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Binker MG, Richards D, Gaisano HY, Cosen-Binker LI. ER stress-associated CTRC mutants decrease stimulated pancreatic zymogen secretion through SIRT2-mediated microtubule dysregulation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2015; 463:329-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.05.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2015] [Accepted: 05/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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Xie L, Zhu D, Dolai S, Liang T, Qin T, Kang Y, Xie H, Huang YC, Gaisano HY. Syntaxin-4 mediates exocytosis of pre-docked and newcomer insulin granules underlying biphasic glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in human pancreatic beta cells. Diabetologia 2015; 58:1250-9. [PMID: 25762204 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-015-3545-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2014] [Accepted: 02/03/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
AIMS/HYPOTHESIS Of the four exocytotic syntaxins (Syns), much is now known about the role of Syn-1A (pre-docked secretory granules [SGs]) and Syn-3 (newcomer SGs) in insulin exocytosis. Some work was reported on Syn-4's role in biphasic glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS), but its precise role in insulin SG exocytosis remains unclear. In this paper we examine this role in human beta cells. METHODS Endogenous function of Syn-4 in human islets was assessed by knocking down its expression with lentiviral single hairpin RNA (lenti-shRNA)-RFP. Biphasic GSIS was determined by islet perifusion assay. Single-cell analysis of exocytosis of red fluorescent protein (RFP)-positive beta cells (exhibiting near-total depletion of Syn-4) was by patch clamp capacitance measurements (Cm) and total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM), the latter to further assess single SG behaviour. Co-immunoprecipitations were conducted on INS-1 cells to assess exocytotic complexes. RESULTS Syn-4 knockdown (KD) of 77% in human islets caused a concomitant reduction in cognate Munc18c expression (46%) without affecting expression of other exocytotic proteins; this resulted in reduction of GSIS in the first phase (by 42%) and the second phase (by 40%). Cm of RFP-tagged Syn-4-KD beta cells showed severe inhibition in the readily releasable pool (by 71%) and mobilisation from reserve pools (by 63%). TIRFM showed that Syn-4-KD-induced inhibition of first-phase GSIS was attributed to reduction in exocytosis of both pre-docked and newcomer SGs (which undergo minimal residence or docking time at the plasma membrane before fusion). Second-phase inhibition was attributed to reduction in newcomer SGs. Stx-4 co-immunoprecipitated Munc18c, VAMP2 and VAMP8, suggesting that these exocytotic complexes may be involved in exocytosis of pre-docked and newcomer SGs. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION Syn-4 is involved in distinct molecular machineries that influence exocytosis of both pre-docked and newcomer SGs in a manner functionally redundant to Syn-1A and Syn-3, respectively; this underlies Syn-4's role in mediating portions of first-phase and second-phase GSIS.
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Bin NR, Jung CH, Kim B, Chandrasegram P, Turlova E, Zhu D, Gaisano HY, Sun HS, Sugita S. Chaperoning of closed syntaxin-3 through Lys46 and Glu59 in domain 1 of Munc18 proteins is indispensable for mast cell exocytosis. J Cell Sci 2015; 128:1946-60. [PMID: 25795302 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.165662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2014] [Accepted: 03/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding how Munc18 proteins govern exocytosis is crucial because mutations of this protein cause severe secretion deficits in neuronal and immune cells. Munc18-2 has indispensable roles in the degranulation of mast cell, partly by binding and chaperoning a subset of syntaxin isoforms. However, the key syntaxin that, crucially, participates in the degranulation – whose levels and intracellular localization are regulated by Munc18-2 – remains unknown. Here, we demonstrate that double knockdown of Munc18-1 and Munc-2 in mast cells results in greatly reduced degranulation accompanied with strikingly compromised expression levels and localization of syntaxin-3. This phenotype is fully rescued by wild-type Munc18 proteins but not by the K46E, E59K and K46E/E59K mutants of Munc-18 domain 1, each of which exhibits completely abolished binding to 'closed' syntaxin-3. Furthermore, knockdown of syntaxin-3 strongly impairs degranulation. Collectively, our data argue that residues Lys46 and Glu59 of Munc18 proteins are indispensable for mediating the interaction between Munc18 and closed syntaxin-3, which is essential for degranulation by chaperoning syntaxin-3. Our results also indicate that the functional contribution of these residues differs between immune cell degranulation and neuronal secretion.
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Zhu D, Xie L, Karimian N, Liang T, Kang Y, Huang YC, Gaisano HY. Munc18c mediates exocytosis of pre-docked and newcomer insulin granules underlying biphasic glucose stimulated insulin secretion in human pancreatic beta-cells. Mol Metab 2015; 4:418-26. [PMID: 25973389 PMCID: PMC4421095 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2015.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2015] [Revised: 02/05/2015] [Accepted: 02/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective Pancreatic beta-cells express three Munc18 isoforms. Much is known about the roles of Munc18a (pre-docked secretory granules-SGs) and Munc18b (newcomer SGs and SG–SG fusion) in insulin exocytosis. Although shown to influence glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) in rodents the precise role of Munc18c in insulin SG exocytosis has not been elucidated. We here examined the role of Munc18c in human pancreatic beta-cells. Methods Munc18c-shRNA/RFP lenti-virus (versus control virus) was used to knock down the expression level of Munc18c in human islets or single beta-cells. Insulin secretion and granule exocytosis were measured by performing islets perifusion, single-cell patch clamp capacitance measurements and total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM). Results Munc18c is most abundant in the cytosol of human beta-cells. Endogenous function of Munc18c was assessed by knocking down (KD) its islet expression by 70% employing lenti-shRNA virus. Munc18c-KD caused reduction in cognate syntaxin-4 islet expression but not in other exocytotic proteins, resulting in the reduction in GSIS in first- (by 42%) and second phases (by 35%). Single cell analyses of RFP-tagged Munc18c-KD beta-cells by patch clamp capacitance measurements showed inhibition in both readily-releasable pool (by 52%) and mobilization from the reserve pool (by 57%). TIRFM to assess single SG behavior showed that Munc18c-KD inhibition of first phase GSIS was attributed to reduction in exocytosis of pre-docked and newcomer SGs, and second phase inhibition attributed entirely to reduction in newcomer SG fusion (SGs that undergo minimal residence or docking time at the plasma membrane before fusion). Conclusion Munc18c is involved in the distinct molecular machineries that affect exocytosis of both predocked and newcomer SG pools that underlie Munc18c's role in first and second phases of GSIS, respectively.
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Key Words
- Ad, adenovirus
- CmPatch, clamp capacitance measurements
- EGFP, enhanced green fluorescent protein
- Exocytosis
- GLP-1, glucagon-like peptide-1
- GSIS, glucose-stimulated insulin secretion
- Human islets
- KD, knock down
- Munc18c
- NPY, neuropeptide Y
- Newcomer insulin granules
- PM, plasma membrane
- RRP, readily releasable pool
- SG, secretory insulin-containing granule
- SM, Sec1/Munc18-like protein
- SNAP25/23, synaptosomal-associated protein of 25/23 kD
- SNARE, soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor
- Syn, syntaxin
- T2DM, type 2 diabetes mellitus
- TIRFM, total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy
- VAMPs, Vesicle Associated Membrane Proteins
- t-, target-
- v-, vesicle-
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Wang L, Luk CT, Cai EP, Schroer SA, Allister EM, Shi SY, Wheeler MB, Gaisano HY, Woo M. PTEN deletion in pancreatic α-cells protects against high-fat diet-induced hyperglucagonemia and insulin resistance. Diabetes 2015; 64:147-57. [PMID: 25092678 DOI: 10.2337/db13-1715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
An aberrant increase in circulating catabolic hormone glucagon contributes to type 2 diabetes pathogenesis. However, mechanisms regulating glucagon secretion and α-cell mass are not well understood. In this study, we aimed to demonstrate that phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) signaling is an important regulator of α-cell function. Mice with deletion of PTEN, a negative regulator of this pathway, in α-cells show reduced circulating glucagon levels and attenuated l-arginine-stimulated glucagon secretion both in vivo and in vitro. This hypoglucagonemic state is maintained after high-fat-diet feeding, leading to reduced expression of hepatic glycogenolytic and gluconeogenic genes. These beneficial effects protected high-fat diet-fed mice against hyperglycemia and insulin resistance. The data demonstrate an inhibitory role of PI3K signaling on α-cell function and provide experimental evidence for enhancing α-cell PI3K signaling for diabetes treatment.
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Messenger SW, Falkowski MA, Thomas DD, Jones EK, Hong W, Gaisano HY, Boulis NM, Groblewski GE. Vesicle associated membrane protein 8 (VAMP8)-mediated zymogen granule exocytosis is dependent on endosomal trafficking via the constitutive-like secretory pathway. J Biol Chem 2014. [DOI: 10.1074/jbc.a114.593913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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Xie L, Liang T, Kang Y, Lin X, Sobbi R, Xie H, Chao C, Backx P, Feng ZP, Shyng SL, Gaisano HY. Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-biphosphate (PIP2) modulates syntaxin-1A binding to sulfonylurea receptor 2A to regulate cardiac ATP-sensitive potassium (KATP) channels. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2014; 75:100-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yjmcc.2014.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2014] [Revised: 07/15/2014] [Accepted: 07/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Messenger SW, Falkowski MA, Thomas DDH, Jones EK, Hong W, Gaisano HY, Giasano HY, Boulis NM, Groblewski GE. Vesicle associated membrane protein 8 (VAMP8)-mediated zymogen granule exocytosis is dependent on endosomal trafficking via the constitutive-like secretory pathway. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:28040-53. [PMID: 25138214 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.593913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Acinar cell zymogen granules (ZG) express 2 isoforms of the vesicle-associated membrane protein family (VAMP2 and -8) thought to regulate exocytosis. Expression of tetanus toxin to cleave VAMP2 in VAMP8 knock-out (-/-) acini confirmed that VAMP2 and -8 are the primary VAMPs for regulated exocytosis, each contributing ∼50% of the response. Analysis of VAMP8(-/-) acini indicated that although stimulated secretion was significantly reduced, a compensatory increase in constitutive secretion maintained total secretion equivalent to wild type (WT). Using a perifusion system to follow secretion over time revealed VAMP2 mediates an early rapid phase peaking and falling within 2-3 min, whereas VAMP8 controls a second prolonged phase that peaks at 4 min and slowly declines over 20 min to support the protracted secretory response. VAMP8(-/-) acini show increased expression of the endosomal proteins Ti-VAMP7 (2-fold) and Rab11a (4-fold) and their redistribution from endosomes to ZGs. Expression of GDP-trapped Rab11a-S25N inhibited secretion exclusively from the VAMP8 but not the VAMP2 pathway. VAMP8(-/-) acini also showed a >90% decrease in the early endosomal proteins Rab5/D52/EEA1, which control anterograde trafficking in the constitutive-like secretory pathway. In WT acini, short term (14-16 h) culture also results in a >90% decrease in Rab5/D52/EEA1 and a complete loss of the VAMP8 pathway, whereas VAMP2-secretion remains intact. Remarkably, rescue of Rab5/D52/EEA1 expression restored the VAMP8 pathway. Expressed D52 shows extensive colocalization with Rab11a and VAMP8 and partially copurifies with ZG fractions. These results indicate that robust trafficking within the constitutive-like secretory pathway is required for VAMP8- but not VAMP2-mediated ZG exocytosis.
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Low JT, Zavortink M, Mitchell JM, Gan WJ, Do OH, Schwiening CJ, Gaisano HY, Thorn P. Insulin secretion from beta cells in intact mouse islets is targeted towards the vasculature. Diabetologia 2014; 57:1655-63. [PMID: 24795086 PMCID: PMC4079948 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-014-3252-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2013] [Accepted: 04/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
AIMS/HYPOTHESIS We set out to test the hypothesis that insulin secretion from beta cells is targeted towards the vasculature. METHODS The spatial location of granule fusion was identified by live-cell two-photon imaging of mouse pancreatic beta cells within intact islets, using sulforhodamine B labelling. Three-dimensional (3D) immunofluorescence of pancreatic slices was used to identify the location of proteins associated with neuronal synapses. RESULTS We demonstrated an asymmetric, non-random, distribution of sites of insulin granule fusion in response to glucose and focal targeting of insulin granule secretion to the beta cell membrane facing the vasculature. 3D immunofluorescence of islets showed that structural proteins, such as liprin, piccolo and Rab2-interacting molecule, normally associated with neuronal presynaptic targeting, were present in beta cells and enriched at the vascular face. In contrast, we found that syntaxin 1A and synaptosomal-associated protein 25 kDa (SNAP25) were relatively evenly distributed across the beta cells. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION Our results show that beta cells in situ, within intact islets, are polarised and target insulin secretion. This evidence for an 'endocrine synapse' has wide implications for our understanding of stimulus-secretion coupling in healthy islets and in disease.
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Gaisano HY. Here come the newcomer granules, better late than never. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2014; 25:381-8. [PMID: 24746186 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2014.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2013] [Revised: 03/06/2014] [Accepted: 03/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Exocytosis in pancreatic β-cells employs Munc18/soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) complexes that mediate the priming and docking onto the plasma membrane (PM) of insulin granules, called predocked granules, that sit on the PM until Ca(2+) influx evokes fusion. This accounts for most of the initial peak secretory response. However, the subsequent sustained phase of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion arises from newcomer granules that have a minimal residence time at the PM before fusion. In this Opinion I discuss recent work that has begun to decipher the components of the exocytotic machinery of newcomer granules, including a Munc18/SNARE complex that is different from that mediating the fusion of predocked granules and which can potentially rescue defective insulin secretion in diabetes. These insights are applicable to other neuroendocrine cells that exhibit sustained secretion.
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Zhang M, Robitaille M, Showalter AD, Huang X, Liu Y, Bhattacharjee A, Willard FS, Han J, Froese S, Wei L, Gaisano HY, Angers S, Sloop KW, Dai FF, Wheeler MB. Progesterone receptor membrane component 1 is a functional part of the glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor complex in pancreatic β cells. Mol Cell Proteomics 2014; 13:3049-62. [PMID: 25044020 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m114.040196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is an incretin hormone that regulates glucose homeostasis. Because of their direct stimulation of insulin secretion from pancreatic β cells, GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1R) agonists are now important therapeutic options for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. To better understand the mechanisms that control the insulinotropic actions of GLP-1, affinity purification and mass spectrometry (AP-MS) were employed to uncover potential proteins that functionally interact with the GLP-1R. AP-MS performed on Chinese hamster ovary cells or MIN6 β cells, both expressing the human GLP-1R, revealed 99 proteins potentially associated with the GLP-1R. Three novel GLP-1R interactors (PGRMC1, Rab5b, and Rab5c) were further validated through co-immunoprecipitation/immunoblotting, fluorescence resonance energy transfer, and immunofluorescence. Functional studies revealed that overexpression of PGRMC1, a novel cell surface receptor that associated with liganded GLP-1R, enhanced GLP-1-induced insulin secretion (GIIS) with the most robust effect. Knockdown of PGRMC1 in β cells decreased GIIS, indicative of positive interaction with GLP-1R. To gain insight mechanistically, we demonstrated that the cell surface PGRMC1 ligand P4-BSA increased GIIS, whereas its antagonist AG-205 decreased GIIS. It was then found that PGRMC1 increased GLP-1-induced cAMP accumulation. PGRMC1 activation and GIIS induced by P4-BSA could be blocked by inhibition of adenylyl cyclase/EPAC signaling or the EGF receptor-PI3K signal transduction pathway. These data reveal a dual mechanism for PGRMC1-increased GIIS mediated through cAMP and EGF receptor signaling. In conclusion, we identified several novel GLP-1R interacting proteins. PGRMC1 expressed on the cell surface of β cells was shown to interact with the activated GLP-1R to enhance the insulinotropic actions of GLP-1.
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Do OH, Low JT, Gaisano HY, Thorn P. The secretory deficit in islets from db/db mice is mainly due to a loss of responding beta cells. Diabetologia 2014; 57:1400-9. [PMID: 24705605 PMCID: PMC4052007 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-014-3226-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2013] [Accepted: 03/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
AIMS/HYPOTHESIS We used the db/db mouse to determine the nature of the secretory defect in intact islets. METHODS Glucose tolerance was compared in db/db and wild-type (WT) mice. Isolated islets were used: to measure insulin secretion and calcium in a two-photon assay of single-insulin-granule fusion; and for immunofluorescence of soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment proteins (SNAREs). RESULTS The 13-18-week-old db/db mice showed a diabetic phenotype. Isolated db/db islets showed a 77% reduction in insulin secretion induced by 15 mmol/l glucose and reductions in the amplitude and rise-time of the calcium response to glucose. Ionomycin-induced insulin secretion in WT but not db/db islets. Immunofluorescence showed an increase in the levels of the SNAREs synaptosomal-associated protein 25 (SNAP25) and vesicle-associated membrane protein 2 (VAMP2) in db/db islets, but reduced syntaxin-1A. Therefore, db/db islets have both a compromised calcium response to glucose and a compromised secretory response to calcium. Two-photon microscopy of isolated islets determined the number and distribution of insulin granule exocytic events. Compared with WT, db/db islets showed far fewer exocytic events (an 83% decline at 15 mmol/l glucose). This decline was due to a 73% loss of responding cells and, in the remaining responsive cells, a 50% loss of exocytic responses per cell. An assay measuring granule re-acidification showed evidence for more recaptured granules in db/db islets compared with WT. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION We showed that db/db islets had a reduced calcium response to glucose and a reduction in syntaxin-1A. Within the db/db islets, changes were manifest as both a reduction in responding cells and a reduction in fusing insulin granules per cell.
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Li SK, Zhu D, Gaisano HY, Brubaker PL. Role of vesicle-associated membrane protein 2 in exocytosis of glucagon-like peptide-1 from the murine intestinal L cell. Diabetologia 2014; 57:809-18. [PMID: 24356748 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-013-3143-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2013] [Accepted: 11/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
AIMS/HYPOTHESIS Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), secreted by the enteroendocrine L cell, is an incretin hormone that potently stimulates insulin secretion. Although signalling pathways promoting GLP-1 release are well characterised, the mechanisms by which GLP-1-containing granules fuse to the L cell membrane are unknown. As soluble NSF attachment proteins (SNAREs) are known to mediate granule-membrane fusion, the role of vesicle-associated membrane proteins (VAMPs) in GLP-1 exocytosis was examined. METHODS SNARE expression was determined in murine GLUTag L cells by RT-PCR and immunoblot and in primary murine L cells by immunofluorescence. Co-immunoprecipitation was used to examine SNARE interactions, while tetanus toxin (TetX)-mediated cleavage of VAMP was used with a GLP-1 secretion assay and total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy to determine the role of VAMP2 in exocytosis. RESULTS VAMP2 was expressed in murine L cells and localised to secretory granules in GLUTag cells. VAMP1/3 and the core membrane proteins syntaxin1a and synaptosomal-associated protein 25 kDa (SNAP25) were also detected. TetX cleaved VAMPs in GLUTag cells. However, only VAMP2 interacted with syntaxin1a, as did SNAP25 and Munc18-1. TetX treatment of GLUTag cells prevented glucose-dependent insulinotrophic peptide- and oleic-acid-stimulated GLP-1 secretion (p < 0.05-0.01), as well as K(+)-stimulated single-cell exocytosis (p < 0.05-0.001), while TetX-resistant VAMP2 expression rescued GLP-1 secretion (p < 0.01-0.001). CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION Together, these findings indicate an essential role for VAMP2 in GLP-1 exocytosis from the GLUTag L cell in response to a variety of established secretagogues. An improved understanding of the mechanisms governing the release of GLP-1 may lead to new therapeutic approaches to enhance the levels of this incretin hormone in patients with type 2 diabetes.
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Liang T, Xie L, Chao C, Kang Y, Lin X, Qin T, Xie H, Feng ZP, Gaisano HY. Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-biphosphate (PIP2) modulates interaction of syntaxin-1A with sulfonylurea receptor 1 to regulate pancreatic β-cell ATP-sensitive potassium channels. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:6028-40. [PMID: 24429282 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.511808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
In β-cells, syntaxin (Syn)-1A interacts with SUR1 to inhibit ATP-sensitive potassium channels (KATP channels). PIP2 binds the Kir6.2 subunit to open KATP channels. PIP2 also modifies Syn-1A clustering in plasma membrane (PM) that may alter Syn-1A actions on PM proteins like SUR1. Here, we assessed whether the actions of PIP2 on activating KATP channels is contributed by sequestering Syn-1A from binding SUR1. In vitro binding showed that PIP2 dose-dependently disrupted Syn-1A·SUR1 complexes, corroborated by an in vivo Forster resonance energy transfer assay showing disruption of SUR1(-EGFP)/Syn-1A(-mCherry) interaction along with increased Syn-1A cluster formation. Electrophysiological studies of rat β-cells, INS-1, and SUR1/Kir6.2-expressing HEK293 cells showed that PIP2 dose-dependent activation of KATP currents was uniformly reduced by Syn-1A. To unequivocally distinguish between PIP2 actions on Syn-1A and Kir6.2, we employed several strategies. First, we showed that PIP2-insensitive Syn-1A-5RK/A mutant complex with SUR1 could not be disrupted by PIP2, consequently reducing PIP2 activation of KATP channels. Next, Syn-1A·SUR1 complex modulation of KATP channels could be observed at a physiologically low PIP2 concentration that did not disrupt the Syn-1A·SUR1 complex, compared with higher PIP2 concentrations acting directly on Kir6.2. These effects were specific to PIP2 and not observed with physiologic concentrations of other phospholipids. Finally, depleting endogenous PIP2 with polyphosphoinositide phosphatase synaptojanin-1, known to disperse Syn-1A clusters, freed Syn-1A from Syn-1A clusters to bind SUR1, causing inhibition of KATP channels that could no longer be further inhibited by exogenous Syn-1A. These results taken together indicate that PIP2 affects islet β-cell KATP channels not only by its actions on Kir6.2 but also by sequestering Syn-1A to modulate Syn-1A availability and its interactions with SUR1 on PM.
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Low JT, Mitchell JM, Do OH, Bax J, Rawlings A, Zavortink M, Morgan G, Parton RG, Gaisano HY, Thorn P. Glucose principally regulates insulin secretion in mouse islets by controlling the numbers of granule fusion events per cell. Diabetologia 2013; 56:2629-37. [PMID: 23995471 PMCID: PMC3825531 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-013-3019-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2013] [Accepted: 07/19/2013] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
AIMS/HYPOTHESIS In dispersed single beta cells the response of each cell to glucose is heterogeneous. In contrast, within an islet, cell-to-cell communication leads to glucose inducing a more homogeneous response. For example, increases in NAD(P)H and calcium are relatively uniform across the cells of the islet. These data suggest that secretion of insulin from single beta cells within an islet should also be relatively homogeneous. The aim of this study was to test this hypothesis by determining the glucose dependence of single-cell insulin responses within an islet. METHODS Two-photon microscopy was used to detect the glucose-induced fusion of single insulin granules within beta cells in intact mouse islets. RESULTS First, we validated our assay and showed that the measures of insulin secretion from whole islets could be explained by the time course and numbers of granule fusion events observed. Subsequent analysis of the patterns of granule fusion showed that cell recruitment is a significant factor, accounting for a fourfold increase from 3 to 20 mmol/l glucose. However, the major factor is the regulation of the numbers of granule fusion events within each cell, which increase ninefold over the range of 3 to 20 mmol/l glucose. Further analysis showed that two types of granule fusion event occur: 'full fusion' and 'kiss and run'. We show that the relative frequency of each type of fusion is independent of glucose concentration and is therefore not a factor in the control of insulin secretion. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION Within an islet, glucose exerts its main effect through increasing the numbers of insulin granule fusion events within a cell.
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Karimian N, Qin T, Liang T, Osundiji M, Huang Y, Teich T, Riddell MC, Cattral MS, Coy DH, Vranic M, Gaisano HY. Somatostatin receptor type 2 antagonism improves glucagon counterregulation in biobreeding diabetic rats. Diabetes 2013; 62:2968-77. [PMID: 23630299 PMCID: PMC3717832 DOI: 10.2337/db13-0164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Impaired counterregulation during hypoglycemia in type 1 diabetes (T1D) is partly attributable to inadequate glucagon secretion. Intra-islet somatostatin (SST) suppression of hypoglycemia-stimulated α-cell glucagon release plays an important role. We hypothesized that hypoglycemia can be prevented in autoimmune T1D by SST receptor type 2 (SSTR2) antagonism of α-cells, which relieve SSTR2 inhibition, thereby increasing glucagon secretion. Diabetic biobreeding diabetes-prone (BBDP) rats mimic insulin-dependent human autoimmune T1D, whereas nondiabetic BBDP rats mimic prediabetes. Diabetic and nondiabetic rats underwent a 3-h infusion of vehicle compared with SSTR2 antagonist (SSTR2a) during insulin-induced hypoglycemia clamped at 3 ± 0.5 mmol/L. Diabetic rats treated with SSTR2a needed little or no glucose infusion compared with untreated rats. We attribute this effect to SSTR2a restoration of the attenuated glucagon response. Direct effects of SSTR2a on α-cells was assessed by resecting the pancreas, which was cut into fine slices and subjected to perifusion to monitor glucagon release. SSTR2a treatment enhanced low-glucose-stimulated glucagon and corticosterone secretion to normal levels in diabetic rats. SSTR2a had similar effects in vivo in nondiabetic rats and promoted glucagon secretion from nondiabetic rat and human pancreas slices. We conclude that SST contributes to impaired glucagon responsiveness to hypoglycemia in autoimmune T1D. SSTR2a treatment can fully restore hypoglycemia-stimulated glucagon release sufficient to attain normoglycemia in both diabetic and prediabetic stages.
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Xie L, Zhu D, Kang Y, Liang T, He Y, Gaisano HY. Exocyst sec5 regulates exocytosis of newcomer insulin granules underlying biphasic insulin secretion. PLoS One 2013; 8:e67561. [PMID: 23844030 PMCID: PMC3699660 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0067561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2013] [Accepted: 05/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The exocyst complex subunit Sec5 is a downstream effector of RalA-GTPase which promotes RalA-exocyst interactions and exocyst assembly, serving to tether secretory granules to docking sites on the plasma membrane. We recently reported that RalA regulates biphasic insulin secretion in pancreatic islet β cells in part by tethering insulin secretory granules to Ca2+ channels to assist excitosome assembly. Here, we assessed β cell exocytosis by patch clamp membrane capacitance measurement and total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy to investigate the role of Sec5 in regulating insulin secretion. Sec5 is present in human and rodent islet β cells, localized to insulin granules. Sec5 protein depletion in rat INS-1 cells inhibited depolarization-induced release of primed insulin granules from both readily-releasable pool and mobilization from the reserve pool. This reduction in insulin exocytosis was attributed mainly to reduction in recruitment and exocytosis of newcomer insulin granules that undergo minimal docking time at the plasma membrane, but which encompassed a larger portion of biphasic glucose stimulated insulin secretion. Sec5 protein knockdown had little effect on predocked granules, unless vigorously stimulated by KCl depolarization. Taken together, newcomer insulin granules in β cells are more sensitive than predocked granules to Sec5 regulation.
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Lam PP, Ohno M, Dolai S, He Y, Qin T, Liang T, Zhu D, Kang Y, Liu Y, Kauppi M, Xie L, Wan WC, Bin NR, Sugita S, Olkkonen VM, Takahashi N, Kasai H, Gaisano HY. Munc18b is a major mediator of insulin exocytosis in rat pancreatic β-cells. Diabetes 2013; 62:2416-28. [PMID: 23423569 PMCID: PMC3712044 DOI: 10.2337/db12-1380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Sec1/Munc18 proteins facilitate the formation of trans-SNARE (soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor) complexes that mediate fusion of secretory granule (SG) with plasma membrane (PM). The capacity of pancreatic β-cells to exocytose insulin becomes compromised in diabetes. β-Cells express three Munc18 isoforms of which the role of Munc18b is unknown. We found that Munc18b depletion in rat islets disabled SNARE complex formation formed by syntaxin (Syn)-2 and Syn-3. Two-photon imaging analysis revealed in Munc18b-depleted β-cells a 40% reduction in primary exocytosis (SG-PM fusion) and abrogation of almost all sequential SG-SG fusion, together accounting for a 50% reduction in glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS). In contrast, gain-of-function expression of Munc18b wild-type and, more so, dominant-positive K314L/R315L mutant promoted the assembly of cognate SNARE complexes, which caused potentiation of biphasic GSIS. We found that this was attributed to a more than threefold enhancement of both primary exocytosis and sequential SG-SG fusion, including long-chain fusion (6-8 SGs) not normally (2-3 SG fusion) observed. Thus, Munc18b-mediated exocytosis may be deployed to increase secretory efficiency of SGs in deeper cytosolic layers of β-cells as well as additional primary exocytosis, which may open new avenues of therapy development for diabetes.
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Allister EM, Robson-Doucette CA, Prentice KJ, Hardy AB, Sultan S, Gaisano HY, Kong D, Gilon P, Herrera PL, Lowell BB, Wheeler MB. UCP2 regulates the glucagon response to fasting and starvation. Diabetes 2013; 62:1623-33. [PMID: 23434936 PMCID: PMC3636632 DOI: 10.2337/db12-0981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Glucagon is important for maintaining euglycemia during fasting/starvation, and abnormal glucagon secretion is associated with type 1 and type 2 diabetes; however, the mechanisms of hypoglycemia-induced glucagon secretion are poorly understood. We previously demonstrated that global deletion of mitochondrial uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2(-/-)) in mice impaired glucagon secretion from isolated islets. Therefore, UCP2 may contribute to the regulation of hypoglycemia-induced glucagon secretion, which is supported by our current finding that UCP2 expression is increased in nutrient-deprived murine and human islets. Further to this, we created α-cell-specific UCP2 knockout (UCP2AKO) mice, which we used to demonstrate that blood glucose recovery in response to hypoglycemia is impaired owing to attenuated glucagon secretion. UCP2-deleted α-cells have higher levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) due to enhanced mitochondrial coupling, which translated into defective stimulus/secretion coupling. The effects of UCP2 deletion were mimicked by the UCP2 inhibitor genipin on both murine and human islets and also by application of exogenous ROS, confirming that changes in oxidative status and electrical activity directly reduce glucagon secretion. Therefore, α-cell UCP2 deletion perturbs the fasting/hypoglycemic glucagon response and shows that UCP2 is necessary for normal α-cell glucose sensing and the maintenance of euglycemia.
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Xie L, Kang Y, Liang T, Dolai S, Xie H, Parsaud L, Lopez JA, He Y, Chidambaram S, Lam PP, James DE, Sugita S, Gaisano HY. RalA GTPase tethers insulin granules to L- and R-type calcium channels through binding α2 δ-1 subunit. Traffic 2013; 14:428-39. [PMID: 23346930 DOI: 10.1111/tra.12047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2012] [Revised: 01/21/2013] [Accepted: 01/24/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
RalA GTPase has been implicated in the regulated delivery of exocytotic vesicles to the plasma membrane (PM) in mammalian cells. We had reported that RalA regulates biphasic insulin secretion, which we have now determined to be contributed by RalA direct interaction with voltage-gated calcium (Cav ) channels. RalA knockdown (KD) in INS-1 cells and primary rat β-cells resulted in a reduction in Ca(2+) currents arising specifically from L-(Cav 1.2 and Cav 1.3) and R-type (Cav 2.3) Ca(2+) channels. Restoration of RalA expression in RalA KD cells rescued these defects in Ca(2+) currents. RalA co-immunoprecipitated with the Cav α2 δ-1 auxiliary subunit known to bind the three Cav s. Moreover, the functional molecular interactions between Cav α2 δ-1 and RalA on the PM shown by total internal reflection fluorescent microscopy/FRET analysis could be induced by glucose stimulation. KD of RalA inhibited trafficking of α2 δ-1 to insulin granules without affecting the localization of the other Cav subunits. Furthermore, we confirmed that RalA and α2 δ-1 functionally interact since RalA KD-induced inhibition of Cav currents could not be recovered by RalA when α2 δ-1 was simultaneously knocked down. These data provide a mechanism for RalA function in insulin secretion, whereby RalA binds α2 δ-1 on insulin granules to tether these granules to PM Ca(2+) channels. This acts as a chaperoning step prior to and in preparation for sequential assembly of exocyst and excitosome complexes that mediate biphasic insulin secretion.
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Zhu D, Koo E, Kwan E, Kang Y, Park S, Xie H, Sugita S, Gaisano HY. Syntaxin-3 regulates newcomer insulin granule exocytosis and compound fusion in pancreatic beta cells. Diabetologia 2013; 56:359-69. [PMID: 23132338 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-012-2757-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2012] [Accepted: 10/01/2012] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
AIMS/HYPOTHESIS The molecular basis of the exocytosis of secretory insulin-containing granules (SGs) during biphasic glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) from pancreatic beta cells remains unclear. Syntaxin (SYN)-1A and SYN-4 have been shown to mediate insulin exocytosis. The insulin-secretory function of SYN-3, which is particularly abundant in SGs, is unclear. METHODS Mouse pancreatic islets and INS-1 cells were treated with adenovirus carrying Syn-3 (also known as Stx3) or small interfering RNA targeting Syn-3 in order to examine insulin secretion by radioimmunoassay. The localisation and distribution of insulin granules were examined by confocal and electron microscopy. Dynamic single-granule fusion events were assessed using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM). RESULTS Depletion of endogenous SYN-3 inhibited insulin release. TIRFM showed no change in the number or fusion competence of previously docked SGs but, instead, a marked reduction in the recruitment of newcomer SGs and their subsequent exocytotic fusion during biphasic GSIS. Conversely, overexpression of Syn-3 enhanced both phases of GSIS, owing to the increase in newcomer SGs and, remarkably, to increased SG-SG fusion, which was confirmed by electron microscopy. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION In insulin secretion, SYN-3 plays a role in the mediation of newcomer SG exocytosis and SG-SG fusion that contributes to biphasic GSIS.
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Huang YC, Rupnik MS, Karimian N, Herrera PL, Gilon P, Feng ZP, Gaisano HY. In situ electrophysiological examination of pancreatic α cells in the streptozotocin-induced diabetes model, revealing the cellular basis of glucagon hypersecretion. Diabetes 2013; 62:519-30. [PMID: 23043159 PMCID: PMC3554363 DOI: 10.2337/db11-0786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Early-stage type 1 diabetes (T1D) exhibits hyperglucagonemia by undefined cellular mechanisms. Here we characterized α-cell voltage-gated ion channels in a streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes model that lead to increased glucagon secretion mimicking T1D. GYY mice expressing enhanced yellow fluorescence protein in α cells were used to identify α cells within pancreas slices. Mice treated with low-dose STZ exhibited hyperglucagonemia, hyperglycemia, and glucose intolerance, with 71% reduction of β-cell mass. Although α-cell mass of STZ-treated mice remained unchanged, total pancreatic glucagon content was elevated, coinciding with increase in size of glucagon granules. Pancreas tissue slices enabled in situ examination of α-cell electrophysiology. α cells of STZ-treated mice exhibited the following: 1) increased exocytosis (serial depolarization-induced capacitance), 2) enhanced voltage-gated Na(+) current density, 3) reduced voltage-gated K(+) current density, and 4) increased action potential (AP) amplitude and firing frequency. Hyperglucagonemia in STZ-induced diabetes is thus likely due to increased glucagon content arising from enlarged glucagon granules and increased AP firing frequency and amplitude coinciding with enhanced Na(+) and reduced K(+) currents. These alterations may prime α cells in STZ-treated mice for more glucagon release per cell in response to low glucose stimulation. Thus, our study provides the first insight that STZ treatment sensitizes release mechanisms of α cells.
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Mendez M, Gaisano HY. Role of the SNARE protein SNAP23 on cAMP-stimulated renin release in mouse juxtaglomerular cells. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2012; 304:F498-504. [PMID: 23269646 DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00556.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Renin, the rate-limiting enzyme in the formation of angiotensin II, is synthesized and stored in granules in juxtaglomerular (JG) cells. Therefore, the controlled mechanism involved in renin release is essential for the regulation of blood pressure. Exocytosis of renin-containing granules is likely involved in renin release; a process stimulated by cAMP. We found that the "soluble NSF (N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor) attachment protein receptor" (SNARE) protein VAMP2 mediates cAMP-stimulated renin release and exocytosis in JG cells. To mediate exocytosis, VAMP2 must interact with a synaptosome-associated protein (SNAP). In the renal cortex, the isoform SNAP23 is abundantly expressed. We hypothesized that SNAP23 mediates cAMP-stimulated renin release from primary cultures of mouse JG cells. We found that SNAP23 protein is expressed and colocalized with renin-containing granules in primary cultures of mouse JG cell lysates. Thus, we then tested the involvement of SNAP23 in cAMP-stimulated renin release by transducing JG cells with a dominant-negative SNAP23 construct. In control JG cells transduced with a scrambled sequence, increasing cAMP stimulated renin release from 1.3 ± 0.3 to 5.3 ± 1.2% of renin content. In cells transduced with dominant-negative SNAP23, cAMP increased renin from 1.0 ± 0.1 to 3.0 ± 0.6% of renin content, a 50% blockade. Botulinum toxin E, which cleaves and inactivates SNAP23, reduced cAMP-stimulated renin release by 42 ± 17%. Finally, adenovirus-mediated silencing of SNAP23 significantly blocked cAMP-stimulated renin release by 50 ± 13%. We concluded that the SNARE protein SNAP23 mediates cAMP-stimulated renin release. These data show that renin release is a SNARE-dependent process.
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Xie L, Zhu D, Gaisano HY. Role of mammalian homologue of Caenorhabditis elegans unc-13-1 (Munc13-1) in the recruitment of newcomer insulin granules in both first and second phases of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in mouse islets. Diabetologia 2012; 55:2693-2702. [PMID: 22814762 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-012-2640-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2011] [Accepted: 06/08/2012] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
AIMS/HYPOTHESIS We have previously reported that the haplodeficient Munc13-1(+/-) mouse exhibits impaired biphasic glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS), causing glucose intolerance mimicking type 2 diabetes. Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) can bypass these insulin-secretory defects in type 2 diabetes, but the mechanism of exocytotic events mediated by GLP-1 in rescuing insulin secretion is unclear. METHODS The total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM) technique was used to examine single insulin granule fusion events in mouse islet beta cells. RESULTS There was no difference in the density of docked granules in the resting state between Munc13-1(+/+) and Munc13-1(+/-) mouse islet beta cells. While exocytosis of previously docked granules in Munc13-1(+/-) beta cells is reduced during high-K(+) stimulation as expected, we now find a reduction in additional exocytosis events that account for the major portion of GSIS, namely two types of newcomer granules, one which has a short docking time (short-dock) and another undergoing no docking before exocytosis (no-dock). As mammalian homologue of Caenorhabditis elegans unc-13-1 (Munc13-1) is a phorbol ester substrate, phorbol ester could partially rescue biphasic GSIS in Munc13-1-deficient beta cells by enhancing recruitment of short-dock newcomer granules for exocytosis. The more effective rescue of biphasic GSIS by GLP-1 than by phorbol was due to increased recruitment of both short-dock and no-dock newcomer granules. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION Phorbol ester and GLP-1 potentiation of biphasic GSIS are brought about by recruitment of distinct populations of newcomer granules for exocytosis, which may be mediated by Munc13-1 interaction with syntaxin-SNARE complexes other than that formed by syntaxin-1A.
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Gaisano HY, Macdonald PE, Vranic M. Glucagon secretion and signaling in the development of diabetes. Front Physiol 2012; 3:349. [PMID: 22969729 PMCID: PMC3432929 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2012.00349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2012] [Accepted: 08/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Normal release of glucagon from pancreatic islet α-cells promotes glucose mobilization, which counteracts the hypoglycemic actions of insulin, thereby ensuring glucose homeostasis. In treatment of diabetes aimed at rigorously reducing hyperglycemia to avoid chronic complications, the resulting hypoglycemia triggering glucagon release from α-cells is frequently impaired, with ensuing hypoglycemic complications. This review integrates the physiology of glucagon secretion regulating glucose homeostasis in vivo to single α-cell signaling, and how both become perturbed in diabetes. α-cells within the social milieu of the islet micro-organ are regulated not only by intrinsic signaling events but also by paracrine regulation, particularly by adjacent insulin-secreting β-cells and somatostatin-secreting δ-cells. We discuss the intrinsic α-cell signaling events, including glucose sensing and ion channel regulation leading to glucagon secretion. We then discuss the complex crosstalk between the islet cells and the breakdown of this crosstalk in diabetes contributing to the dysregulated glucagon secretion. Whereas, there are many secretory products released by β- and δ-cells that become deficient or excess in diabetes, we discuss the major ones, including the better known insulin and lesser known somatostatin, which act as putative paracrine on/off switches that very finely regulate α-cell secretory responses in health and diabetes. Of note in several type 1 diabetes (T1D) rodent models, blockade of excess somatostatin actions on α-cell could normalize glucagon secretion sufficient to attain normoglycemia in response to hypoglycemic assaults. There has been slow progress in fully elucidating the pathophysiology of the α-cell in diabetes because of the small number of α-cells within an islet and the islet mass becomes severely reduced and inflamed in diabetes. These limitations are just now being surmounted by new approaches.
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