth rather than with rough brucellae. These results suggest that phagocytosed Brucella spp. are transferred 1) to cisternae of the rough endoplasmic reticulum, where unrestricted bacterial replication takes place; or 2) to phagolysosomes in which Brucella spp. fail to replicate. The various strains of Brucella spp. differ in their ability to induce their own transfer to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

Fusion of Rous-sarcoma-virus-transformed rat cells to morphologically normal human or rat cells results in transcriptional suppression of the provirus that depends on its chromosomal integration site

The fusion of a Rous sarcoma virus (RSV)-transformed rat fibroblast clone to at least 2 different human cell types reproducibly produces phenotypically normal hybrids. Analysis of such hybrids reveals that proviral silence is the result of transcriptional down-regulation, presumably by a trans-acting human molecule. Furthermore, this phenomenon seems to be strongly influenced by the proviral chromosomal integration site and its imposition may entail a mechanism that is required only transiently.

HIV-1 infection of lung alveolar fibroblasts and macrophages in humans

We have studied the infected cell populations in the lungs of four human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) seropositive patients suffering from lymphocytic alveolitis or lymphocytic interstitial pneumonitis. Adherent cells were obtained by bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) and were analyzed by various technical approaches. The cells considered here were alveolar macrophages and fibroblasts, and could be clearly identified morphologically and by the expression of specific cell-surface markers using monoclonal antibodies. The presence of HIV-1 in both of these cell types was established by serological, virological, and molecular procedures. Our results show that alveolar macrophages and fibroblasts are naturally infected in the lungs of HIV+ patients. Both cell types express the CD4 receptor molecule, in contrast to skin fibroblasts which are negative. Alveolar macrophages and fibroblasts thus may act as eventual HIV-1 reservoirs in vivo, and are probably involved in the induction of inflammatory reactions because they are targets for CD8 cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL).

Histiocytic conversion of human adult skin fibroblasts by the Snyder-Theilen feline sarcoma virus

Oncogenes are apparently involved in the transformation/neodifferentiation of human cells. We now report a novel example of transformation/neodifferentiation: the specific conversion of cultured human adult skin fibroblasts (HSF) to histiocytes (tissue macrophages (TM)) by the Snyder-Theilen feline sarcoma virus (ST: (FeSV)). The de novo conversion of cultured HSF was demonstrated in a large fraction of ST:FeSV (FeLV)-transformed foci in the presence of dexamethasone (DX). Identification of tissue macrophages in ST:FeSV(FeLV)-infected HSF cultures was established by light-and transmission electron microscopy, histochemistry, immunohistochemistry, adherence-reattachment, latex particle uptake, and secretion of bioactive interleukin-1. The ST:FeSV gene and glucocorticosteroids, or other naturally occurring hormones, may play a role in morphogenetic processes within cells from a variety of normal and diseased tissues in situ, including induction of non-bone marrow, mesenchyme-derived, tissue macrophages.

Human immunodeficiency virus infection of human bone marrow stromal fibroblasts

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) preferentially infects CD4 positive T cells and monocytes. Other human cell types have been reported to be infectable with HIV, including cells of mesenchymal origin. In this report, we show that both primary human bone marrow stromal fibroblasts and an immortalized human stromal fibroblast line are susceptible to HIV infection. These cells are capable of passing HIV to cells of lymphoid or myeloid lineage, and may thereby act as a reservoir of virus. This in vitro system may be a useful model for assessing the pathophysiology of hematopoietic dysfunction in AIDS patients.

Bacteria-infected fibroblasts have enhanced susceptibility to the cytotoxic action of tumor necrosis factor

The susceptibility of bacteria-infected fibroblasts to the cytotoxic action of tumor necrosis factor was investigated. L cells infected with Shigella flexneri, Salmonella typhimurium, or Listeria monocytogenes, had an enhanced susceptibility to the cytotoxic activity of TNF-alpha. This enhanced susceptibility was dependent upon the challenge dose of bacteria, the concentration of TNF, and upon the exposure time of bacteria-infected cells to TNF. L cells infected with S. flexneri were susceptible to the cytotoxic action of TNF at 2 to 6 h after bacterial infection. In contrast, L cells infected with S. typhimurium or L. monocytogenes did not show enhanced susceptibility to TNF until 14 h postbacterial infection and exposure to TNF. Enhanced susceptibility to TNF was dependent on bacterial invasion because fibroblasts pretreated with a noninvasive isogenic variant of S. flexneri, UV-treated invasive bacteria, bacterial cultural supernatant, or bacteria LPS were no more susceptible to TNF than untreated cells. Enhanced susceptibility to TNF by bacteria-infected cells was not unique to L cells. Mouse embryo fibroblasts and HeLa cells also showed similar reactivities after bacteria infection. Bacteria-infected cells were greatly suppressed in host cell protein synthesis that may play an important role in their enhanced susceptibility to TNF. These results suggest that an important role of TNF in host defense against bacterial infections is its cytotoxic activity against bacteria-infected cells.

Spindle cell reaction to nontuberculous mycobacteriosis in AIDS mimicking a spindle cell neoplasm. Evidence for dual histiocytic and fibroblast-like characteristics of spindle cells

We report 5 patients with AIDS who had an unusual spindle cell proliferation in the lymph nodes and skin caused by nontuberculous mycobacteriosis. The spindle cell proliferation in these tissues may mimic a spindle cell neoplasm and pose a diagnostic problem if an infectious aetiology is not suspected. The fibroblast-like spindle cells contained numerous acid fast bacilli. They were strongly positive for antibody markers of monocyte/macrophage and leukocyte derivation: Leu M3, Mo-9, T-200, and HLA-DR, and variably positive for alpha-1 anti-chymotrypsin and lysozyme. Ultrastructurally these spindle cells were predominantly fibroblast-like with poorly developed features of macrophages. These results reveal the dual macrophage and fibroblastic character of the spindle cells and probably imply a functional differentiation rather than a histogenetic one.

Activated macrophages use different cytolytic mechanisms to lyse a virally infected or a tumor target

Murine bone-marrow-culture-derived-macrophages can be differentially activated to lyse either vesicular stomatitis virus infected BALB/c3T3 cells or the tumor target P815. Macrophages were activated in a manner so that they could lyse both targets. The ability of this activated population to lyse either target type was differentially inhibited by varying the assay conditions. The lysis of P815 targets was more sensitive to inhibition by the proteinase inhibitor N-p-tosyl-L-lysine chloromethyl ketone than was the lysis of virally infected cells. On the other hand, reduction of the concentration of glucose in the assay medium, which inhibits the production of oxygen metabolites by the hexose monophosphate shunt, or the addition of anti-tumor necrosis factor (anti-TNF) serum were able to decrease the lysis of virally infected targets but not P815 targets. Thus, the observed differences in the lysis of these two targets were due to both the activation state of the macrophages and the differential susceptibility of the targets to different effector mechanisms.

Virulence factors of avian Escherichia coli

A total of 45 strains of Escherichia coli isolates from chickens with colisepticemia were examined for virulence factors commonly found in pathogenic groups of E. coli. These strains were studied for the following: pathogenicity in 1-day-old chicks; toxin, hemolysin, and colicin production; cell invasiveness and adherence; hemagglutination for fimbriae detection; serum resistance; aerobactin production in iron-limited conditions; and plasmid content. The characteristics exhibited by virulent strains were invasion for HeLa and chicken fibroblast cells, serum resistance, colicin V, and aerobactin production. None of the isolates were toxigenic or positive in hemagglutination tests. The molecular genetic studies of the virulence factors by agarose electrophoresis showed that the plasmids of these strains are of high molecular weight.

Nucleotide sequences responsible for the inability of a herpes simplex virus type 2 strain to grow in human lymphocytes are identical to those responsible for its inability to grow in mouse tissues following ocular infection

A study was undertaken to determine whether genes associated with herpes simplex virus (HSV) neuroinvasiveness in mice influence the growth of HSV in man, the virus's natural host. HSV-2(186), a nonneuroinvasive HSV strain, was found to replicate poorly (less than 3-fold) in cultures of phytohemagglutinin (PHA) stimulated human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). In contrast, seven other HSV strains all multiplied 40- to 100-fold. The paucity of HSV-2(186) growth in PBMC was not due to a failure of this strain to grow in primary human cells because high titers (greater than 10(8) PFU/ml) were obtained following infection of human foreskin fibroblasts. The genetic basis for the deficient growth was analyzed by marker rescue experiments. Recombinant HSV-2 strains were generated in marker rescue experiments utilizing HSV-2(186) DNA and plasmids containing a cloned DNA polymerase gene isolated from a neuroinvasive HSV strain possessing the capacity to replicate in human PBMC. Progeny which rescued DNA from the cloned HSV DNA polymerase gene replicated 40- to 100-fold in PHA-stimulated PBMC. Moreover, unlike the HSV-2(186) parent, HSV-2(186) isolates possessing rescued DNA grew well in the eye, trigeminal ganglion, and brain of mice and induced fatal encephalitis. The results indicate that nucleotide sequences responsible for increasing the capacity of HSV-2(186) to grow in PBMC of man are identical to those responsible for increasing the capacity of this strain to grow in mouse tissues and to spread from the eye to the brain.

Identification of a putative cell receptor for human cytomegalovirus

Proteins from a variety of cell types were separated using SDS-PAGE, transferred to nitrocellulose filters, and probed with intact human cytomegalovirus (HCMV). Virus bound to cell proteins was detected directly using 125I-labeled HCMV or indirectly using an immunologic assay with a secondary antibody labeled with 125I. Using this approach proteins of molecular weights 32 and 34 kDa were identified that would bind HCMV and were present on T4+ and T8+ lymphocytes, a B lymphoblastoid cell line, and human diploid fibroblasts. Binding of labeled virus to cells could be blocked by the addition of unlabeled homologous virus. Treatment of virus with NP40 to remove the virus envelope blocked binding to cellular proteins. Both the 32- and 34-kDa proteins could be copurified with cellular membranes. HCMV bound equally well to T4+ and T8+ cells as well as to either replicating (PHA or interleukin-2 stimulated) or resting lymphocytes. Interestingly, there appeared to be a single binding site for HCMV on human fibroblasts (34 kDa). The results support the idea that there is a receptor for HCMV present on the surface of human lymphocytes and fibroblasts.

Alternative mechanisms of natural killer cell activation during herpes simplex virus infection

Although NK cells can kill both malignant cells and virus-infected cells without prior sensitization, it has remained unclear whether the mechanism by which an NK cell is activated in the presence of a tumor cell is similar to that induced by the presence of a virus-infected cell. In our experimental system using homogeneous populations of cloned human CD16+ NK cells, we found that HSV-infected target cells do not induce in the NK cells the same pharmacologically-active second messengers elicited by NK-sensitive tumor cells. Although phosphoinositide turnover and calcium signaling were generated in NK cells exposed to NK-sensitive tumor cells, the recognition of HSV-infected cells by NK cells did not result in similar transmembrane signaling. Furthermore, depending on the cell type infected by HSV, alternative mechanisms of cytotoxicity were employed. HSV-infected foreskin fibroblasts were rapidly and selectively killed by cloned NK cells without a requirement for IFN or accessory cells. In contrast to this direct cytotoxicity against HSV-infected foreskin fibroblasts, NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity against an HSV-infected fibrosarcoma cell line (1591) was dependent on IFN-alpha production by accessory cells. Importantly, in both systems of cytotoxicity, IFN-alpha activation of NK cells resulted in augmented killing against both infected and uninfected targets. These results suggest that NK cell activation induced during antiviral immunity is distinct from activation elicited during an antitumor response. These differences include the utilization of alternative forms of signal transduction and alternative mechanisms of cytotoxicity.

Infection of human fibroblasts and osteoblast-like cells with HIV-1

Primary human skin- and lung-derived fibroblast cell cultures and continuous human osteoblast-like and fibroblast-like cell lines were infected with different strains of HIV-1. Infection was measured at the single-cell level using the immunoperoxidase staining method to detect viral proteins. No cytopathic effects were observed in HIV-1-infected cell cultures. One continuous cell line (LC5), derived from embryonic lung, was readily infectable with HIV-1 and showed continuous production of infectious virus. Infection of LC5 cells could be blocked with anti-CD4 monoclonal antibodies. These findings indicate that fibroblasts of skin and lung, and osteogenic cells may be considered as potential target cells for HIV-1, thereby possibly contributing to the establishment of local HIV reservoirs.

Interaction of Treponema denticola TD-4, GM-1, and MS25 with human gingival fibroblasts

The adherence of Treponema denticola GM-1, TD-4, and MS25 to human gingival fibroblasts (HGFs) was studied to serve as an introduction to investigations into the interactions of these oral bacteria with human host cells. Under both aerobic (5% CO2) and anaerobic (85% N2 plus 10% H2 plus 5% CO2) environments, the interactions with the HGFs were such that strains GM-1 and MS25 were consistently more adherent than strain TD-4. Polyclonal antibodies to GM-1 inhibited GM-1 adherence by 70%, while MS25 and TD-4 showed differing degrees of cross-reactive inhibition, indicative of common but not identical epitopes on the surface of the three T. denticola strains. Pretreatment of the three strains with trypsin did not inhibit adherence; proteinase K did, however, inhibit this interaction by 80%. Trypsin pretreatment of the HGFs resulted in increases in adherence of 50 and 86% for GM-1 and MS25, respectively, while a decrease of 41% was noted for TD-4. Exposure of the T. denticola strains to sugars and lectin pretreatment of the HGFs implicated adherence mediation by mannose and galactose residues on the HGF surface. Periodate treatment of HGFs resulted in a 50% drop in adherence for GM-1 and MS25, but did not decrease that of TD-4. Addition of fetal bovine serum inhibited adherence of the three strains to differing degrees, with TD-4 being the most susceptible. Addition of purified fibronectin (100 micrograms/ml) resulted in greater than 50% inhibition in GM-1 and MS25 adherence, while a 25% increase occurred with TD-4. While strain differences were noted in some of the parameters studied, the results indicate two possibilities for T. denticola-HGF adherence: a lectinlike adhesin(s) on the T. denticola surface with affinity for galactose and mannose on the HGF surface, and a serum host factor(s) bridging T. denticola and HGFs.

Antichlamydial activity of saliva

Saliva collected from adults with no antichlamydial antibodies in their serum or saliva, was tested for its capacity to inhibit the formation of inclusions of Chlamydia trachomatis in McCoy cell cultures. Pooled saliva, diluted in tissue culture medium and sterilized by filtration, was found to reduce the inclusion count by up to about 40%. However, the pretreatment of the chlamydial organisms for 2 hours with diluted saliva caused a 75% decrease in the number of inclusions. The inhibitory activity, which was concentration-dependent, seems to affect the attachment of the chlamydial elementary body to the host cell by acting on both the chlamydiae and the McCoy cells. Saliva did not seem to affect the intracellular development of the chlamydiae. The inhibitory activity was not affected by trypsin treatment, while absorbtion with a gel of a chelating agent caused total loss of the antichlamydial effect. The purpose of our study was to test saliva for its possible antichlamydial activity and to partially characterize the active principle.

Characterization of multiple molecular interactions between human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)

In transient gene expression assays we observed an increase in expression of the bacterial chloramphenicol acetyl-transferase (CAT) gene, under the transcriptional control of the HIV-1 LTR (pLTR-CAT), when this plasmid was cotransfected into Vero or MRC-5 cells with a plasmid containing either the HCMV immediate early 1 and 2 (E1, IE2) genes (pRL43a) or just the IE2 gene (pMP18). When the HCMV IE1 gene (pMP12) was cotransfected with pLTR-CAT into Vero cells the level of measurable CAT gene activity was below the level observed when pLTR-CAT was cotransfected with a nonspecific carrier plasmid (pGEM3). The negative influence of the HCMV IE1 gene product on the HIV-1 LTR in Vero cells was also observed when the HIV-1 tat gene (pLTR-TAT) was contransfected into Vero cells with pLTR-CAT and pMP12. However, when the HCMV IE1 gene was cotransfected into rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) cells with proviral HIV-1 DNA, an increase in viral production, as monitored by measurement of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase activity, was observed. In electrophoretic mobility shift assays, nuclear extracts obtained 15 hr post-HCMV infection (hpi) were found to contain a lower level of interaction with an oligonucleotide which corresponded to the HIV-1 LTR Sp-1 binding motif. Nuclear extracts obtained 40 hpi of MRC-5 cells had a greater level of interaction with, and changed the mobility of, the Sp-1 oligonucleotide relative to the uninfected nuclear extracts. HCMV-infected MRC-5 cell nuclear extracts also contain a factor(s) which interacted with the HIV-1 LTR between nucleotide positions -15 to -2 relative to the HIV-1 mRNA start site.

Cooperation between bovine leukaemia virus transactivator protein and Ha-ras oncogene product in cellular transformation

Human T-lymphotropic viruses (HTLV-I and -II) and bovine leukaemia virus (BLV) express transactivator proteins able to increase long terminal repeat (LTR) directed viral expression. These transacting factors are though to be involved in the induction of leukaemia by these viruses. Transfection of BLV transactivator p34tax together with Ha-ras immortalizes and transforms rat embryo fibroblasts, in vitro. The transformed cell induce tumours in nude mice. These data emphasize the causal role exerted by p34tax in in vivo tumorigenesis.

Carbon-based immunocytochemistry. A new approach to the immunostaining of epoxy-resin-embedded material

A carbon-based immunocytochemistry (CarBIC) method, whereby the epoxy resin is completely removed from a section prior to immunocytochemistry (IC), is described. The resulting absence of embedding medium allows for an optimal access of both primary antibodies and marker systems to structures at various levels throughout the depth of the section. A carbon film evaporated onto the surface of the section before extraction of the resin forms a base to which the section adheres and maintains structural integrity during subsequent processing. The conventional and accepted electron microscopical (EM) appearance for epoxy-resin-embedded material is regained by re-embedding in Epon before contrasting in the normal manner. The technique is demonstrated using human cytomegalovirus (HCMV)-infected human fibroblasts. HCMV+ serum is the source of primary antibodies and 10-nm protein A-gold (pA-G10) together with rabbit anti-human IgG + IgM is the marker for IC.

Electron microscopic observations of vesicular stomatitis virus particles penetration in human fibroblasts

The penetration of vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) into the target cells is known to depend on the acid triggered receptor-mediated endocytosis pathway (RME). However, the possible contribution of phagocytosis and macropinocytosis both at early and late stages of infection and of plaque-forming process is unknown. Electron microscopic images of fibroblasts obtained one hour after VSV adsorption at 37 degrees C showed RME vesicles as well as clusters of particles in cytoplasmic inlets and phagocytic vacuoles which are morphologically similar with macropinosomes. Therefore, the possibility that VSV can use, in addition to RME, phagocytosis and macropinocytosis is discussed with respect to the wide range of host cell VSV infectivity and binding as well as to pseudotype formation.