Impact of Short-Term Isoflavone Intervention in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) Patients on Microbiota Composition and Metagenomics

BACKGROUND

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) affects 5-20% of women of reproductive age worldwide and is associated with disorders of glucose metabolism. Hormone and metabolic signaling may be influenced by phytoestrogens, such as isoflavones. Their endocrine effects may modify symptom penetrance in PCOS. Equol is one of the most active isoflavone metabolites, produced by intestinal bacteria, and acts as a selective estrogen receptor modulator.

METHOD

In this interventional study of clinical and biochemical characterization, urine isoflavone levels were measured in PCOS and control women before and three days after a defined isoflavone intervention via soy milk. In this interventional study, bacterial equol production was evaluated using the log(equol: daidzein ratio) and microbiome, metabolic, and predicted metagenome analyses were performed.

RESULTS

After isoflavone intervention, predicted stool metagenomic pathways, microbial alpha diversity, and glucose homeostasis in PCOS improved resembling the profile of the control group at baseline. In the whole cohort, larger equol production was associated with lower androgen as well as fertility markers.

CONCLUSION

The dynamics in our metabolic, microbiome, and predicted metagenomic profiles underline the importance of external phytohormones on PCOS characteristics and a potential therapeutic approach or prebiotic in the future.

Epoxy-Anhydride Vitrimers from Aminoglycidyl Resins with High Glass Transition Temperature and Efficient Stress Relaxation

Epoxy-anhydride vitrimers are covalent adaptable networks, which undergo associative bond exchange reactions at elevated temperature. Their service temperature is influenced by the glass transition temperature (Tg) as well as the topology freezing transition temperature (Tv), at which the covalent bond exchange reactions become significantly fast. The present work highlights the design of high-Tg epoxy-anhydride vitrimers that comprise an efficient stress relaxation at elevated temperature. Networks are prepared by thermally curing aminoglycidyl monomers with glutaric anhydride in different stoichiometric ratios. The tertiary amine groups present in the structure of the aminoglycidyl derivatives not only accelerate the curing reaction but also catalyse the transesterification reaction above Tv, as shown in stress relaxation measurements. The topology rearrangements render the networks recyclable, which is demonstrated by reprocessing a grinded powder of the cured materials in a hot press. The epoxy-anhydride vitrimers are characterised by a high Tg (up to 140 °C) and an adequate storage modulus at 25 °C (~2.5 GPa), which makes them interesting candidates for structural applications operating at high service temperature.

Truly continuous low pH viral inactivation for biopharmaceutical process integration

Continuous virus inactivation (VI) has received little attention in the efforts to realize fully continuous biomanufacturing in the future. Implementation of continuous VI must assure a specific minimum incubation time, typically 60 min. To guarantee the minimum incubation time, we implemented a packed bed continuous viral inactivation reactor (CVIR) with narrow residence time distribution (RTD) for low pH incubation. We show that the RTD does not broaden significantly over a wide range of linear flow velocities-which highlights the flexibility and robustness of the design. Prolonged exposure to acidic pH has no impact on bed stability, assuring constant RTD throughout long term operation. The suitability of the packed bed CVIR for low pH inactivation is shown with two industry-standard model viruses, that is xenotropic murine leukemia virus and pseudorabies virus. Controls at neutral pH showed no system-induced VI. At low pH, significant VI is observed, even after only 15 min. Based on the low pH inactivation kinetics, the continuous process is equivalent to traditional batch operation. This study establishes a concept for continuous low pH inactivation and, together with previous reports, highlights the versatility of the packed bed reactor for continuous VI, regardless of the inactivation method.

Preparative-Scale Enzymatic Synthesis of rac-Glycerol-1-phosphate from Crude Glycerol Using Acid Phosphatases and Phosphate

Glycerol is a byproduct of biodiesel production and is generated in large amounts, which has resulted in an increased interest in its valorization. In addition to its use as an energy source directly, the chemical modification of glycerol may result in value-added derivatives. Herein, acid phosphatases employed in the synthetic mode were evaluated for the enzymatic phosphorylation of glycerol. Nonspecific acid phosphatases could tolerate glycerol concentrations up to 80 wt % and pyrophosphate concentrations up to 20 wt % and led to product titers up to 167 g L-1 in a kinetic approach. In the complementary thermodynamic approach, phytases were able to condense glycerol and inorganic monophosphate directly. This unexpected behavior enabled the simple and cost-effective production of rac-glycerol-1-phosphate from crude glycerol obtained from a biodiesel plant. A preparative-scale synthesis on a 100 mL-scale resulted in the production of 16.6 g of rac-glycerol-1-phosphate with a reasonable purity (≈75 %).

The role of mainstreamness and interdisciplinarity for the relevance of scientific papers

Is it possible to tell how interdisciplinary and out-of-the-box scientific papers are, or which papers are mainstream? Here we use the bibliographic coupling network, derived from all physics papers that were published in the Physical Review journals in the past century, to try to identify them as mainstream, out-of-the-box, or interdisciplinary. We show that the network clusters into scientific fields. The position of individual papers with respect to these clusters allows us to estimate their degree of mainstreamness or interdisciplinarity. We show that over the past decades the fraction of mainstream papers increases, the fraction of out-of-the-box decreases, and the fraction of interdisciplinary papers remains constant. Studying the rewards of papers, we find that in terms of absolute citations, both, mainstream and interdisciplinary papers are rewarded. In the long run, mainstream papers perform less than interdisciplinary ones in terms of citation rates. We conclude that to avoid a unilateral trend towards mainstreamness a new incentive scheme is necessary.

Influence of Fiber Deviation on Strength of Thin Birch (Betula pendula Roth.) Veneers

The currently pursued implementation of wood into novel high performance applications such as automotive parts require knowledge about the material behaviour including ultimate strength. Previous research has shown that fiber deviation seems to be the dominating factor influencing the strength of thin veneers. This study aims to further investigate and quantify the influence of fiber deviation in two dimension and different hierarchical levels on the tensile strength of thin birch veneers. The fiber deviation in- and out-of-plane as well as the micro fibril angle were assessed by means of wide-angle X-ray scattering. Tensile strength was determined in laboratory experiments. Results show a high variability for in-plane fiber deviation mainly constituted by knots and other growth influencing factors. Pearson correlations between strength and fiber deviation ranged from -0.594 up to -0.852. Best correlation (r = -0.852) was achieved for maximum in-plane fiber deviation directly followed by a combined angle of in- and out-of-plane fiber deviation (r = -0.846). Based on the results it was shown that fiber deviation in- and out-of-plane is the dominating factor influencing ultimate tensile strength of thin birch veneers. Further research in regard to non-destructive strength prediction is necessary.

Ultrathin sputter-deposited plasmonic silver nanostructures

In this study, ultrathin silver plasmonic nanostructures are fabricated by sputter deposition on substrates patterned by nanoimprint lithography, without additional lift-off processes. Detailed investigation of silver growth on different substrates results in a structured, defect-free silver film with thickness down to 6 nm, deposited on a thin layer of doped zinc oxide. Variation of the aspect ratio of the nanostructure reduces grain formation at the flanks, allowing for well-separated disk and hole arrays, even though conventional magnetron sputtering is less directional than evaporation. The resulting disk-hole array features high average transmittance in the visible range of 71% and a strong plasmonic dipole resonance in the near-infrared region. It is shown that the ultrathin Ag film exhibits even lower optical losses in the NIR range compared to known bulk optical properties. The presented FDTD simulations agree well with experimental spectra and show that for defect-free, ultrathin Ag nanostructures, bulk optical properties of Ag are sufficient for a reliable simulation-based design.

ESCO1 and CTCF enable formation of long chromatin loops by protecting cohesinSTAG1 from WAPL

Eukaryotic genomes are folded into loops. It is thought that these are formed by cohesin complexes via extrusion, either until loop expansion is arrested by CTCF or until cohesin is removed from DNA by WAPL. Although WAPL limits cohesin's chromatin residence time to minutes, it has been reported that some loops exist for hours. How these loops can persist is unknown. We show that during G1-phase, mammalian cells contain acetylated cohesinSTAG1 which binds chromatin for hours, whereas cohesinSTAG2 binds chromatin for minutes. Our results indicate that CTCF and the acetyltransferase ESCO1 protect a subset of cohesinSTAG1 complexes from WAPL, thereby enable formation of long and presumably long-lived loops, and that ESCO1, like CTCF, contributes to boundary formation in chromatin looping. Our data are consistent with a model of nested loop extrusion, in which acetylated cohesinSTAG1 forms stable loops between CTCF sites, demarcating the boundaries of more transient cohesinSTAG2 extrusion activity.

Ginseng Extract Ameliorates the Negative Physiological Effects of Heat Stress by Supporting Heat Shock Response and Improving Intestinal Barrier Integrity: Evidence from Studies with Heat-Stressed Caco-2 Cells, C. elegans and Growing Broilers

Climatic changes and heat stress have become a great challenge in the livestock industry, negatively affecting, in particular, poultry feed intake and intestinal barrier malfunction. Recently, phytogenic feed additives were applied to reduce heat stress effects on animal farming. Here, we investigated the effects of ginseng extract using various in vitro and in vivo experiments. Quantitative real-time PCR, transepithelial electrical resistance measurements and survival assays under heat stress conditions were carried out in various model systems, including Caco-2 cells, Caenorhabditis elegans and jejunum samples of broilers. Under heat stress conditions, ginseng treatment lowered the expression of HSPA1A (Caco-2) and the heat shock protein genes hsp-1 and hsp-16.2 (both in C. elegans), while all three of the tested genes encoding tight junction proteins, CLDN3, OCLN and CLDN1 (Caco-2), were upregulated. In addition, we observed prolonged survival under heat stress in Caenorhabditis elegans, and a better performance of growing ginseng-fed broilers by the increased gene expression of selected heat shock and tight junction proteins. The presence of ginseng extract resulted in a reduced decrease in transepithelial resistance under heat shock conditions. Finally, LC-MS analysis was performed to quantitate the most prominent ginsenosides in the extract used for this study, being Re, Rg1, Rc, Rb2 and Rd. In conclusion, ginseng extract was found to be a suitable feed additive in animal nutrition to reduce the negative physiological effects caused by heat stress.

Structures of immature EIAV Gag lattices reveal a conserved role for IP6 in lentivirus assembly

Retrovirus assembly is driven by the multidomain structural protein Gag. Interactions between the capsid domains (CA) of Gag result in Gag multimerization, leading to an immature virus particle that is formed by a protein lattice based on dimeric, trimeric, and hexameric protein contacts. Among retroviruses the inter- and intra-hexamer contacts differ, especially in the N-terminal sub-domain of CA (CANTD). For HIV-1 the cellular molecule inositol hexakisphosphate (IP6) interacts with and stabilizes the immature hexamer, and is required for production of infectious virus particles. We have used in vitro assembly, cryo-electron tomography and subtomogram averaging, atomistic molecular dynamics simulations and mutational analyses to study the HIV-related lentivirus equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV). In particular, we sought to understand the structural conservation of the immature lentivirus lattice and the role of IP6 in EIAV assembly. Similar to HIV-1, IP6 strongly promoted in vitro assembly of EIAV Gag proteins into virus-like particles (VLPs), which took three morphologically highly distinct forms: narrow tubes, wide tubes, and spheres. Structural characterization of these VLPs to sub-4Å resolution unexpectedly showed that all three morphologies are based on an immature lattice with preserved key structural components, highlighting the structural versatility of CA to form immature assemblies. A direct comparison between EIAV and HIV revealed that both lentiviruses maintain similar immature interfaces, which are established by both conserved and non-conserved residues. In both EIAV and HIV-1, IP6 regulates immature assembly via conserved lysine residues within the CACTD and SP. Lastly, we demonstrate that IP6 stimulates in vitro assembly of immature particles of several other retroviruses in the lentivirus genus, suggesting a conserved role for IP6 in lentiviral assembly.

Reproducibility of GMP-compliant production of therapeutic stressed peripheral blood mononuclear cell-derived secretomes, a novel class of biological medicinal products

BACKGROUND

The recent concept of secretome-based tissue regeneration has profoundly altered the field of regenerative medicine and offers promising novel therapeutic options. In contrast to medicinal products with a single active substance, cell-derived secretomes comprise pleiotropic bioactive ingredients, representing a major obstacle for reproducible drug product efficacy and warranting patient safety. Good manufacturing practice (GMP)-compliant production guarantees high batch-to-batch consistency and reproducible efficacy of biological medicinal products, but different batches of cellular secretomes produced under GMP have not been compared yet, and suitable quality control parameters have not been established. To this end, we analyzed diverse biological and functional parameters of different batches produced under GMP of the secretome obtained from γ-irradiated peripheral blood mononuclear cells with proven tissue regenerative properties in infarcted myocardium, stroke, spinal cord injury, and skin wounds.

METHODS

We quantified key secretome ingredients, including cytokines, lipids, and extracellular vesicles, and functionally assessed potency in tube formation assay, ex vivo aortic ring sprouting assay, and cell-based protein and reporter gene assays. Furthermore, we determined secretome stability in different batches after 6 months of storage at various ambient temperatures.

RESULTS

We observed that inter-batch differences in the bioactive components and secretome properties were small despite considerable differences in protein concentrations and potencies between individual donor secretomes. Stability tests showed that the analytical and functional properties of the secretomes remained stable when lyophilisates were stored at temperatures up to + 5 °C for 6 months.

CONCLUSIONS

We are the first to demonstrate the consistent production of cell-derived, yet cell-free secretome as a biological medicinal product. The results from this study provide the basis for selecting appropriate quality control parameters for GMP-compliant production of therapeutic cell secretomes and pave the way for future clinical trials employing secretomes in tissue regenerative medicine.

Multifunctional Nanostructures and Nanopocket Particles Fabricated by Nanoimprint Lithography

Nanostructured surfaces and nanoparticles are already widely employed in many different fields of research, and there is an ever-growing demand for reliable, reproducible and scalable nanofabrication methods. This is especially valid for multifunctional nanomaterials with physical properties that are tailored for specific applications. Here, we report on the fabrication of two types of nanomaterials. Specifically, we present surfaces comprising a highly uniform array of elliptical pillars as well as nanoparticles with the shape of nanopockets, possessing nano-cavities. The structures are fabricated by nanoimprint lithography, physical and wet-chemical etching and sputter deposition of thin films of various materials to achieve a multifunctional nanomaterial with defined optical and magnetic properties. We show that the nanopockets can be transferred to solution, yielding a nanoparticle dispersion. All fabrication steps are carefully characterized by microscopic and optical methods. Additionally, we show optical simulation results that are in good agreement with the experimentally obtained data. Thus, this versatile method allows to fabricate nanomaterials with specific tailor-made physical properties that can be designed by modelling prior to the actual fabrication process. Finally, we discuss possible application areas of these nanomaterials, which range from biology and medicine to electronics, photovoltaics and photocatalysis.

Assessing the Performance of EUHFORIA Modeling the Background Solar Wind

In order to address the growing need for more accurate space-weather predictions, a new model named EUHFORIA (EUropean Heliospheric FORecasting Information Asset) was recently developed. We present the first results of the performance assessment for the solar-wind modeling with EUHFORIA and identify possible limitations of its present setup. Using the basic EUHFORIA 1.0.4 model setup with the default input parameters, we modeled background solar wind (no coronal mass ejections) and compared the obtained results with Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) in-situ measurements. For the purposes of statistical study we developed a technique of combining daily EUHFORIA runs into continuous time series. The combined time series were derived for the years 2008 (low solar activity) and 2012 (high solar activity), from which in-situ speed and density profiles were extracted. We find for the low-activity phase a better match between model results and observations compared to the high-activity time interval considered. The quality of the modeled solar-wind parameters is found to be rather variable. Therefore, to better understand the results obtained we also qualitatively inspected characteristics of coronal holes, i.e. the sources of the studied fast streams. We discuss how different characteristics of the coronal holes and input parameters to EUHFORIA influence the modeled fast solar wind, and suggest possibilities for the improvement of the model.

Membrane Lipid Composition and Amino Acid Excretion Patterns of Methanothermococcus okinawensis Grown in the Presence of Inhibitors Detected in the Enceladian Plume

Lipids and amino acids are regarded as important biomarkers for the search for extraterrestrial life in the Solar System. Such biomarkers may be used to trace methanogenic life on other planets or moons in the Solar System, such as Saturn's icy moon Enceladus. However, little is known about the environmental conditions shaping the synthesis of lipids and amino acids. Here, we present the lipid production and amino acid excretion patterns of the methanogenic archaeon Methanothermococcus okinawensis after exposing it to different multivariate concentrations of the inhibitors ammonium, formaldehyde, and methanol present in the Enceladian plume. M. okinawensis shows different patterns of lipid and amino acids excretion, depending on the amount of these inhibitors in the growth medium. While methanol did not show a significant impact on growth, lipid or amino acid production rates, ammonium and formaldehyde strongly affected these parameters. These findings are important for understanding the eco-physiology of methanogens on Earth and have implications for the use of biomarkers as possible signs of extraterrestrial life for future space missions in the Solar System.

Switched reaction specificity in polyesterases towards amide bond hydrolysis by enzyme engineering

The recalcitrance of plastics like nylon and other polyamides contributes to environmental problems (e.g. microplastics in oceans) and restricts possibilities for recycling. The fact that hitherto discovered amidases (EC 3.5.1. and 3.5.2.) only show no, or low, activity on polyamides currently obstructs biotechnological-assisted depolymerization of man-made materials. In this work, we capitalized on enzyme engineering to enhance the promiscuous amidase activity of polyesterases. Through enzyme design we created a reallocated water network adapted for hydrogen bond formation to synthetic amide backbones for enhanced transition state stabilization in the polyester-hydrolyzing biocatalysts Humicola insolens cutinase and Thermobifida cellulosilytica cutinase 1. This novel concept enabled increased catalytic efficiency towards amide-containing soluble substrates. The afforded enhanced hydrolysis of the amide bond-containing insoluble substrate 3PA 6,6 by designed variants was aligned with improved transition state stabilization identified by molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Furthermore, the presence of a favorable water-molecule network that interacted with synthetic amides in the variants resulted in a reduced activity on polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Our data demonstrate the potential of using enzyme engineering to improve the amidase activity for polyesterases to act on synthetic amide-containing polymers.

Zinc Substitution of Cobalt in Vitamin B12 : Zincobyric acid and Zincobalamin as Luminescent Structural B12 -Mimics

Replacing the central cobalt ion of vitamin B12 by other metals has been a long-held aspiration within the B12 -field. Herein, we describe the synthesis from hydrogenobyric acid of zincobyric acid (Znby) and zincobalamin (Znbl), the Zn-analogues of the natural cobalt-corrins cobyric acid and vitamin B12 , respectively. The solution structures of Znby and Znbl were studied by NMR-spectroscopy. Single crystals of Znby were produced, providing the first X-ray crystallographic structure of a zinc corrin. The structures of Znby and of computationally generated Znbl were found to resemble the corresponding CoII -corrins, making such Zn-corrins potentially useful for investigations of B12 -dependent processes. The singlet excited state of Znby had a short life-time, limited by rapid intersystem crossing to the triplet state. Znby allowed the unprecedented observation of a corrin triplet (ET =190 kJ mol-1 ) and was found to be an excellent photo-sensitizer for 1 O2 (ΦΔ =0.70).

The shortcomings of accurate rate estimations in cultivation processes and a solution for precise and robust process modeling

The accurate estimation of cell growth or the substrate consumption rate is crucial for the understanding of the current state of a bioprocess. Rates unveil the actual cell status, making them valuable for quality-by-design concepts. However, in bioprocesses, the real rates are commonly not accessible due to analytical errors. We simulated Escherichia coli fed-batch fermentations, sampled at four different intervals and added five levels of noise to mimic analytical inaccuracy. We computed stepwise integral estimations with and without using moving average estimations, and smoothing spline interpolations to compare the accuracy and precision of each method to calculate the rates. We demonstrate that stepwise integration results in low accuracy and precision, especially at higher sampling frequencies. Contrary, a simple smoothing spline function displayed both the highest accuracy and precision regardless of the chosen sampling interval. Based on this, we tested three different options for substrate uptake rate estimations.

CME-HSS Interaction and Characteristics Tracked from Sun to Earth

In a thorough study, we investigate the origin of a remarkable plasma and magnetic field configuration observed in situ on June 22, 2011, near L1, which appears to be a magnetic ejecta (ME) and a shock signature engulfed by a solar wind high-speed stream (HSS). We identify the signatures as an Earth-directed coronal mass ejection (CME), associated with a C7.7 flare on June 21, 2011, and its interaction with a HSS, which emanates from a coronal hole (CH) close to the launch site of the CME. The results indicate that the major interaction between the CME and the HSS starts at a height of 1.3 R ⊙ up to 3 R ⊙ . Over that distance range, the CME undergoes a strong north-eastward deflection of at least 30 ∘ due to the open magnetic field configuration of the CH. We perform a comprehensive analysis for the CME-HSS event using multi-viewpoint data (from the Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatories, the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory and the Solar Dynamics Observatory), and combined modeling efforts (nonlinear force-free field modeling, Graduated Cylindrical Shell CME modeling, and the Forecasting a CME's Altered Trajectory - ForeCAT model). We aim at better understanding its early evolution and interaction process as well as its interplanetary propagation and related in situ signatures, and finally the resulting impact on the Earth's magnetosphere.

Photopatternable Epoxy-Based Thermosets

The present work provides a comparative study on the photopatterning of epoxy-based thermosets as a function of network structure and network mobility. Local switching of solubility properties by light of a defined wavelength is achieved by exploiting versatile o-nitrobenzyl ester (o-NBE) chemistry. o-NBE derivatives with terminal epoxy groups are synthetized and thermally cured with different types of cycloaliphatic anhydrides via nucleophilic ring opening reaction. By varying the structure of the anhydride, glass transition temperature (Tg) and surface hardness are adjusted over a broad range. Once the network has been formed, the photolysis of the o-NBE groups enables a well-defined degradation of the 3D network. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy studies demonstrate that cleavage rate and cleavage yield increase with rising mobility of the network, which is either facilitated by inherent network properties (Tg below room temperature) or a simultaneous heating of the thermosets above their Tg. The formation of soluble species is evidenced by sol-gel analysis, revealing that low-Tg networks are prone to secondary photoreactions at higher exposure doses, which lead to a re-crosslinking of the cleaved polymer chains. The change in solubility properties is exploited to inscribe positive tone micropatterns within the thermosets by photolithographic techniques. Contrast curves show that the resist performance of rigid networks is superior to flexible ones, with a contrast of 1.17 and a resolution of 8 µm.

NMR characterization of solvent accessibility and transient structure in intrinsically disordered proteins

In order to understand the conformational behavior of intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) and their biological interaction networks, the detection of residual structure and long-range interactions is required. However, the large number of degrees of conformational freedom of disordered proteins require the integration of extensive sets of experimental data, which are difficult to obtain. Here, we provide a straightforward approach for the detection of residual structure and long-range interactions in IDPs under near-native conditions using solvent paramagnetic relaxation enhancement (sPRE). Our data indicate that for the general case of an unfolded chain, with a local flexibility described by the overwhelming majority of available combinations, sPREs of non-exchangeable protons can be accurately predicted through an ensemble-based fragment approach. We show for the disordered protein α-synuclein and disordered regions of the proteins FOXO4 and p53 that deviation from random coil behavior can be interpreted in terms of intrinsic propensity to populate local structure in interaction sites of these proteins and to adopt transient long-range structure. The presented modification-free approach promises to be applicable to study conformational dynamics of IDPs and other dynamic biomolecules in an integrative approach.

Evolution and comparative genomics of the most common Trichoderma species

BACKGROUND

The growing importance of the ubiquitous fungal genus Trichoderma (Hypocreales, Ascomycota) requires understanding of its biology and evolution. Many Trichoderma species are used as biofertilizers and biofungicides and T. reesei is the model organism for industrial production of cellulolytic enzymes. In addition, some highly opportunistic species devastate mushroom farms and can become pathogens of humans. A comparative analysis of the first three whole genomes revealed mycoparasitism as the innate feature of Trichoderma. However, the evolution of these traits is not yet understood.

RESULTS

We selected 12 most commonly occurring Trichoderma species and studied the evolution of their genome sequences. Trichoderma evolved in the time of the Cretaceous-Palaeogene extinction event 66 (±15) mya, but the formation of extant sections (Longibrachiatum, Trichoderma) or clades (Harzianum/Virens) happened in Oligocene. The evolution of the Harzianum clade and section Trichoderma was accompanied by significant gene gain, but the ancestor of section Longibrachiatum experienced rapid gene loss. The highest number of genes gained encoded ankyrins, HET domain proteins and transcription factors. We also identified the Trichoderma core genome, completely curated its annotation, investigated several gene families in detail and compared the results to those of other fungi. Eighty percent of those genes for which a function could be predicted were also found in other fungi, but only 67% of those without a predictable function.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study presents a time scaled pattern of genome evolution in 12 Trichoderma species from three phylogenetically distant clades/sections and a comprehensive analysis of their genes. The data offer insights in the evolution of a mycoparasite towards a generalist.

Inhibiting eukaryotic ribosome biogenesis

BACKGROUND

Ribosome biogenesis is a central process in every growing cell. In eukaryotes, it requires more than 250 non-ribosomal assembly factors, most of which are essential. Despite this large repertoire of potential targets, only very few chemical inhibitors of ribosome biogenesis are known so far. Such inhibitors are valuable tools to study this highly dynamic process and elucidate mechanistic details of individual maturation steps. Moreover, ribosome biogenesis is of particular importance for fast proliferating cells, suggesting its inhibition could be a valid strategy for treatment of tumors or infections.

RESULTS

We systematically screened ~ 1000 substances for inhibitory effects on ribosome biogenesis using a microscopy-based screen scoring ribosomal subunit export defects. We identified 128 compounds inhibiting maturation of either the small or the large ribosomal subunit or both. Northern blot analysis demonstrates that these inhibitors cause a broad spectrum of different rRNA processing defects.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings show that the individual inhibitors affect a wide range of different maturation steps within the ribosome biogenesis pathway. Our results provide for the first time a comprehensive set of inhibitors to study ribosome biogenesis by chemical inhibition of individual maturation steps and establish the process as promising druggable pathway for chemical intervention.

Methods for quantification of growth and productivity in anaerobic microbiology and biotechnology

Anaerobic microorganisms (anaerobes) possess a fascinating metabolic versatility. This characteristic makes anaerobes interesting candidates for physiological studies and utilizable as microbial cell factories. To investigate the physiological characteristics of an anaerobic microbial population, yield, productivity, specific growth rate, biomass production, substrate uptake, and product formation are regarded as essential variables. The determination of those variables in distinct cultivation systems may be achieved by using different techniques for sampling, measuring of growth, substrate uptake, and product formation kinetics. In this review, a comprehensive overview of methods is presented, and the applicability is discussed in the frame of anaerobic microbiology and biotechnology.

Tribo-Charging Behaviour of Inhalable Mannitol Blends with Salbutamol Sulphate

PURPOSE

The performance of carrier-based dry powder inhaler (DPI) formulations can be critically impacted by interfacial interactions driven by tribo-electrification. Therefore, the aim of the present work was to understand how distinct API particle characteristics affect the charging behaviour of blends intended for DPI delivery.

METHODS

Salbutamol sulphate (SBS) particles engineered via spray-drying and jet milling were used as model APIs. D-mannitol was selected as a model carrier. The materials were characterized concerning their different particle properties and their charge was analysed alone and in blends before and after flow over a stainless-steel pipe.

RESULTS

The spray-dried SBS (amorphous and spherical) charged positively and to a higher extent than jet milled SBS (crystalline and acicular) that charged negatively and to a lower extent. D-mannitol charged positively and to a higher extent than the APIs. All drug-excipient blends charged negatively and differences were found between the spray-dried and jet milled SBS blends at 2% and 5% drug loads.

CONCLUSIONS

It was demonstrated how distinct solid-states, particle shape, size and morphology as well as different water contents of the different materials can affect tribo-charging. For their binary blends, the amount and nature of fines seem to govern inter-particle contacts critically impacting charge evolution.