451
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Buttler K, Ezaki T, Wilting J. Proliferating mesodermal cells in murine embryos exhibiting macrophage and lymphendothelial characteristics. BMC DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2008; 8:43. [PMID: 18430230 PMCID: PMC2375885 DOI: 10.1186/1471-213x-8-43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2008] [Accepted: 04/22/2008] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The data on the embryonic origin of lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) from either deep embryonic veins or mesenchymal (or circulating) lymphangioblasts presently available remain inconsistent. In various vertebrates, markers for LECs are first expressed in specific segments of embryonic veins arguing for a venous origin of lymph vessels. Very recently, studies on the mouse have strongly supported this view. However, in the chick, we have observed a dual origin of LECs from veins and from mesodermal lymphangioblasts. Additionally, in murine embryos we have detected mesenchymal cells that co-express LEC markers and the pan-leukocyte marker CD45. Here, we have characterized the mesoderm of murine embryos with LEC markers Prox1, Lyve-1 and LA102 in combination with macrophage markers CD11b and F4/80. RESULTS We observed cells co-expressing both types of markers (e.g. Prox1 - Lyve-1 - F4/80 triple-positive) located in the mesoderm, immediately adjacent to, and within lymph vessels. Our proliferation studies with Ki-67 antibodies showed high proliferative capacities of both the Lyve-1-positive LECs of lymph sacs/lymphatic sprouts and the Lyve-1-positive mesenchymal cells. CONCLUSION Our data argue for a dual origin of LECs in the mouse, although the primary source of embryonic LECs may reside in specific embryonic veins and mesenchymal lymphangioblasts integrated secondarily into lymph vessels. The impact of a dual source of LECs for ontogenetic, phylogenetic and pathological lymphangiogenesis is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerstin Buttler
- Centre of Anatomy, Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University Medicine Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany.
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452
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Lee JS, Kim KI, Baek SH. Nuclear receptors and coregulators in inflammation and cancer. Cancer Lett 2008; 267:189-96. [PMID: 18433989 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2008.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2008] [Revised: 02/27/2008] [Accepted: 03/11/2008] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Functional role of nuclear receptors and numerous coregulators have been studied in terms of regulating transcriptional control of genes that play critical roles in various pathways. There is growing evidence that nuclear receptors and their coregulators control inflammatory programs of gene expression and progression of hormone-dependent cancer. This review provides a general overview of the interrelationship between nuclear receptor signalling, inflammation and cancer. These insights provide inflammatory genes as attractive targets for the development of cancer therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason S Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Research Center for Functional Cellulomics, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, South Korea
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453
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Abstract
The skeleton is a common destination for many cancer metastases including breast and prostate cancer. There are many characteristics of bone that make it an ideal environment for cancer cell migration and colonization. Metaphyseal bone, found at the ends of long bone, in ribs, and in vertebrae, is comprised of trabecular bone interspersed with marrow and rich vasculature. The specialized microvasculature is adapted for the easy passage of cells in and out of the bone marrow. Moreover, the metasphyseal regions of bone are constantly undergoing remodeling, a process that releases growth factors from the matrix. Bone turnover also involves the production of numerous cytokines and chemokines that provide a means of communication between osteoblasts and osteoclasts, but co-incidentally can also attract and support metastatic cells. Once in the marrow, cancer cells can interact directly and indirectly with osteoblasts and osteclasts, as well as hematopoietic and stromal cells. Cancer cells secrete factors that affect the network of cells in the bone microenvironment as well as interact with other cytokines. Additionally, transient cells of the immune system may join the local mileau to ultimately support cancer cell growth. However, most metastasized cells that enter the bone marrow are transient; a few may remain in a dormant state for many years. Advances in understanding the bone cell-tumor cell interactions are key to controlling, if not preventing metastasis to bone.
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454
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasufumi Sato
- From the Department of Vascular Biology, Institute of Development, Aging, and Cancer, Tohoku University, Japan
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455
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Sica A, Larghi P, Mancino A, Rubino L, Porta C, Totaro MG, Rimoldi M, Biswas SK, Allavena P, Mantovani A. Macrophage polarization in tumour progression. Semin Cancer Biol 2008; 18:349-55. [PMID: 18467122 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2008.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 873] [Impact Index Per Article: 54.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2008] [Accepted: 03/18/2008] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Macrophages are a fundamental part of the innate defense mechanisms, which can promote specific immunity by inducing T cell recruitment and activation. Despite this, their presence within the tumour microenvironment has been associated with enhanced tumour progression and shown to promote cancer cell growth and spread, angiogenesis and immunosuppression. This paradoxical role of macrophages in cancer finds an explanation in their functional plasticity, that may result in the polarized expression of either pro- or anti-tumoural functions. Key players in the setting of their phenotype are the microenvironmental signals to which macrophages are exposed, which selectively tune their functions within a functional spectrum encompassing the M1 and M2 extremes. Here, we discuss recent findings suggesting that targeting tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs) polarization may represent a novel therapeutic strategy against cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Sica
- Department of Inflammation and Immunology, Fondazione Humanitas per la Ricerca, 20089 Rozzano, Milan, Italy.
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456
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Abstract
Chronic inflammation is involved in the pathogenesis of most common cancers. The aetiology of the inflammation is varied and includes microbial, chemical and physical agents. The chronically inflamed milieu is awash with pro-inflammatory cytokines and is characterized by the activation of signalling pathways that cross-talk between inflammation and carcinogenesis. Many of the factors involved in chronic inflammation play a dual role in the process, promoting neoplastic progression but also facilitating cancer prevention. A comprehensive understanding of the molecular and cellular inflammatory mechanisms involved is vital for developing preventive and therapeutic strategies against cancer. The purpose of the present review is to evaluate the mechanistic pathways that underlie chronic inflammation and cancer with particular emphasis on the role of host genetic factors that increase the risk of carcinogenesis.
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457
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Jeon BH, Jang C, Han J, Kataru RP, Piao L, Jung K, Cha HJ, Schwendener RA, Jang KY, Kim KS, Alitalo K, Koh GY. Profound but dysfunctional lymphangiogenesis via vascular endothelial growth factor ligands from CD11b+ macrophages in advanced ovarian cancer. Cancer Res 2008; 68:1100-9. [PMID: 18281485 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-07-2572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Severe ascites is a hallmark of advanced ovarian cancer (OVCA), yet the underlying mechanism that creates an imbalance between peritoneal vascular leakage and lymphatic drainage is unknown. Here, we identified and characterized peritoneal lymphatic vessels in OVCA mice, a model generated by implantation of human OVCA cells into athymic nude mice. The OVCA mice displayed substantial lymphangiogenesis and lymphatic remodeling, massive infiltration of CD11b(+)/LYVE-1(+) macrophages and disseminated carcinomatosis in the mesentery and diaphragm, and progressive chylous ascites formation. Functional assays indicated that the abnormally abundant lymphatic vessels in the diaphragm were not conductive in peritoneal fluid drainage. Moreover, lipid absorbed from the gut leaked out from the aberrant mesenteric lymphatic vessels. Our results indicate that vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-C, VEGF-D, and VEGF-A from CD11b(+) macrophages are responsible for producing OVCA-induced dysfunctional lymphangiogenesis, although other cell types contribute to the increased ascites formation. Accordingly, the combined blockade of VEGF-C/D and VEGF-A signaling with soluble VEGF receptor-3 and VEGF-Trap, respectively, markedly inhibited chylous ascites formation. These findings provide additional therapeutic targets to ameliorate chylous ascites formation in patients with advanced OVCA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bong-Hyun Jeon
- National Research Laboratory of Vascular Biology and Biomedical Research Center, Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
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458
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Abstract
The lymphatic vasculature comprises an intricate network of vessels critical for fluid homeostasis, immune surveillance and fat absorption. Recent studies have provided insights into the developmental processes and molecular mechanisms controlling the formation and remodelling of the lymphatic vessels. These studies have further demonstrated the essential and active role of the lymphatic vessels in various pathological conditions and advanced our understanding of the progression of human diseases, such as inflammation and tumorigenesis. In the context of the latest exciting findings, we review here the current understanding of the mechanisms of lymphatic development and contribution of lymphatic vessels to pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett Hosking
- Lymphatic Development Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, London, UK
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459
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Allavena P, Garlanda C, Borrello MG, Sica A, Mantovani A. Pathways connecting inflammation and cancer. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2008; 18:3-10. [PMID: 18325755 DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2008.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 290] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2007] [Revised: 01/11/2008] [Accepted: 01/11/2008] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Chronic and persistent inflammation contributes to cancer development and can predispose to carcinogenesis. Infection-driven inflammations are involved in the pathogenesis of approximately 15-20% of human tumors. However, even tumors that are not epidemiologically linked to pathogens are characterized by the presence of an inflammatory component in their microenvironment. Hallmarks of cancer-associated inflammation include the presence of infiltrating leukocytes, cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, lipid messengers, and matrix-degrading enzymes. Schematically, two interrelated pathways link inflammation and cancer: (1) genetic events leading to neoplastic transformation promote the construction of an inflammatory milieu; (2) tumor-infiltrating leukocytes, in particular macrophages, are prime regulators of cancer inflammation. Thus, an intrinsic pathway of inflammation (driven in tumor cells), as well as an extrinsic pathway (in tumor-infiltrating leukocytes) have been described and both contribute to tumor progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Allavena
- Istituto Clinico Humanitas IRCCS, Via Manzoni 56, 20089 Rozzano, Milan, Italy
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460
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Da MX, Wu Z, Tian HW. Tumor lymphangiogenesis and lymphangiogenic growth factors. Arch Med Res 2008; 39:365-72. [PMID: 18375246 DOI: 10.1016/j.arcmed.2007.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2007] [Accepted: 12/17/2007] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have revealed that malignant tumors can actively induce the formation of new lymphatic vessels and metastasize through the lymphatic system. Tumor-induced lymphangiogenesis driven by tumors expressed lymphangiogenic growth factors such as VEGF family, fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2), angiopoietin-1 (Ang-1), angiopoietin-2 (Ang-2), and platelet-derived growth factors (PDGFs) is correlated with lymph node metastasis in experimental cancer models and in several types of human cancers. Tumor- induced lymphangiogenesis has now been firmly established as a novel mechanism for cancer progression and lymph node metastasis. Recent studies indicate that blockade of the lymphangiogenic growth factors pathway inhibits tumor spread to lymph nodes and likely beyond. The potential effects of most of these newly identified lymphatic growth factors on tumor-induced lymphangiogenesis and lymph node metastasis remain to be further investigated. A number of questions remain to be answered concerning the potential efficacy of targeting at tumor-induced lymphangiogenesis for inhibiting tumor spread to lymph nodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Xu Da
- Department of General Surgery, Gansu Provincial Hospital, PR China.
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461
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Mohammed RAA, Ellis IO, Elsheikh S, Paish EC, Martin SG. Lymphatic and angiogenic characteristics in breast cancer: morphometric analysis and prognostic implications. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2008; 113:261-73. [PMID: 18293084 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-008-9936-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2007] [Accepted: 02/06/2008] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Controversy exists regarding the topography of lymph vessels in breast cancer, their usefulness as prognostic factors, relationship with angiogenesis and whether active lymphangiogenesis occurs within the tumour. A series of 177 well-characterized breast cancers, with long term follow up, were stained with D2-40, CD31 and CD34. Distribution of lymphatics and lymph vessel density (LVD) were assessed in three areas, intratumoural, peripheral and peritumoural and correlated with clinicopathological criteria and patient prognosis. Microvessel density (MVD) was assessed and correlated with LVD. Double immunohistochemical staining with D2-40 and MIB-1 was carried out to assess the proliferative status of lymphatics and of the tumour emboli within. Peritumoural lymphatics were detected in all tumours whereas peripheral and intratumoural lymphatics were detected in 86 and 41% of specimens, respectively. Tumours with higher total LVD were significantly associated with the presence of lymph node (LN) metastasis and shorter overall survival (OS). In multivariate analysis, tumour grade, LN status and the presence of lymphovascular invasion, but not LVD, were independent poor prognostic factors. No association was found between LVD and MVD. Proliferating lymphatics were detected in 29% of specimens and were significantly associated with dense inflammatory infiltrate. In conclusion, lymphatics are located primarily in the peritumoural and peripheral areas in breast cancer and seem to play an important role in disease progression by being routes for tumour dissemination. The lack of correlation between lymphangiogenic and angiogenic characteristics suggests two distinct processes and the presence of active lymphangiogenesis, albeit in a small portion of specimens, may have important therapeutic implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rabab A A Mohammed
- Department of Clinical Oncology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust, City Hospital Campus, Hucknall Road, Nottingham, NG5 1PB, UK
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462
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Specific association of increased vascular endothelial growth factor expression and its receptors with macrophage differentiation of HL-60 leukemia cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2008; 368:543-9. [PMID: 18261985 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2008.01.129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2008] [Accepted: 01/24/2008] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the gene expression profiles of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and its receptors in HL-60 leukemia cells. In the VEGF family, both mRNA and protein expression of VEGF-C were up-regulated in phorbol myristate acetate (PMA)-differentiated HL-60 cells. We detected two bands of approximately 31 and approximately 60kDa in cell lysates, and the higher expression of approximately 31kDa band was further increased after stimulation with tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). A approximately 31kDa VEGF-C protein was also detected in conditioned media from PMA-differentiated HL-60 cells after LPS stimulation. The mRNA expression of VEGFR-1, VEGFR-2, and neuropilin-1 (NRP-1) was markedly up-regulated in PMA-differentiated HL-60 cells, corresponding to the results from VEGF binding studies, in which VEGF binding activity was increased in PMA-differentiated HL-60 cells. These did not occur in dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO)-differentiated HL-60 cells. The expression of VEGF-C and VEGF receptors is regulated specifically in HL-60 cells during macrophage differentiation.
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463
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Brideau G, Mäkinen MJ, Elamaa H, Tu H, Nilsson G, Alitalo K, Pihlajaniemi T, Heljasvaara R. Endostatin overexpression inhibits lymphangiogenesis and lymph node metastasis in mice. Cancer Res 2008; 67:11528-35. [PMID: 18089781 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-07-1458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Endostatin, a proteolytic fragment of collagen XVIII, is a potent inhibitor of angiogenesis and tumor growth. We studied the development of carcinogen-induced skin tumors in transgenic J4 mice overexpressing endostatin in their keratinocytes. Unexpectedly, we did not observe any differences in tumor incidence and multiplicity between these and control mice, nor in the rate of conversion of benign papillomas to malignant squamous cell carcinomas (SCC). We did find, however, that endostatin regulates the terminal differentiation of keratinocytes because the SCCs in the J4 mice were less aggressive and more often well differentiated than those in the control mice. We observed an inhibition of tumor angiogenesis by endostatin at an early stage in skin tumor development, but more strikingly, there was a significant reduction in lymphatic vessels in the papillomas and SCCs in association with elevated endostatin levels and also a significant inhibition of lymph node metastasis in the J4 mice. We showed that tumor-infiltrating mast cells strongly expressed vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C), and that the accumulation of these cells was markedly decreased in the tumors of the J4 mice. Moreover, endostatin inhibited the adhesion and migration of murine MC/9 mast cells on fibronectin in vitro. Our data suggest that endostatin can inhibit tumor lymphangiogenesis by decreasing the VEGF-C levels in the tumors, apparently via inhibition of mast cell migration and adhesion, and support the view that the biological effects of endostatin are not restricted to endothelial cells because endostatin also regulates tumor-associated inflammation and differentiation, and the phenotype of epithelial tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaëlle Brideau
- Collagen Research Unit, Biocenter Oulu and Department of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
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464
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Thelen A, Scholz A, Benckert C, Weichert W, Dietz E, Wiedenmann B, Neuhaus P, Jonas S. Tumor-associated lymphangiogenesis correlates with lymph node metastases and prognosis in hilar cholangiocarcinoma. Ann Surg Oncol 2008; 15:791-9. [PMID: 18172731 DOI: 10.1245/s10434-007-9774-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2007] [Revised: 11/21/2007] [Accepted: 11/26/2007] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tumor-associated lymphangiogenesis has been shown to promote nodal spread and is of prognostic significance in some tumor entities. Currently, nothing is known about the impact of lymphangiogenesis on progression and prognosis in hilar cholangiocarcinoma. METHODS We analyzed tissue specimens of normal liver and hilar cholangiocarcinoma (n = 60) by immunohistochemistry using the lymphendothelial-specific antibody D2-40 and subsequently quantified lymphatic microvessel density (LVD). The LVD was correlated with clinicopathological characteristics and recurrence pattern of the tumors as well as patients' survival. RESULTS In contrast to the low abundance of lymphatic vessels in nontransformed liver tissue, we found an induction of lymphangiogenesis in hilar cholangiocarcinoma. Tumors with a high LVD (34 out of 60) had a significant higher incidence of lymph node involvement (p < 0.001), perivascular (p = 0.017), and perineural (p = 0.033) lymphangiosis and local recurrence (p < 0.001). Furthermore, a high LVD was identified to be a significant overall (three-year: 24.4% versus 90.5%; five-year: 7.0% versus 76.4%; p < 0.001) and disease-free (three-year: 8.3% versus 76.6%; five-year: 5.9% versus 61.4%; p < 0.001) survival disadvantage, with LVD representing an independent prognostic factor for survival (p < 0.001) in the multivariate analysis. CONCLUSIONS Lymphangiogenesis is associated with increased frequency of tumor cells in lymphatics and lymph nodes in hilar cholangiocarcinoma. The prognostic importance of tumor-associated lymphangiogenesis was reflected by LVD serving as an independent prognostic factor. In addition, lymphangiogenesis may represent a potential target in the development of new therapeutic approaches in hilar cholangiocarcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armin Thelen
- Department of General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Charité Universitaetsmedizin Berlin, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353, Berlin, Germany.
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465
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Cueni LN, Detmar M. Lymphatic Vascular System and Lymphangiogenesis. Angiogenesis 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-71518-6_43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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466
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Linking Inflammation Reactions to Cancer: Novel Targets for Therapeutic Strategies. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2008; 610:112-27. [DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-73898-7_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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467
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Recipient-derived neoangiogenesis of arterioles and lymphatics in quilty lesions of cardiac allografts. Transplantation 2007; 84:1335-42. [PMID: 18049119 DOI: 10.1097/01.tp.0000287458.72440.75] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The contribution of extracardiac cells to tissue turnover in heart allografts has recently been demonstrated. Complex subendocardial infiltrates, known as Quilty lesions, are frequently observed in cardiac allografts. The origin of the different cellular components of Quilty lesions is not known. METHODS Different constituents of these lymphonodular infiltrates were analyzed with regard to donor or recipient derivation. Laser-assisted microdissection with subsequent short tandem repeat polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based "genetic fingerprinting" was employed. Combined immunofluorescence and fluorescence in situ hybridization for sex chromosomes was performed for confirmation in cases of gender-mismatched transplantation. Expression of angiogenic factors (FGF-2, PDGF-alpha, PDGF-alpha-receptor, and VEGF-alpha) was analyzed by quantitative real-time reverse-transcription PCR and immunohistochemistry. RESULTS The inflammatory, nonvascular component of Quilty lesions was completely recipient-derived. Blood vessels were of mixed origin. Different compartments of blood vessels displayed different rates of recipient derivation (endothelium up to 50%, smooth muscle cells up to 15%). Lymphatic vessels were mainly recipient-derived. Of the angiogenic molecules, VEGF-alpha expression was significantly increased in the adjacent myocardium, compared to controls and the Quilty lesions themselves. CONCLUSIONS The inflammatory compartment of Quilty lesions is of recipient origin and shows chimeric neoangiogenesis of blood and lymphatic vessels. VEGF-alpha produced in the adjacent myocardium appears to stimulate the chimeric neoangiogenesis.
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468
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Koyama H, Kobayashi N, Harada M, Takeoka M, Kawai Y, Sano K, Fujimori M, Amano J, Ohhashi T, Kannagi R, Kimata K, Taniguchi S, Itano N. Significance of tumor-associated stroma in promotion of intratumoral lymphangiogenesis: pivotal role of a hyaluronan-rich tumor microenvironment. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2007; 172:179-93. [PMID: 18079437 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2008.070360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Stromal cells, together with extracellular matrix components, provide a tumor microenvironment that is pivotal for cancer cell growth and progression. In our previous study using a conditional transgenic mouse model of breast cancer, the overproduction of hyaluronan, a major extracellular constituent, accelerated tumor angiogenesis through stromal cell recruitment. This finding led us to investigate the role of hyaluronan in the lymphatic vessel system. Here, we have found that microenvironmental hyaluronan promoted tumor lymphangiogenesis concurrently with the formation of stromal structures. Additionally, lymphatic vessels frequently penetrated and accumulated into stromal compartments, and up-regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor-C and -D was detected at tumor-stromal interfaces. To assess the contribution of stromal cells to lymphangiogenesis in vivo, we established tumor-associated fibroblasts from hyaluronan-overproducing mammary tumors and implanted them together with carcinoma cells from control tumors or MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cells in nude mice. Carcinoma cells grew rapidly in association with marked stromal reactions and lymphangiogenesis. Without the stromal cells, however, the tumors developed slowly with less stroma and lymphatic vessels. These findings underline the significance of tumor-associated stroma in the promotion of intratumoral lymphangiogenesis and suggest a pivotal role for the hyaluronan-rich tumor microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Koyama
- Department of Molecular Oncology, Division of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Institute on Aging and Adaptation, Shinshu University Graduate School of Medicine, Matsumoto, Nagano 390-8621, Japan
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469
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Ruddell A, Kelly-Spratt KS, Furuya M, Parghi SS, Kemp CJ. p19/Arf and p53 suppress sentinel lymph node lymphangiogenesis and carcinoma metastasis. Oncogene 2007; 27:3145-55. [PMID: 18059331 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1210973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The ability of tumor cells to metastasize is increasingly viewed as an interaction between the primary tumor and host tissues. Deletion of the p19/Arf or p53 tumor suppressor genes accelerates malignant progression and metastatic spread of 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA)/12-O-tetradecanoyl-phorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced squamous cell carcinomas, providing a model system to address mechanisms of metastasis. Here, we show that benign pre-metastatic papillomas from wild-type mice trigger lymphangiogenesis within draining lymph nodes, whereas there is no growth of primary tumor lymphatic vessels. Lymph node lymphangiogenesis is greatly accelerated in papilloma-bearing p19/Arf- or p53-deficient mice, which coincides with the greater propensity of these tumors to progress to carcinomas and to metastasize. The extent of accumulation of B cells within the tumor-draining lymph nodes of wild-type mice predicted the level of lymph node lymphangiogenesis and metastatic potential. Arf or p53 deficiency strongly accelerated lymph node immune cell accumulation, in a manner that was associated with the extent of lymph node lymphatic sinus growth. This immune cell accumulation and lymph node lymphangiogenesis phenotype identifies host anti-tumor responses that could drive metastatic spread of cancers via the lymphatics.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Ruddell
- Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
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470
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Brakenhielm E, Burton JB, Johnson M, Chavarria N, Morizono K, Chen I, Alitalo K, Wu L. Modulating metastasis by a lymphangiogenic switch in prostate cancer. Int J Cancer 2007; 121:2153-61. [PMID: 17583576 PMCID: PMC2838420 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.22900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer dissemination is difficult to detect in the clinic, and few treatment options exist for patients with advanced-stage disease. Our aim was to investigate the role of tumor lymphangiogenesis during metastasis. Further, we implemented a noninvasive molecular imaging technique to facilitate the assessment of the metastatic process. The metastatic potentials of several human prostate cancer xenograft models, LAPC-4, LAPC-9, PC3 and CWR22Rv-1 were compared. The cells were labeled with luciferase, a bioluminescence imaging reporter gene, to enable optical imaging. After tumor implantation the animals were examined weekly during several months for the appearance of metastases. Metastatic lesions were confirmed by immunohistochemistry. Additionally, the angiogenic and lymphangiogenic profiles of the tumors were characterized. To confirm the role of lymphangiogenesis in mediating metastasis, the low-metastatic LAPC-9 tumor cells were engineered to overexpress VEGF-C, and the development of metastases was evaluated. Our results show CWR22Rv-1 and PC3 tumor cell lines to be more metastatic than LAPC-4, which in turn disseminates more readily than LAPC-9. The difference in metastatic potential correlated with the endogenous production levels of lymphangiogenic growth factor VEGF-C and the presence of tumor lymphatics. In agreement, induced overexpression of VEGF-C in LAPC-9 enhanced tumor lymphangiogenesis leading to the development of metastatic lesions. Taken together, our studies, based on a molecular imaging approach for semiquantitative detection of micrometastases, point to an important role of tumor lymphatics in the metastatic process of human prostate cancer. In particular, VEGF-C seems to play a key role in prostate cancer metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ebba Brakenhielm
- Department of Urology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Jeremy B. Burton
- Department of Molecular & Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Mai Johnson
- Department of Molecular & Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Nelson Chavarria
- Department of Urology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Kouki Morizono
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Irvin Chen
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Kari Alitalo
- Molecular/Cancer Biology Laboratory and Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Lily Wu
- Department of Urology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA
- Department of Molecular & Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA
- Crump Institute of Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA
- Correspondence to: Department of Urology, MRL 2210, Box 951738, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1738, USA. Fax: 1310-206-5343.
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471
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Saban MR, Towner R, Smith N, Abbott A, Neeman M, Davis CA, Simpson C, Maier J, Mémet S, Wu XR, Saban R. Lymphatic vessel density and function in experimental bladder cancer. BMC Cancer 2007; 7:219. [PMID: 18047671 PMCID: PMC2241841 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-7-219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2007] [Accepted: 11/29/2007] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The lymphatics form a second circulatory system that drains the extracellular fluid and proteins from the tumor microenvironment, and provides an exclusive environment in which immune cells interact and respond to foreign antigen. Both cancer and inflammation are known to induce lymphangiogenesis. However, little is known about bladder lymphatic vessels and their involvement in cancer formation and progression. METHODS A double transgenic mouse model was generated by crossing a bladder cancer-induced transgenic, in which SV40 large T antigen was under the control of uroplakin II promoter, with another transgenic mouse harboring a lacZ reporter gene under the control of an NF-kappaB-responsive promoter (kappaB-lacZ) exhibiting constitutive activity of beta-galactosidase in lymphatic endothelial cells. In this new mouse model (SV40-lacZ), we examined the lymphatic vessel density (LVD) and function (LVF) during bladder cancer progression. LVD was performed in bladder whole mounts and cross-sections by fluorescent immunohistochemistry (IHC) using LYVE-1 antibody. LVF was assessed by real-time in vivo imaging techniques using a contrast agent (biotin-BSA-Gd-DTPA-Cy5.5; Gd-Cy5.5) suitable for both magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and near infrared fluorescence (NIRF). In addition, IHC of Cy5.5 was used for time-course analysis of co-localization of Gd-Cy5.5 with LYVE-1-positive lymphatics and CD31-positive blood vessels. RESULTS SV40-lacZ mice develop bladder cancer and permitted visualization of lymphatics. A significant increase in LVD was found concomitantly with bladder cancer progression. Double labeling of the bladder cross-sections with LYVE-1 and Ki-67 antibodies indicated cancer-induced lymphangiogenesis. MRI detected mouse bladder cancer, as early as 4 months, and permitted to follow tumor sizes during cancer progression. Using Gd-Cy5.5 as a contrast agent for MRI-guided lymphangiography, we determined a possible reduction of lymphatic flow within the tumoral area. In addition, NIRF studies of Gd-Cy5.5 confirmed its temporal distribution between CD31-positive blood vessels and LYVE-1 positive lymphatic vessels. CONCLUSION SV40-lacZ mice permit the visualization of lymphatics during bladder cancer progression. Gd-Cy5.5, as a double contrast agent for NIRF and MRI, permits to quantify delivery, transport rates, and volumes of macromolecular fluid flow through the interstitial-lymphatic continuum. Our results open the path for the study of lymphatic activity in vivo and in real time, and support the role of lymphangiogenesis during bladder cancer progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcia R Saban
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Oklahoma University Health Sciences Center (OUHSC), Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA.
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472
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Iwata C, Kano MR, Komuro A, Oka M, Kiyono K, Johansson E, Morishita Y, Yashiro M, Hirakawa K, Kaminishi M, Miyazono K. Inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 suppresses lymph node metastasis via reduction of lymphangiogenesis. Cancer Res 2007; 67:10181-9. [PMID: 17974958 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-07-2366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitor has been reported to suppress tumor progression. However, it is unclear whether this inhibitor can also prevent lymphatic metastasis. To determine the effects of COX-2 inhibitor on lymphatic metastasis, etodolac, a COX-2 inhibitor, was given p.o. to mice bearing orthotopic xenografts or with carcinomatous peritonitis induced with a highly metastatic human diffuse-type gastric carcinoma cell line, OCUM-2MLN. Tumor lymphangiogenesis was significantly decreased in etodolac-treated mice compared with control mice. Consistent with this decrease in lymphangiogenesis, the total weight of metastatic lymph nodes was less in etodolac-treated mice than in control mice. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that the major source of vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C) and VEGF-D was F4/80-positive macrophages in our models. The mRNA levels of VEGF-C in mouse macrophage-like RAW264.7 cells, as well as those in tumor tissues, were suppressed by etodolac. The growth of human dermal lymphatic microvascular endothelial cells was also suppressed by etodolac. Supporting these findings, etodolac also inhibited lymphangiogenesis in a model of chronic aseptic peritonitis, suggesting that COX-2 can enhance lymphangiogenesis in the absence of cancer cells. Our findings suggest that COX-2 inhibitor may be useful for prophylaxis of lymph node metastasis by reducing macrophage-mediated tumor lymphangiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caname Iwata
- Department of Molecular Pathology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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473
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Karagiannis SN, Bracher MG, Hunt J, McCloskey N, Beavil RL, Beavil AJ, Fear DJ, Thompson RG, East N, Burke F, Moore RJ, Dombrowicz DD, Balkwill FR, Gould HJ. IgE-antibody-dependent immunotherapy of solid tumors: cytotoxic and phagocytic mechanisms of eradication of ovarian cancer cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 179:2832-43. [PMID: 17709497 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.179.5.2832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Abs have a paramount place in the treatment of certain, mainly lymphoid, malignancies, although tumors of nonhemopoietic origin have proved more refractory ones. We have previously shown that the efficacy of immunotherapy of solid tumors, in particular ovarian carcinoma, may be improved by the use of IgE Abs in place of the conventional IgG. An IgE Ab (MOv18 IgE) against an ovarian-tumor-specific Ag (folate binding protein), in combination with human PBMC, introduced into ovarian cancer xenograft-bearing mice, greatly exceeded the analogous IgG1 in promoting survival. In this study, we analyzed the mechanisms by which MOv18 IgE may exert its antitumor activities. Monocytes were essential IgE receptor-expressing effector cells that mediated the enhanced survival of tumor-bearing mice by MOv18 IgE and human PBMC. Monocytes mediated MOv18 IgE-dependent ovarian tumor cell killing in vitro by two distinct pathways, cytotoxicity and phagocytosis, acting respectively through the IgE receptors FcepsilonRI and CD23. We also show that human eosinophils were potent effector cells in MOv18 IgE Ab-dependent ovarian tumor cell cytotoxicity in vitro. These results demonstrate that IgE Abs can engage cell surface IgE receptors and activate effector cells against ovarian tumor cells. Our findings offer a framework for an improved immunotherapeutic strategy for combating solid tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophia N Karagiannis
- Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, New Hunt's House, King's College London, Guy's Campus, London, United Kingdom.
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474
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Sundlisaeter E, Dicko A, Sakariassen PØ, Sondenaa K, Enger PØ, Bjerkvig R. Lymphangiogenesis in colorectal cancer--prognostic and therapeutic aspects. Int J Cancer 2007; 121:1401-9. [PMID: 17640040 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.22996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) represents the second most common cause of cancer mortality in the western world. The tumors frequently show metastatic spread which affects different organs such as lymph nodes, liver and lungs. Although the pattern of spread may vary, the initial step usually involves dissemination to regional lymph nodes. At present it is clear that neovessel formation, including lymphangiogenesis, represents key events in tumor progression. However, to what extent lymphangiogenesis contributes in the progression of CRC is unclear. This work focuses on recent progress within the field of tumor lymphangiogenesis with special reference to CRC, and on novel therapeutic strategies for anti-lymphangiogenic therapies. Inhibition of metastatic spread may be achieved by restriction of lymphatic vessel growth by using targeted therapeutic strategies towards molecules involved in lymphangiogenic signalling. Such adjuvant therapeutic approaches in addition to existing therapeutic strategies may represent a favourable treatment for CRCs with higher than average risk of disease recurrence and progression.
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475
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Eccles S, Paon L, Sleeman J. Lymphatic metastasis in breast cancer: importance and new insights into cellular and molecular mechanisms. Clin Exp Metastasis 2007; 24:619-36. [PMID: 17985200 DOI: 10.1007/s10585-007-9123-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2007] [Accepted: 10/19/2007] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Lymph node metastasis is the main prognosis factor in a number of malignancies, including breast carcinomas. The means by which lymph node metastases arise is not fully understood, and many questions remain about their importance in the further spread of breast cancer. Nevertheless, a number of key cellular and molecular mechanisms of lymphatic metastasis have been identified. These include induction of intra- or peri-tumoral lymphangiogenesis or co-option of existing lymphatic vessels to allow tumour cells to enter the lymphatics, although it remains to be established whether this is primarily an active or passive process. Gene expression microarrays and functional studies in vitro and in vivo, together with detailed clinical observations have identified a number of molecules that can play a role in the genesis of lymph node metastases. These include the well-recognised lymphangiogenic cytokines VEGF-C and VEGF-D as well as chemokine-receptor interactions, integrins and downstream signalling pathways. This paper briefly reviews current clinical and experimental evidence for the underlying mechanisms and significance of lymphatic metastasis in breast cancer and highlights questions that still need to be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne Eccles
- Cancer Research UK Centre for Cancer Therapeutics, McElwain Laboratories, The Institute of Cancer Research, Cotswold Road, Sutton, Surrey, SM2 5NG, UK.
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476
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Allavena P, Sica A, Solinas G, Porta C, Mantovani A. The inflammatory micro-environment in tumor progression: the role of tumor-associated macrophages. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2007; 66:1-9. [PMID: 17913510 DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2007.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 738] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2007] [Revised: 07/06/2007] [Accepted: 07/31/2007] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The link between inflammation and cancer proposed more than a century ago by Rudolf Virchow, who noticed the infiltration of leukocytes in malignant tissues, has recently found a number of genetic and molecular confirmations. Experimental, clinical and epidemiological studies have revealed that chronic inflammation contributes to cancer progression and even predisposes to different types of cancer. Cancer-associated inflammation includes: the presence of leukocyte infiltration; the expression of cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF) or interleukin (IL)-1; chemokines such as CCL2 and CXCL8; active tissue remodelling and neo-angiogenesis. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) are key regulators of the link between inflammation and cancer. Many observations indicate that, in the tumor micro-environment, TAM have several protumoral functions, including expression of growth factors, matrix proteases, promotion of angiogenesis and suppression of adaptive immunity. In this review we will discuss the role of TAM in the inflammatory micro-environment of solid tumors and will try to identify potential target for future therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Allavena
- IRCCS Istituto Clinico Humanitas, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano 20089, Milan, Italy.
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477
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Sun P, Gao J, Liu YL, Wei LW, Wu LP, Liu ZY. RNA interference (RNAi)-mediated vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C) reduction interferes with lymphangiogenesis and enhances epirubicin sensitivity of breast cancer cells. Mol Cell Biochem 2007; 308:161-8. [PMID: 17938864 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-007-9624-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2007] [Accepted: 10/03/2007] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
It has been reported that over-expression of vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C) in tumors leads to increased lymphangiogenesis and resistance to chemotherapy. Therefore, we hypothesized that VEGF-C would be a good molecular target for cancer gene therapy. In this study, we silenced the expression of VEGF-C with the highly specific post-transcriptional suppression of RNA interference (RNAi) in human breast cancer MCF-7 cell line. The expression of VEGF-C was examined by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and the effect of plasmid on human lymphatic endothelial cells (HLECs) in vitro was analyzed by migration and 3-(4, 5-dimethylt-hiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. The sensitivity to anticancer agents was evaluated by MTT and apoptosis assay, and apoptosis-related genes bcl-2/bax ratio was determined by Western Blotting. Results showed that of three siRNA-expressing vectors, P-1/siRNA most significantly suppressed the expression of VEGF-C mRNA and protein (38.1% of control and 117.8 +/- 24.2 pg/ml, respectively) and interfered with proliferation and migration of HLECs in vitro. Moreover, transfection of VEGF-C/siRNA combined with Epirubicin markedly decreased breast cancer cells viability, reaching up to 38.5%, and increased apoptosis rate from 13.1% to 38.9%, as determined by decrease of bcl-2/bax ratio. In summary, VEGF-C would be a good molecular target, and a combination of Epirubicin and RNAi targeting VEGF-C could be an effective means for suppressing lymphatic metastasis and enhancing chemosensitivity of human breast cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Sun
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Shandong University, No. 44, WenHua Xi Road, JiNan, Shandong 250012, PR China.
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478
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Abstract
Regional lymph node metastasis is a common event in solid tumors and is considered a marker for dissemination, increased stage, and worse prognosis. Despite rapid advances in tumor biology, the molecular processes that underpin lymphatic invasion and lymph node metastasis remain poorly understood. However, exciting discoveries have been made in the field of lymphangiogenesis in recent years. The identification of vascular endothelial growth factor ligands and cognate receptors involved in lymphangiogenesis, an understanding of the embryology of the mammalian lymphatic system, the recent isolation of pure populations of lymphatic endothelial cells, the investigation of lymphatic metastases in animal models, and the identification of markers that discriminate lymphatics from blood vessels at immunohistochemistry are current advances in the field of lymphangiogenesis, and as such are the main focus of this article. This review also evaluates evidence for lymphangiogenesis (ie, new lymphatic vessel formation in cancer) and critically reviews current data on the prognostic significance of lymphatic vascular density in tumors. A targeted approach to block pathways of lymphangiogenesis seems to be an attractive anticancer treatment strategy. Conversely, promotion of lymphangiogenesis may be a promising approach to the management of treatment-induced lymphedema in cancer survivors. Finally, the implications of these developments in cancer therapeutics and directions for future research are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudha S Sundar
- Department of Gynaecological Oncology, Cheltenham General Hospital, Gloucestershire Hospitals Foundation Trust, Gloucestershire, United Kingdom.
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479
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Bock F, Onderka J, Dietrich T, Bachmann B, Pytowski B, Cursiefen C. Blockade of VEGFR3-signalling specifically inhibits lymphangiogenesis in inflammatory corneal neovascularisation. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2007; 246:115-9. [PMID: 17909835 DOI: 10.1007/s00417-007-0683-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2007] [Revised: 08/24/2007] [Accepted: 08/27/2007] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Inflammatory corneal hem- and lymphangiogenesis occurring both prior to as well as after penetrating keratoplasty significantly increase the risk for subsequent immune rejections. The purpose of this study was to analyze whether the blocking anti-VEGFR3 antibody mF4-31C1 is able to inhibit the outgrowth of pathologic new lymphatic vessels in a mouse model of suture-induced, inflammatory corneal neovascularisation, and whether this antibody specifically inhibits lymphangiogenesis without affecting hemangiogenesis. METHODS Three interrupted 11-0 nylon sutures were placed into the corneal stroma of BALB/c mice (6 weeks old) and left in place for 7 days to induce neovascularisation. The treatment group (n = 9) received the anti-VEGFR3 antibody mF4-31C1 intraperitoneally on the day of surgery and 3 days later (0.5 mg/mouse). Control mice received an equal amount of control IgG solution. For immunohistochemistry, corneal flat mounts were stained with LYVE-1 as a specific lymphatic vascular endothelial marker and with CD31 as panendothelial marker. Morphometry was performed with the image analysis software analySIS;B (Soft Imaging Systems GmbH, Münster, Germany). To improve the objectivity and precision of the morphometrical analysis, we established a modified method using grey filter sampling on monochromatic pictures. RESULTS The mF4-31C1 antibody-treated mice displayed nearly complete inhibition of lymphangiogenesis compared with IgG controls (p < 0.006). In contrast, there was no significant inhibitory effect observed with respect to blood vessel growth (p > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Inflammatory corneal lymphangiogenesis seems to depend on VEGFR3-signalling. By blocking this receptor the ingrowths of lymphatic vessels can be inhibited almost completely, and specifically without affecting hemangiogenesis. This may open new treatment options to promote (corneal) graft survival without affecting hemangiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Bock
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Schwabachanlage 6, 91054, Erlangen, Germany.
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480
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Sica A, Rubino L, Mancino A, Larghi P, Porta C, Rimoldi M, Solinas G, Locati M, Allavena P, Mantovani A. Targeting tumour-associated macrophages. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2007; 11:1219-29. [PMID: 17845147 DOI: 10.1517/14728222.11.9.1219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Clinical and experimental evidence have highlighted that a major leukocyte population present in tumours, the so-called tumour-associated macrophages (TAM), is the principal component of the leukocyte infiltrate supporting tumour growth. Over the years the mechanisms supporting the protumoural functions of TAM have become increasingly clear and in several experimental tumour models, the activation of an inflammatory response (most frequently mediated by macrophages) has been shown to play an essential role for full neoplastic transformation and progression. This evidence strongly supports the idea that TAM are central orchestrators of the inflammatory networks expressed in the tumour microenvironment, and suggest these cells as possible targets of anticancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Sica
- Department of Immunology, Fondazione Humanitas per la Ricerca, 20089 Rozzano, Milan, Italy.
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481
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Gerhardt H, Semb H. Pericytes: gatekeepers in tumour cell metastasis? J Mol Med (Berl) 2007; 86:135-44. [PMID: 17891366 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-007-0258-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2007] [Revised: 07/23/2007] [Accepted: 08/17/2007] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Tumour cells use two major routes to spread during metastasis, e.g. lymph vessels and blood vessels within or surrounding the primary tumour. The growth rate of the primary tumour often correlates with the quantity of new blood vessels that form within the tumour. However, qualitative abnormalities of the tumour vasculature profoundly affect the perfusion of the primary tumour and the escape of tumour cells into the circulation. In this paper, we review recent evidence for a novel role of the supporting mural cells in limiting blood-borne metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holger Gerhardt
- Vascular Biology Laboratory, London Research Institute-Cancer Research UK, 44 Lincoln's Inn Fields, London, WC2A 3PX, UK.
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482
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Meng FW, Shimoda H, Kajiwara T, Matsuda M, Kato S. Reconstruction of central lacteals in the murine jejunum following ischemia-reperfusion injury. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 70:135-46. [PMID: 17827671 DOI: 10.1679/aohc.70.135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The intestinal mucosa is vulnerable to an ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) attendant on some bowel diseases and surgery; thus, the restoration of the mucosal integrity is critical to achieving functional recovery of the intestine injured by I/R. In this histochemical study, we investigated the alteration of the central lacteals--which are essential for the transport of fat, tissue fluid, and immune cells in the intestinal mucosa--in the murine jejunum after I/R. The intestine inflicted with I/R demonstrated mucosal injury involving the inflammatory response, with interstitial edema, disruption of the villous tissue, and subsequent tissue regeneration of the villi. The regenerative villous tissue revealed lymphatic regrowth showing proliferative activity from the residual mucosal lymphatics behind the regenerated blood vasculature. During the regenerative phase, the blood vascular pericytes expressed an intense immunoreaction for VEGF-A, an inducer for monocyte/macrophage recruitment as well as angiogenesis. Also, the F4/80-immunopositive macrophages significantly increased in number in the regenerating villous stroma. Furthermore, the macrophages recruited around the regrowing lacteals expressed the immunoreactivity for VEGF-C, which is a highly specific lymphangiogenic factor. The present study is first to delineate alterations in the central lacteals in the small intestine following I/R, thereby suggesting that the recruitment of the macrophages induced by upregulation of VEGF-A in the pericytes of regenerative blood vessels might promote reconstruction of the central lacteals through their release of VEGF-C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fan-Wei Meng
- Department of Anatomy, Biology and Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Oita University, Japan
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483
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Wong SY, Hynes RO. Tumor-lymphatic interactions in an activated stromal microenvironment. J Cell Biochem 2007; 101:840-50. [PMID: 17177186 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.21146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Metastasis to lymph nodes is a common feature of many human tumors and may facilitate dissemination to other parts of the body. Peritumoral lymphatics, which are located at the periphery of a primary tumor, appear to be anything but peripheral for metastasis, as recent studies have highlighted their critical role in disseminating tumor cells to local lymph nodes. The metastatic process, including lymphangiogenesis, is likely governed by a complex series of interactions among tumor cells, endothelial cells, and non-endothelial stromal components. Therefore, a detailed understanding of the biology of the tumor microenvironment, particularly as it pertains to peritumoral lymphatics near the tumor-stromal junction, may someday translate into clinical approaches that target metastasis at the invasive front.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunny Y Wong
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Center for Cancer Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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484
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Mantovani A, Marchesi F, Porta C, Sica A, Allavena P. Inflammation and cancer: breast cancer as a prototype. Breast 2007; 16 Suppl 2:S27-33. [PMID: 17764938 DOI: 10.1016/j.breast.2007.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) represent the major inflammatory component of the stroma of many tumors, able to affect different aspects of the neoplastic tissue. Many observations indicate that TAM express several M2-associated protumoral functions, including promotion of angiogenesis, matrix remodeling and suppression of adaptive immunity. The protumoral role of TAM in cancer is further supported by clinical studies that found a correlation between the high macrophage content of tumors and poor patient prognosis and by evidence showing that long-term use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs reduces the risk of several cancers. Here, we discuss evidence supporting the view that TAM represent a unique and distinct M2-skewed myeloid population and a potential target of anti-cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Mantovani
- Istituto Clinico Humanitas IRCCS, Via Manzoni 56, 20089 Rozzano, Milan, Italy.
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485
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Klemke M, Weschenfelder T, Konstandin MH, Samstag Y. High affinity interaction of integrin alpha4beta1 (VLA-4) and vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) enhances migration of human melanoma cells across activated endothelial cell layers. J Cell Physiol 2007; 212:368-74. [PMID: 17352405 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.21029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The capacity of tumor cells to form metastatic foci correlates with their ability to interact with and migrate through endothelial cell layers. This process involves multiple adhesive interactions between tumor cells and the endothelium. Only little is known about the molecular nature of these interactions during extravasation of tumor cells. In human melanoma cells, the integrin alphavbeta3 is involved in transendothelial migration and its expression correlates with metastasis. However, many human melanoma cells do not express beta3 integrins. Therefore, it remained unclear how these cells undergo transendothelial migration. In this study we show that human melanoma cells with different metastatic potency, which do not express beta2 or beta3 integrins, express the VCAM-1 receptor alpha4beta1. VCAM-1 is up-regulated on activated endothelial cells and is known to promote transendothelial migration of leukocytes. Interestingly, despite comparable cell surface levels of alpha4beta1, only the highly metastatic melanoma cell lines MV3 and BLM, but not the low metastatic cell lines IF6 and 530, bind VCAM-1 with high affinity without further stimulation, and are therefore able to adhere to and migrate on isolated VCAM-1. Moreover, we demonstrate that function-blocking antibodies against the integrin alpha4beta1, as well as siRNA-mediated knock-down of the alpha4 subunit in these highly metastatic human melanoma cells reduce their transendothelial migration. These data imply that only high affinity interactions between the integrin alpha4beta1 on melanoma cells and VCAM-1 on activated endothelial cells may enhance the metastatic capacity of human beta2/beta3-negative melanoma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Klemke
- Institute for Immunology, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
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486
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Jackowski S, Janusch M, Fiedler E, Marsch WC, Ulbrich EJ, Gaisbauer G, Dunst J, Kerjaschki D, Helmbold P. Radiogenic lymphangiogenesis in the skin. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2007; 171:338-48. [PMID: 17591978 PMCID: PMC1941592 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2007.060589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The time course of microvascular changes in the environment of irradiated tumors was studied in a standardized human protocol. Eighty skin biopsies from 40 patients with previously treated primary breast cancer were taken from irradiated skin and corresponding contralateral unirradiated control areas 2 to 8 weeks, 11 to 14 months, or 17+ months after radiotherapy (skin equivalent dose 30 to 40 Gy). Twenty-two biopsies of 11 melanoma patients who had undergone lymph node dissection were used for unirradiated control. We found an increase of total podoplanin(+) lymphatic microvessel density resulting mainly from a duplication of the density of smallest lymphatic vessels (diameter <10 microm) in the samples taken 1 year after radiation. Our findings implicate radiogenic lymphangiogenesis during the 1st year after therapy. The numbers of CD68(+) and vascular endothelial growth factor-C(+) cells were highly elevated in irradiated skin in the samples taken 2 to 8 weeks after radiotherapy. Thus, our results indicate that vascular endothelial growth factor-C expression by invading macrophages could be a pathogenetic route of induction of radiogenic lymphangiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Jackowski
- Department of Dermatology, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
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487
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Ishikawa Y, Aida S, Tamai S, Akasaka Y, Kiguchi H, Akishima-Fukasawa Y, Hayakawa M, Soh S, Ito K, Kimura-Matsumoto M, Ishiguro S, Nishimura C, Kamata I, Shimokawa R, Ishii T. Significance of lymphatic invasion and proliferation on regional lymph node metastasis in renal cell carcinoma. Am J Clin Pathol 2007; 128:198-207. [PMID: 17638653 DOI: 10.1309/0ft8wtdkrefhhp4p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
Abstract
We studied the associations of lymphatic invasion and lymphatic vessel density around tumors with lymph node (LN) status in renal cell carcinoma (RCC) by immunohistochemical analysis using D2-40 antibody as a lymphatic marker. Surgically removed specimens from 76 cases with RCC, including 16 cases with LN metastasis, were used. Lymphatic vessel density around the tumor increased compared with normal kidneys but was not significant by LN status. Tumor size, tumor cell types, patterns of tumor growth, nuclear grade of tumor cells, venous invasion, lymphatic invasion, and primary tumor stage were predictive factors for LN metastasis. Based on multivariate regression analysis, only lymphatic invasion was an independent risk factor for LN metastasis. The immunohistochemical detection of lymphatics was useful for identifying the lymphatic invasion of RCC, and the presence of lymphatic invasion around RCC was an independent predictive factor for LN metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukio Ishikawa
- Department of Pathology, Toho University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
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488
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Cheng J, Huo DH, Kuang DM, Yang J, Zheng L, Zhuang SM. Human macrophages promote the motility and invasiveness of osteopontin-knockdown tumor cells. Cancer Res 2007; 67:5141-7. [PMID: 17545592 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-06-4763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Increasing evidence indicates that macrophages in tumor stroma can significantly modify the malignant phenotypes of tumors. Osteopontin (OPN) is frequently overexpressed in cancers with high metastatic capacity and, thus, has been considered as a potential therapeutic target. To find out whether macrophages can affect the outcome of OPN-knockdown tumor cells, we used RNA interference (RNAi) to stably silence the OPN expression in the highly invasive human hepatoma cell line SK-Hep-1. Silencing of OPN markedly decreased the motility and invasiveness of the SK-Hep-1 cells. Further studies using this cell model revealed that coculture with human macrophages or macrophage-conditioned medium largely restored the migration and invasion potential of OPN-knockdown tumor cells. Moreover, such macrophage-promoted motility can be effectively blocked either by the addition of OPN-neutralizing antibody to the cocultured medium or by silencing OPN expression in macrophages. These results indicate that macrophage-derived OPN can compensate for the decrease of OPN and thereby restore the metastatic potential of OPN-knockdown tumor cells. Further characterization of the underlying mechanisms disclosed that macrophage-derived OPN exerted its function independently of the actin cytoskeleton rearrangement or the activation of matrix metalloproteinase and Rho families. Our results suggest that there are fine-tuned complex interactions between cancer cells and stroma cells, which may modify the outcome of cancer therapy, and therefore should be considered for the rational design of anticancer strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiasen Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Gene Engineering of the Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, PR China
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489
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Liebrich M, Guo LH, Schluesener HJ, Schwab JM, Dietz K, Will BE, Meyermann R. Expression of interleukin-16 by tumor-associated macrophages/activated microglia in high-grade astrocytic brain tumors. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz) 2007; 55:41-7. [PMID: 17221335 PMCID: PMC3234149 DOI: 10.1007/s00005-007-0003-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2006] [Accepted: 10/06/2006] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Introduction Macrophages/microglial cells are considered as immune cells in the central nervous system. Interleukin (IL)-16 is a proinflammatory cytokine produced by activated monocytic cells. Materials and Methods Expression of IL-16 was analyzed by immunohistochemistry in human astrocytic brain tumors and the rat C6 glioblastoma tumor model. IL-16 was detected in both human astrocytic brain tumors and rat C6 glioma. Results Compared with human control brains, a significant increase in the percentages of parenchymal IL-16+ macrophages/microglia was observed already in grade II astrocytomas, indicating that IL-16+ immunostaining could be a descriptor of a macrophage/microglia subset in astrocytic brain tumors. A further increase was observed at the transition from grade II to III astrocytomas. This increase in IL-16 immunoreactivity correlated with WHO grades of human astrocytic brain tumors. Conclusions Therefore, IL-16 might be a so far unknown factor in the regulation of the local inflammatory milieu of human and experimental astrocytomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Liebrich
- Institute of Brain Research, University of Tuebingen, Medical School, Calwerstr. 3, D-72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Liang-Hao Guo
- Institute of Brain Research, University of Tuebingen, Medical School, Calwerstr. 3, D-72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Hermann J. Schluesener
- Institute of Brain Research, University of Tuebingen, Medical School, Calwerstr. 3, D-72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Jan M. Schwab
- Institute of Brain Research, University of Tuebingen, Medical School, Calwerstr. 3, D-72076 Tuebingen, Germany
- Equipe Developpment Neuronal, CNRS UMR 7102 Université Pierre et Marie Curie, 9 Quai Saint Bernard, 75005 Paris, France
- Center for Experimental Therapeutics, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 75 Francis Street, Thorn Building for Medical Research 724, Boston, MA 02115 USA
| | - Klaus Dietz
- Department of Medical Biometry, University of Tuebingen, Medical School, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Bernd E. Will
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Tuebingen, Medical School, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Richard Meyermann
- Institute of Brain Research, University of Tuebingen, Medical School, Calwerstr. 3, D-72076 Tuebingen, Germany
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490
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Zheng L, Dai H, Zhou M, Li M, Singh P, Qiu J, Tsark W, Huang Q, Kernstine K, Zhang X, Lin D, Shen B. Fen1 mutations result in autoimmunity, chronic inflammation and cancers. Nat Med 2007; 13:812-9. [PMID: 17589521 DOI: 10.1038/nm1599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2007] [Accepted: 05/01/2007] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Functional deficiency of the FEN1 gene has been suggested to cause genomic instability and cancer predisposition. We have identified a group of FEN1 mutations in human cancer specimens. Most of these mutations abrogated two of three nuclease activities of flap endonuclease 1 (FEN1). To demonstrate the etiological significance of these somatic mutations, we inbred a mouse line harboring the E160D mutation representing mutations identified in human cancers. Selective elimination of nuclease activities led to frequent spontaneous mutations and accumulation of incompletely digested DNA fragments in apoptotic cells. The mutant mice were predisposed to autoimmunity, chronic inflammation and cancers. The mutator phenotype results in the initiation of cancer, whereas chronic inflammation promotes the cancer progression. The current work exemplifies the approach of studying the mechanisms of individual polymorphisms and somatic mutations in cancer development, and may serve as a reference in developing new therapeutic regimens through the suppression of inflammatory responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Zheng
- Department of Radiation Biology, City of Hope National Medical Center and Beckman Research Institute, 1500 East Duarte Road, Duarte, California 91010, USA
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491
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Abstract
Analysis of the lymphatic microvasculature has become possible only recently by the discovery of novel proteins specifically expressed in lymphatic endothelial cells only. Therapeutic manipulation of de novo lymphangiogenesis might become clinically relevant in the future in diverse situations, such as renal transplant rejection. In this issue Huber et al. demonstrate that rapamycin acts as an efficient inhibitor of lymphangiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Kerjaschki
- Department of Pathology, Medical University of Vienna-Allgemeines Krankenhaus, Vienna, Austria.
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492
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Matsumura S, Oue N, Mitani Y, Kitadai Y, Yasui W. DNA demethylation of vascular endothelial growth factor-C is associated with gene expression and its possible involvement of lymphangiogenesis in gastric cancer. Int J Cancer 2007; 120:1689-95. [PMID: 17230534 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.22433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have indicated that lymphangiogenesis in solid tumors is associated with lymphatic metastasis. Overexpression of Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-C plays a major role in lymphangiogenesis in cancers. In the present study, DNA methylation and expression of the VEGF-C gene was investigated in gastric cancer (GC). Four GC cell lines (MKN-45, MKN-74, HSC-39 and HSC-43) showed no expression of VEGF-C, and the VEGF-C gene was found to be methylated in these cells. In contrast, 7 GC cell lines (MKN-1, MKN-7, MKN-28, TMK-1, KATO-III, SH101-P4 and HSC-44PE) expressed VEGF-C, and the VEGF-C gene was found to be unmethylated in these cell lines. In addition, expression of VEGF-C mRNA was retrieved by treatment with a demethylating agent, Aza-2'-deoxycytidine. In GC tissue samples, bisulfite DNA sequencing analysis revealed that VEGF-C was not methylated in 9 (29.0%) of 31 GC samples, whereas demethylation was not observed in corresponding non-neoplastic mucosa samples. Overexpression of VEGF-C mRNA was observed in 16 (51.6%) of 31 GC samples by quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Of the 9 GC cases with VEGF-C demethylation, 8 (88.9%) overexpressed VEGF-C. In contrast, of the 22 GC cases without VEGF-C demethylation, 8 (36.4%) overexpressed VEGF-C (p = 0.0155). Furthermore, lymphatic vessel density determined by immunostaining of podoplanin in GC tissues was associated with overexpression of VEGF-C (p < 0.0001). These results suggest that demethylation and activation of the VEGF-C gene is likely involved in lymphangiogenesis in GC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunji Matsumura
- Department of Molecular Pathology, Hiroshima University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Hiroshima, Japan
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493
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Kivivuori SM, Siitonen S, Porkka K, Vettenranta K, Alitalo R, Saarinen-Pihkala U. Expression of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 3 and Tie1 tyrosine kinase receptor on acute leukemia cells. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2007; 48:387-92. [PMID: 16685739 DOI: 10.1002/pbc.20857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent data indicate a role for angiogenesis in hematologic malignancies. In addition to promoting new vessel growth in the bone marrow microenvironment, angiogenic factors are regulators of both hematopoietic and leukemic cells. Activation of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 3 (VEGFR-3) and Tie1 tyrosine kinase receptor are known to promote leukemia cell survival. The details of this complex angiogenesis-related interaction are still uncertain. PROCEDURE We studied bone marrow samples from 73 patients with acute lymphoblastic (ALL) or myelogenous (AML) leukemia by using immunological methods. RESULTS Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 3 expression was found in 15% of the samples, particularly in samples with pediatric lymphoblastic leukemias and monocytic AMLs. Tie1 protein expression was found in 11% of the samples, all of which were from adult AML patients. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that there are angiogenesis-related differences between pediatric and adult lymphoblastic leukemias as well as between lymphoid and myeloid leukemias.
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MESH Headings
- AC133 Antigen
- Acute Disease
- Adolescent
- Adult
- Age Factors
- Antigens, CD/analysis
- Antigens, CD34/analysis
- Bone Marrow/pathology
- Child
- Child, Preschool
- Female
- Glycoproteins/analysis
- Hematopoietic Stem Cells/enzymology
- Humans
- Immunophenotyping
- Infant
- Leukemia, Monocytic, Acute/enzymology
- Leukemia, Monocytic, Acute/pathology
- Leukemia, Myeloid/enzymology
- Leukemia, Myeloid/pathology
- Male
- Neoplastic Stem Cells/enzymology
- Neovascularization, Pathologic/enzymology
- Neovascularization, Pathologic/pathology
- Peptides/analysis
- Precursor B-Cell Lymphoblastic Leukemia-Lymphoma/enzymology
- Precursor B-Cell Lymphoblastic Leukemia-Lymphoma/pathology
- Receptor, TIE-1/analysis
- Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor-3/analysis
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494
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Abstract
Inflammation is a physiological response to a foreign organism such as bacteria, dust particles, and viruses. Recent studies have enlightened the role of inflammation in the progression of a variety of diseases such as cancer, atherosclerosis, asthma, and psoriasis. This article is a brief overview of the inflammatory processes involved in the progression of these common diseases. Knowledge about these mechanisms can shed light into development of newer therapeutic agents that are aimed at the eradication of these diseases.
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495
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Ji RC. Lymphatic endothelial cells, tumor lymphangiogenesis and metastasis: New insights into intratumoral and peritumoral lymphatics. Cancer Metastasis Rev 2007; 25:677-94. [PMID: 17160713 DOI: 10.1007/s10555-006-9026-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Lymphatic metastasis of tumor cells represents a series of extremely complex and sequential processes that include dissemination and invasion into surrounding stromal tissues from primary tumors, penetration into lymphatic walls and implantation in regional lymph nodes, and extravasation or proliferation in parenchyma of target organs. Recent developments in lymphatic biology and research, especially the application of unique molecular markers specific for lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs), LYVE-1, Prox-1 and podoplanin have provided exciting new insights into the tumor microenvironment and LEC-tumor cell interface. To date, established factors for determining the behavior and prognosis of primary tumors have been emphasized morphologically and physiologically, i.e., lymphatic impairment and vessel density, dysfunction of lymphatic valves, interstitial fluid pressure, as well as a series of lymphangiogenic growth factors including VEGF-C/-D, and other cytokines and chemokines. Increasing knowledge of the tumor biological significance in lymphatics within the tumors (intratumoral lymphatics, ITLs) and at the tumor periphery (peritumoral lymphatics, PTLs) has greatly promoted understanding of tumor access into the lymphatic system by inducing lymphangiogenesis or by co-opting preexisting lymphatics. Therefore, the targeting PTLs and ITLs, which have been proposed as an important route for antimetastatic approach, are deemed worthy of further study in various animal tumor models and human tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui-Cheng Ji
- Department of Anatomy, Biology and Medicine, Oita University Faculty of Medicine, Oita 879-5593, Japan.
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496
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Mantovani A, Schioppa T, Porta C, Allavena P, Sica A. Role of tumor-associated macrophages in tumor progression and invasion. Cancer Metastasis Rev 2007; 25:315-22. [PMID: 16967326 DOI: 10.1007/s10555-006-9001-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 678] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Tumor-Associated Macrophages (TAM) represent the major inflammatory component of the stroma of many tumors, able to affect different aspects of the neoplastic tissue. Many observations indicate that TAM express several M2-associated protumoral functions, including promotion of angiogenesis, matrix remodelling and suppression of adaptive immunity. The protumoral role of TAM in cancer is further supported by clinical studies that found a correlation between the high macrophage content of tumors and poor patient prognosis and by evidence showing that long-term use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs reduces the risk of several cancers. Here, we discuss evidence supporting the view that TAM represent a unique and distinct M2-skewed myeloid population and a potential target of anti-cancer therapy.
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497
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Donoghue JF, Lederman FL, Susil BJ, Rogers PAW. Lymphangiogenesis of normal endometrium and endometrial adenocarcinoma. Hum Reprod 2007; 22:1705-13. [PMID: 17347164 DOI: 10.1093/humrep/dem037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Information about lymphatics and lymphangiogenesis in the human endometrium is limited. We investigated the distribution of endometrial lymphatic vessels during the normal menstrual cycle and in association with endometrial adenocarcinoma and investigated the expression of lymphangiogenic growth factors, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-C, VEGF-D and VEGF receptor-3 (VEGF-R3). METHODS AND RESULTS Full thickness uterine samples (n = 23 proliferative; n = 23 secretory) and endometrial adenocarcinoma samples (n = 7 grade I; n = 10 grade III) were collected for the study and analysed by immunohistochemistry and western blotting. Lymphatic vessels of the functionalis were significantly reduced compared with basalis (P = 0.001) across the menstrual cycle with lymphatics of the basalis sometimes intimately associated with spiral arterioles. Lymphatic vessels of endometrial adenocarcinomas were located intra-tumoural and peri-tumoural with significant increases in the peri-tumoural lymphatic vessels compared with normal basalis (P = 0.02). Interestingly, high-grade adenocarcinoma vessels containing tumour emboli demonstrated a mixed blood/lymphatic endothelial cell phenotype. VEGF-C and VEGF-D were immunolocalized in glandular epithelium and some stromal cells with the staining intensity of this localization increasing in endometrial adenocarcinoma. Protein analysis identified VEGF-C (58, 41, 31 and 21 kD) and VEGF-D (56, 41, 31 and 21 kD) and VEGF-R3 (148 and 65 kD) peptides in normal endometrium, with significant increases in several of these peptides for VEGF-C and VEGF-D and no changes in protein expression for VEGF-R3 in endometrial adenocarcinoma. CONCLUSION Endometrial lymphatics are significantly reduced in the functionalis, and increases in endometrial adenocarcinoma peri-tumoural lymphatics are associated with increases in VEGF-C and VEGF-D peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline F Donoghue
- Centre for Women's Health Research, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Monash University Medical Center, 246 Clayton Road, Clayton, 3168 Victoria, Australia
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498
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Otrock ZK, Makarem JA, Shamseddine AI. Vascular endothelial growth factor family of ligands and receptors: review. Blood Cells Mol Dis 2007; 38:258-68. [PMID: 17344076 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcmd.2006.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 248] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2006] [Accepted: 12/08/2006] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
VEGF signaling often represents a critical rate-limiting step in physiological angiogenesis. The VEGF family comprises seven secreted glycoproteins that are designated VEGF-A, VEGF-B, VEGF-C, VEGF-D, VEGF-E, placental growth factor (PlGF) and VEGF-F. The VEGF family members bind their cognate receptors. The receptors identified so far are designated VEGFR-1, VEGFR-2, VEGFR-3 and the neuropilins (NP-1 and NP-2). We review in this article the biology of the VEGF ligands and the receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zaher K Otrock
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, American University of Beirut-Medical Center, Beirut 1107 2802, Lebanon
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499
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Laakkonen P, Waltari M, Holopainen T, Takahashi T, Pytowski B, Steiner P, Hicklin D, Persaud K, Tonra JR, Witte L, Alitalo K. Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 3 is involved in tumor angiogenesis and growth. Cancer Res 2007; 67:593-9. [PMID: 17234768 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-06-3567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 3 (VEGFR-3) binds VEGF-C and VEGF-D and is essential for the development of the lymphatic vasculature. Experimental tumors that overexpress VEGFR-3 ligands induce lymphatic vessel sprouting and enlargement and show enhanced metastasis to regional lymph nodes and beyond, whereas a soluble form of VEGFR-3 that blocks receptor signaling inhibits these changes and metastasis. Because VEGFR-3 is also essential for the early blood vessel development in embryos and is up-regulated in tumor angiogenesis, we wanted to determine if an antibody targeting the receptor that interferes with VEGFR-3 ligand binding can inhibit primary tumor growth. Our results show that antibody interference with VEGFR-3 function can inhibit the growth of several human tumor xenografts in immunocompromised mice. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that the blood vessel density of anti-VEGFR-3-treated tumors was significantly decreased and hypoxic and necrotic tumor tissue was increased when compared with tumors treated with control antibody, indicating that blocking of the VEGFR-3 pathway inhibits angiogenesis in these tumors. As expected, the anti-VEGFR-3-treated tumors also lacked lymphatic vessels. These results suggest that the VEGFR-3 pathway contributes to tumor angiogenesis and that effective inhibition of tumor progression may require the inhibition of multiple angiogenic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pirjo Laakkonen
- Molecular/Cancer Biology Research Program and Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Biomedicum Helsinki, Haartman Institute and Helsinki University Central Hospital, University of Helsinki, Finland
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500
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Harrell MI, Iritani BM, Ruddell A. Tumor-induced sentinel lymph node lymphangiogenesis and increased lymph flow precede melanoma metastasis. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2007; 170:774-86. [PMID: 17255343 PMCID: PMC1851877 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2007.060761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 296] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/31/2006] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Lymphangiogenesis is associated with human and murine cancer metastasis, suggesting that lymphatic vessels are important for tumor dissemination. Lymphatic vessel alterations were examined using B16-F10 melanoma cells implanted in syngeneic C57Bl/6 mice, which form tumors metastasizing to draining lymph nodes and subsequently to the lungs. Footpad tumors showed no lymphatic or blood vessel growth; however, the tumor-draining popliteal lymph node featured greatly increased lymphatic sinuses. Lymph node lymphangiogenesis began before melanoma cells reached draining lymph nodes, indicating that primary tumors induce these alterations at a distance. Lymph flow imaging revealed that nanoparticle transit was greatly increased through tumor-draining relative to nondraining lymph nodes. Lymph node lymphatic sinuses and lymph flow were increased in mice implanted with unmarked or with foreign antigen-expressing melanomas, indicating that these effects are not due to foreign antigen expression. However, tumor-derived immune signaling could promote lymph node alterations, as macrophages infiltrated footpad tumors, whereas lymphocytes accumulated in tumor-draining lymph nodes. B lymphocytes are required for lymphangiogenesis and increased lymph flow through tumor-draining lymph nodes, as these alterations were not observed in mice deficient for B cells. Lymph node lymphangiogenesis and increased lymph flow through tumor-draining lymph nodes may actively promote metastasis via the lymphatics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria I Harrell
- Division of Basic Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Washington, 1100 Fairview Ave. N., MS-C2-023, P.O. Box 19024, Seattle, WA 98109, USA.
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