Environment and human exposure to persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in India: a systematic review of recent and historical data

Assessing exposure to legacy and emerging per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances via hair - The first nationwide survey in India

In recent years, environmental issues emerging from per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have raised high concern worldwide. Levels of human exposure to PFAS remain unknown in India. Biomonitoring data obtained from hair analysis have been evidenced to provide insight into retrospective human exposure to PFAS. In this study, 25 PFAS, including perfluoroalkyl acids and their precursors, were measured in 39 human hair samples collected from 14 cities in India. The inuflence of gender on the PFAS levels was also examined. To our knowledge, this is the first attempt to provide preliminary indicative data (due to the limited sample size and variability in hair-length sampling) on the levels of PFAS in Indian hair. The concentrations of total PFAS in hair varied from below matrix-specific limit of quantification (<0.02 ng/g) to 3.78 ng/g. Among 9 PFAS quantified, perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS), perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) were the predominant compounds. Categorized into 4 regions, PFAS contamination exhibited certain regional difference where South India may show higher levels than the other regions. Highly significant positive correlation was observed between PFHxS and PFOS (p ≪ 0.001; r = 0.644), suggesting similar pathways of exposure to the two compounds. Higher PFAS occurrence was generally observed in the hair of females. Our results highlighted the urgent need to investigate the deposition mechanism of PFAS in hair.

Levels of organochlorine pesticide residues in fresh water fishes of three bird sanctuaries in Tamil Nadu, India

Organochlorine pesticide (OCP) residues were determined in nine species of fresh water fishes caught from three bird sanctuaries in Tamil Nadu, India. A total of 302 fishes were analyzed for various types of OCPS. OCPs, namely hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane (DDT), heptachlor epoxide, endosulfan, and dieldrin were detected among various species of fishes. Among the various OCPs analyzed, HCH was the most frequently detected pesticides. Among the HCH isomers, β HCH contributed more than 50% to the Σ HCH. p,p' DDT, the metabolites of DDT, had high percentage of occurrence. Among the cyclodiene insecticide residues, endosulfan was detected in more than 60% of the fishes. Varying levels of ΣOCPs (a sum of Σ HCH, Σ DDT, Σ endosulfan, heptachlor epoxide, and dieldrin) were detected in various fish species, although it was not significant (p > 0.05). However, significant variations in OCPs were observed among location and between seasons (p < 0.05). However, continuous monitoring is recommended to facilitate the early identification of risks not only to the fishes, but also to fish-eating birds breeding in these sanctuaries.

Accumulation and exposure assessment of persistent chlorinated and fluorinated contaminants in Korean birds

To date, information is scarce on the accumulation and potential risks of persistent chlorinated and fluorinated contaminants in birds. In this study, organohalogen contaminants (OHCs), such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), were measured in the liver tissues of 10 bird species (n = 69) from Korea. Among the OHCs, PFASs showed the highest concentration, ranging from 5.40 to 11,300 (median: 294) ng/g wet weight. The median concentrations of OCPs and PCBs in all the bird samples were 147 and 81.9 ng/g lipid weight, respectively. The maximum concentration of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) observed in our bird samples was highest reported so far. Concentrations of OHCs in predatory birds were significantly greater than those measured in non-predatory birds, indicating the importance of diet and trophic position for bioaccumulation of these contaminants. In addition, different accumulation patterns of OHCs were found between predatory and non-predatory birds. Significant correlations were found between organochlorine concentrations and stable nitrogen isotope ratio (δ¹⁵N) measurements, whereas no correlation was found between PFASs and δ¹⁵N. Although the concentrations of PCBs and DDTs in birds were lower than the threshold levels, 25% and 49% of birds exceeded the toxicity reference value and predicted no effect concentration for PFOS, respectively, implying potential health risks to Korean birds.

Organochlorines in urban soils from Central India: probabilistic health hazard and risk implications to human population

This study presents distribution of organochlorines (OCs) including HCH, DDT and PCBs in urban soils, and their environmental and human health risk. Forty-eight soil samples were extracted using ultrasonication, cleaned with modified silica gel chromatography and analyzed by GC-ECD. The observed concentrations of ∑HCH, ∑DDT and ∑PCBs in soils ranged between < 0.01-2.54, 1.30-27.41 and < 0.01-62.8 µg kg^-1, respectively, which were lower than the recommended soil quality guidelines. Human health risk was estimated following recommended guidelines. Lifetime average daily dose (LADD), non-cancer risk or hazard quotient (HQ) and incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) for humans due to individual and total OCs were estimated and presented. Estimated LADD were lower than acceptable daily intake and reference dose. Human health risk estimates were lower than safe limit of non-cancer risk (HQ < 1.0) and the acceptable distribution range of ILCR (10^-6-10^-4). Therefore, this study concluded that present levels of OCs (HCH, DDT and PCBs) in studied soils were low, and subsequently posed low health risk to human population in the study area.

Urinary concentrations and profiles of organophosphate and pyrethroid pesticide metabolites and phenoxyacid herbicides in populations in eight countries

Concentrations of nine metabolites of organophosphate and pyrethroid insecticides, as well as two phenoxy herbicides, were determined in 322 urine samples collected from eight countries during 2006-2014 by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). The target pesticides were found ubiquitously, indicating widespread exposure of humans to pesticides in these countries. The highest sum concentrations of 11 pesticides were found in urine collected from Vietnam (median, 28.9 ng/mL), followed in decreasing order by samples from India (14.2 ng/mL), China (13.6 ng/mL), Korea (12.5 ng/mL), Greece (12.3 ng/mL), Saudi Arabia (11.3 ng/mL), the USA (7.9 ng/mL), and Japan (7.1 ng/mL). Organophosphorus compounds accounted for 62-77% of the total urinary pesticide concentrations. Para-nitrophenol (metabolite of parathion and methyl parathion) and 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (metabolite of chlorpyrifos and chlorpyrifos-methyl) were the major metabolites, especially in India (72%), China (69%), and Greece (66%). Differences in urinary pesticide concentrations between genders (male vs. female), age groups (categorized as ≤20, 21-49, and ≥50 years), and cities (Guangzhou, Shanghai, and Qiqihar) were examined. On the basis of the concentrations measured in urine, total daily intakes (DIs) of pesticides were estimated. The DIs of chlorpyrifos were found to be higher for populations in Vietnam, Greece, India, China, and Korea (≥9.6 μg/day) than those estimated for the other countries (<5 μg/day). The DIs of parathion (≥9.6 μg/day) in populations of China, India, and Korea were higher than those estimated for the other countries (5.7-9.3 μg/day). This is the first study to establish baseline levels of exposure of a variety of pesticides in several Asian countries.

Elevated Levels of Organochlorine Pesticides in South Asian Immigrants Are Associated With an Increased Risk of Diabetes

OBJECTIVE

Rates of diabetes mellitus are higher in South Asians than in other populations and persist after migration. One unexplored cause may be higher exposure to persistent organic pollutants associated with diabetes in other populations. We compared organochlorine (OC) pesticide concentrations in South Asian immigrants and European whites to determine whether the disease was positively associated with OC pesticides in South Asians.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

South Asians of Tamil or Telugu descent (n = 120) and European whites (n = 72) were recruited into the London Life Sciences Population Study cohort. Blood samples as well as biometric, clinical, and survey data were collected. Plasma levels of p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), p,p'- dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, β-hexachlorohexane (HCH), and polychlorinated biphenyl-118 were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. South Asian cases and controls were categorized by binary exposure (above vs below the 50th percentile) to perform logistic regression.

RESULTS

Tamils had approximately threefold to ninefold higher levels of OC pesticides, and Telugus had ninefold to 30-fold higher levels compared with European whites. The odds of exposure to p,p'-DDE above the 50th percentile was significantly greater in South Asian diabetes cases than in controls (OR: 7.00; 95% CI: 2.22, 22.06). The odds of exposure to β-HCH above the 50th percentile was significantly greater in the Tamil cases than in controls (OR: 9.35; 95% CI: 2.43, 35.97).

CONCLUSIONS

South Asian immigrants have a higher body burden of OC pesticides than European whites. Diabetes mellitus is associated with higher p,p'-DDE and β-HCH concentrations in this population. Additional longitudinal studies of South Asian populations should be performed.

Microbe and plant assisted-remediation of organic xenobiotics and its enhancement by genetically modified organisms and recombinant technology: A review

Environmental problems such as the deterioration of groundwater quality, soil degradation and various threats to human, animal and ecosystem health are closely related to the presence of high concentrations of organic xenobiotics in the environment. Employing appropriate technologies to remediate contaminated soils is crucial due to the site-specificity of most remediation methods. The limitations of conventional remediation technologies include poor environmental compatibility, high cost of implementation and poor public acceptability. This raises the call to employ biological methods for remediation. Bioremediation and microbe-assisted bioremediation (phytoremediation) offer many ecological and cost-associated benefits. The overall efficiency and performance of bio- and phytoremediation approaches can be enhanced by genetically modified microbes and plants. Moreover, phytoremediation can also be stimulated by suitable plant-microbe partnerships, i.e. plant-endophytic or plant-rhizospheric associations. Synergistic interactions between recombinant bacteria and genetically modified plants can further enhance the restoration of environments impacted by organic pollutants. Nevertheless, releasing genetically modified microbes and plants into the environment does pose potential risks. These can be minimized by adopting environmental biotechnological techniques and guidelines provided by environmental protection agencies and other regulatory frameworks. The current contribution provides a comprehensive overview on enhanced bioremediation and phytoremediation approaches using transgenic plants and microbes. It also sheds light on the mitigation of associated environmental risks.

Dietary Habits and Cooking Methods Could Reduce Avoidable Exposure to PCBs in Maternal and Cord Sera

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), like other persistent organic pollutants, are accumulating throughout the food chain and pose health threats to humans, especially children and foetuses. There is no protocol for reducing the contamination levels of the PCBs in humans. This study identified food items and cooking methods that reduce serum PCB levels by analysing data collected from the Chiba Study of Mother and Child Health. The sample size was 194 subjects. Serum PCB levels were measured using gas chromatography-electron capture negative ionization quadrupole mass spectrometry. Information on dietary habits was obtained from a brief diet history questionnaire that included questions about food items and cooking methods. Food items were categorized into food groups, and nutrient levels were calculated based on food item consumption. Principal component analysis and lasso regression were used as statistical methods. The analyses of food items and nutrients suggested that food items rich in dietary fibre reduce avoidable exposure to PCBs, as could grilling and deep frying of food, which could reduce avoidable exposure to serum PCBs in mothers and foetuses. (174 words).

Spatial and seasonal variations in air-soil exchange, enantiomeric signatures and associated health risks of hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) in a megacity Hangzhou in the Yangtze River Delta region, China

Large amounts of hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) have been historically applied in the Yangtze River Delta (YRD) region, China. Estimating the air-soil exchange of HCHs after >30years of restricted use is important for understanding their cycling in the environment. In this study, air and soil samples were concurrently collected in two seasons at agricultural and industrial sites from a megacity in the YRD region. The concentrations of HCH isomers and the enantiomeric fractions of chiral α-HCH were determined. The mean concentrations of ∑HCHs in soils from an agricultural area (AA) and an eco-industrial park (EIP) were 1.74ng/g and 0.652ng/g, respectively, in winter, and 0.723ng/g and 0.350ng/g, respectively, in summer. The mean concentrations of ∑HCHs in the air from the AA and the EIP were 31.2pg/m³ and 47.7pg/m³, respectively, in winter, and 45.0pg/m³ and 50.0pg/m³, respectively, in summer. The variations in spatial and seasonal distributions might be related to diverse geographical factors, soil properties and meteorological conditions. Source identification demonstrated that HCHs in most samples were residues from past use, which was further evidenced by the enantiomeric signatures of chiral α-HCH. A preferential degradation of (-)-α-HCH was showed in soils and summer air, while a preferential depletion of (+)-α-HCH was displayed in winter air. The values of the fugacity fraction (ff) of HCHs suggest a net volatilization from soils to air, but long-range transport may also partly contribute to the atmospheric HCHs according to the results from enantiomeric analysis. The human health risk assessments indicated an absence of noncarcinogenic risks and very low carcinogenic risks for HCHs in both soils and air to human health. Results from this study provide valuable data for assessing the fate and health risks of HCHs in the YRD region.

Distribution of organic contamination of sediments from Ichkeul Lake and Bizerte Lagoon, Tunisia

Analyses of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and butyl tins (BuSn) were conducted on sediments from Ichkeul Lake-Bizerte Lagoon watershed (Tunisia). A total of 59 compounds (16 PAHs, 12 PCBs, 22 OCPs and 9 BuSn) were measured in 40 surface sediment samples collected during two campaigns. High concentrations of total PAHs were identified in the lagoon ranging from 122 to 19600ng·g^-1. Several OCPs, including endrin, dieldrin, and lindane (Hexachlorocyclohexane or HCH or BHC) were found in high concentrations in Ichkeul Lake, ranging from 28 to 2012ngg^-1. PAHs and OCPs varied seasonally, in response to the complex hydrology of the watershed. The concentrations of total PCBs ranged between 0.04 and 10.653ngg^-1 and suggests low total PCBs sediment contamination, when compared to most international criteria. Total BuSn concentrations range between 67 and 526ng·g^-1, which are relatively low when compared to most international criteria and ecological risk assessments. This is the first study of organic contamination in Ichkeul Lake (RAMSAR and UNESCO World Heritage site).

Persistent organic pollutants in infants and toddlers: Relationship between concentrations in matched plasma and faecal samples

Early-childhood biomonitoring of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) is challenging due to the logistic and ethical limitations associated with blood sampling. We investigated using faeces as a non-invasive matrix to estimate internal exposure to POPs. The concentrations of selected POPs were measured in matched plasma and faecal samples collected from 20 infants/toddlers (aged 13±4.8months), including a repeat sample time point for 13 infants (~5months apart). We observed higher rates of POP quantification in faeces (2g dry weight) than in plasma (0.5mL). Among the five chemicals that had quantification frequencies over 50% in both matrices, except for HCB, log concentration in faeces (Cf) and blood (Cb) were correlated (r>0.74, P<0.05) for p.p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p'-DDE), 2,3',4,4',5-pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB118), 2,2',3,4,4',5'-pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB138) and 2,2',4,4',5,5'-pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB153). We determined faeces:plasma concentration ratios (Kfb), which can be used to estimate Cb from measurements of Cf for infants/toddlers. For a given chemical, the variation in Kfb across individuals was considerable (CV from 0.46 to 0.70). Between 5% and 50% of this variation was attributed to short-term intra-individual variability between successive faecal samples. This variability could be reduced by pooling faeces samples over several days. Some of the remaining variability was attributed to longer-term intra-individual variability, which was consistent with previously reported observations of a decrease in Kfb over the first year of life. The strong correlations between Cf and Cb demonstrate the promise of using faeces for biomonitoring of these compounds. Future research on the sources of variability in Kfb could improve the precision and utility of this technique.

The use of conifer needles as biomonitor candidates for the study of temporal air pollution variation in the Strasbourg region

The continuous emission of polluting chemicals into the atmosphere requires the implementation of monitoring of ambient air quality. The use of vegetation for environmental monitoring can be considered as a simple monitoring technique by providing a cheap and accessible matrix. In this study, needles of two conifers (Pinus nigra and Cedrus atlantica), were used for the consecutive biomonitoring of multipollutants such as pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in an urban area in Strasbourg (France). The extraction was performed by accelerated solvent extraction, solid-phase extraction, and solid-phase microextraction and was followed by gas chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry analyses. The results obtained for conifer samples collected in 5 successive weeks (April 09-May 07, 2015) show a similar variation of the different types of pollutants. A pollution peak was observed during the second week of analysis, and the concentration of all pollutants then decreased to complete disappearance at the end of the sampling period. PAHs were the most concentrated with a total concentration of about 35.87 ng g^-1, and naphthalene was, among these pollutants, the most concentrated with a total concentration of about 15.1 ng g^-1. The analysis of meteorological data during this period suggests that the results correlated with climatic conditions that widely vary during this period of the year. The results show that the concentration peak was obtained when no precipitation was detected.

Plant-bacteria partnerships for the remediation of persistent organic pollutants

High toxicity, bioaccumulation factor and widespread dispersal of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) cause environmental and human health hazards. The combined use of plants and bacteria is a promising approach for the remediation of soil and water contaminated with POPs. Plants provide residency and nutrients to their associated rhizosphere and endophytic bacteria. In return, the bacteria support plant growth by the degradation and detoxification of POPs. Moreover, they improve plant growth and health due to their innate plant growth-promoting mechanisms. This review provides a critical view of factors that affect absorption and translocation of POPs in plants and the limitations that plant have to deal with during the remediation of POPs. Moreover, the synergistic effects of plant-bacteria interactions in the phytoremediation of organic pollutants with special reference to POPs are discussed.

Organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in surface water around Beijing

Contaminant concentrations, sources, seasonal variation, and eco-toxicological risk of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in surface water around Beijing from summer to winter in 2015 and 2016 were investigated. The concentrations of ∑OCPs and ∑PCBs ranged from 9.81 to 32.1 ng L^-1 (average 15.1 ± 7.78 ng L^-1) and from 7.41 to 54.5 ng L^-1 (average 21.3 ± 1.87 ng L^-1), respectively. Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCHs) were the dominated contamination both in aqueous and particulate phase. For PCBs, lower chlorinated PCBs were the major contaminants. Compositions of HCHs, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDTs), and PCBs indicated that the sources of OCPs and PCBs in water were due to historical usage in the study areas. For OCPs, there was an obvious variation among three seasons, while insignificant change was shown for PCBs. Water quality standards for China's surface water were not exceeded in this study. Concentrations at Miyun Reservoir, the primary source of drinking water to Beijing, when compared to the USEPA's criterion for cancer risk was below the level of risk.

Distribution pattern and the risks of OPCs, PHAs and PCBs in aged refuses from landfill

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are the urgent risk for landfill, and should be considered before the landfill reclamation and resource. In this work, the distribution pattern of selected POPs in landfill and their ecological risks were investigated and assessed. The Σ20OCPs, Σ16PAHs and Σ19PCBs were around 157.4-329.2, 4103-19,190, and 79.1-340.3μgkg(-1) in aged refuses, with the mean value of 206.6, 8645.4, and 155.1μgkg(-1). While those in soil covers were only 6.3-75.4, 125.5-515.3 and 2.6-43.4μgkg(-1), with the mean value of 33.7, 257.7, and 24.0μgkg(-1), respectively. The maximum OPCs, PHAs and PCBs were in aged refuse with 13, 7, 10 disposal years. Whereas, the corresponding top content in soil covers were in 10, 13 and 16years, meaning that aged refuses were not the direct source for soil covers. Among 20 OCPs measured, α-HCH, δ-HCH, Dieldrin, and Endrin were presented in all aged refuses, with the mean concentration of 93.6, 52.1, 3.9 and 4.7μgkg(-1), respectively. For PAHs, PHE, FLU and PYR were the main composition, and reached to 1535, 1224, 1187μgkg(-1). The Σ7CarPAHs occupied around 33.3-49.9% of total Σ16PAHs tested, and could be used as the indictor for PAHs pollutant in landfill. PCB-5 content was around 40.7-263.3μgkg(-1) in aged refuses, and occupied around 51.5-81.8% of Σ19PCBs measured. The HCHs and DDTs in aged refuses were below the national standard GB15618-1995, and the corresponding Σ19PCBs concentrations met the standard of GB 13015-91, suggesting that aged refuse are accepted for the further utilization process.

Human health risk assessment of organophosphorus pesticide in rice crop from selected districts of Anzali International Wetland basin, Iran

Low fertility in rice caused by Chilo suppressalis has led to the use of diazinon to control this pest. Residue of pesticide could penetrate products and also food which can affect public health. The aim of this research was to determine health risk assessment of organophosphorus (OP) pesticide in rice, a strategic crop in Iran. Ninety rice samples were collected from 30 points during harvesting seasons from Rasht Area, Guilan Province, Iran from which 30 samples were prepared. The concentration of diazinon, the most common pesticide used in the study area, was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. The result indicated that the total average of diazinon in rice samples (31.91 mg/kg) is by far higher than the maximum residue limit recommended by the European Union. According to the results, EDAI was 0.051 mg/kg day, while health risk index in rice was 10.2. Results showed that there is a health risk associated with the lifetime consumption of rice polluted by OP pesticide in the study area.

Assessment of human health hazards associated with the dietary exposure to organic and inorganic contaminants through the consumption of fishery products in Spain

In this work we have evaluated the potential carcinogenic and acutely toxic risks associated to the exposure to highly prevalent organic and inorganic contaminants through the consumption of fishery products by the Spanish population. The concentrations of 8 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), 18 polychlorinated biphenils (PCBs), 7 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (expressed as benzo[a]pyrene toxic equivalents (B[a]Peq)), and three inorganic toxic elements [arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), and mercury (Hg)] were determined in 93 samples of the most consumed species of white fish, blue fish, cephalopods and seafood species, which were acquired directly in markets and supermarkets in the Canary Islands, Spain. The chemical concentration data were combined with the pattern of consumption of these foodstuffs in order to calculate the daily intake of these contaminants, and on this basis the risk quotients for carcinogenicity and acute toxicity were determined for Spanish adults and children. Our results showed that the daily intake of OCPs, PCBs and B[a]Peq, which is associated to blue fish consumption was the highest within the fish group. The estimated intake of pollutants can be considered low or very low for the individual contaminants, when compared to reference values, except in the case of HCB and As. All the estimated intakes were below the reported Tolerable Daily Intakes. Considering the additive effects of multiple contaminants, the risk of acute toxic effects can also be considered as low or very low. However, our results reflect that the current consumption of white fish in adults and children, and also the blue fish in the case of adults, poses a moderate carcinogenic risk to Spanish consumers, mainly related to their concentrations of As. The conclusions of this research may be useful for the design of appropriate risk communication campaigns.

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in the Indus River catchment area, Pakistan: Status, soil-air exchange and black carbon mediated distribution

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) were investigated in passive air and soil samples from the catchment area of the Indus River, Pakistan. ∑15OCPs ranged between 0.68 and 13.47 ng g(-1) in soil and 375.1-1975 pg m-(3) in air. HCHs and DDTs were more prevalent in soil and air compartments. Composition profile indicated that β-HCH and p,p'-DDE were the dominant of all metabolites among HCHs and DDTs respectively. Moreover, fBC and fTOC were assessed and evaluated their potential role in the distribution status of OCPs. The fTOC and fBC ranged between 0.77 and 2.43 and 0.04-0.30% respectively in soil. Regression analysis showed the strong influence of fBC than fTOC on the distribution of OCPs in the Indus River catchment area soil. Equilibrium status was observed for β-HCH, δ-HCH, p,p'-DDD, o,p'-DDT, TC, HCB and Heptachlor with ff ranged between 0.3 and 0.59 while assessing the soil-air exchange of OCPs.

Relationship between e-waste recycling and human health risk in India: a critical review

Informal recycling of waste (including e-waste) is an emerging source of environmental pollution in India. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and heavy metals, among other substances, are a major health concern for workers engaged in waste disposal and processing, and for residents living near these facilities, and are also a detriment to the natural environment. The main objective of this review article was to evaluate the status of these impacts. The review found that, huge quantity of e-waste/waste generated, only a small amount is treated formally; the remainder is processed through the informal sector. We also evaluated the exposure pathways, both direct and indirect, and the human body load markers (e.g., serum, blood, breast milk, urine, and hair), and assessed the evidence for the association between these markers and e-waste exposure. Our results indicated that the open dumping and informal e-waste recycling systems should be replaced by the best available technology and environmental practices, with proper monitoring and regular awareness programs for workers and residents. Further and more detailed investigation in this area is also recommended.

POP and PAH contamination in the southern slopes of Mt. Everest (Himalaya, Nepal): Long-range atmospheric transport, glacier shrinkage, or local impact of tourism?

Due to their physico-chemical properties, POPs and PAHs are subjected to long-range atmospheric transport (LRAT) and may be deposited in remote areas. In this study, the contamination with DDx, PCBs, PBDEs, and PAHs was investigated in sediments and soils collected on the southern slopes of Mt. Everest (Himalaya, Nepal) in two different sampling campaigns (2008 and 2012). The results showed a limited contamination with POPs and PAHs in both soil and sediment samples. Therefore, the southern slopes of Mt. Everest can be considered a remote area in almost pristine condition. The LRAT mechanism confirmed its primary role in the transfer of contaminants to remote regions, while the gradual melting of glaciers, due to global warming, and the subsequent release of contaminants was suggested to be a secondary source of pollution of the lake sediments. In addition, the increase of tourism in this area during the last decades might have influenced the present concentrations of PAHs in the sediments and soils.

Melting Himalayan glaciers contaminated by legacy atmospheric depositions are important sources of PCBs and high-molecular-weight PAHs for the Ganges floodplain during dry periods

Melting glaciers are natural redistributors of legacy airborne pollutants, affecting exposure of pristine proglacial environments. Our data shows that melting Himalayan glaciers can be major contributors of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and high-molecular-weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) for surface water in the Gangetic Plain during the dry season. Glacial emissions can exceed in some cases inputs from diffuse sources within the catchment. We analyzed air, deposition and river water in several sections along the Ganges River and its major headwaters. The predominant glacial origin of these contaminants in the Himalayan reach was demonstrated using air-water fugacity ratios and mass balance analysis. The proportion of meltwater emissions compared to pollutant discharge at downstream sections in the central part of the Gangetic Plain was between 2 and 200%. By remobilizing legacy pollutants from melting glaciers, climate change can enhance exposure levels over large and already heavily impacted regions of Northern India.

International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics opinion on reproductive health impacts of exposure to toxic environmental chemicals

Exposure to toxic environmental chemicals during pregnancy and breastfeeding is ubiquitous and is a threat to healthy human reproduction. There are tens of thousands of chemicals in global commerce, and even small exposures to toxic chemicals during pregnancy can trigger adverse health consequences. Exposure to toxic environmental chemicals and related health outcomes are inequitably distributed within and between countries; universally, the consequences of exposure are disproportionately borne by people with low incomes. Discrimination, other social factors, economic factors, and occupation impact risk of exposure and harm. Documented links between prenatal exposure to environmental chemicals and adverse health outcomes span the life course and include impacts on fertility and pregnancy, neurodevelopment, and cancer. The global health and economic burden related to toxic environmental chemicals is in excess of millions of deaths and billions of dollars every year. On the basis of accumulating robust evidence of exposures and adverse health impacts related to toxic environmental chemicals, the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) joins other leading reproductive health professional societies in calling for timely action to prevent harm. FIGO recommends that reproductive and other health professionals advocate for policies to prevent exposure to toxic environmental chemicals, work to ensure a healthy food system for all, make environmental health part of health care, and champion environmental justice.

Current status of persistent organic pesticides residues in air, water, and soil, and their possible effect on neighboring countries: a comprehensive review of India

Though the use of pesticides has offered significant economic benefits by enhancing the production and yield of food and fibers and the prevention of vector-borne diseases, evidence suggests that their use has adversely affected the health of human populations and the environment. Pesticides have been widely distributed and their traces can be detected in all areas of the environment (air, water and soil). Despite the ban of DDT and HCH in India, they are still in use, both in domestic and agricultural settings. In this comprehensive review, we discuss the production and consumption of persistent organic pesticides, their maximum residual limit (MRL) and the presence of persistent organic pesticides in multicomponent environmental samples (air, water and soil) from India. In order to highlight the global distribution of persistent organic pesticides and their impact on neighboring countries and regions, the role of persistent organic pesticides in Indian region is reviewed. Based on a review of research papers and modeling simulations, it can be concluded that India is one of the major contributors of global persistent organic pesticide distribution. This review also considers the health impacts of persistent organic pesticides, the regulatory measures for persistent organic pesticides, and the status of India's commitment towards the elimination of persistent organic pesticides.

Association of persistent organic pollutants and non-persistent pesticides with diabetes and diabetes-related health outcomes in Asia: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Over half of the people with diabetes in the world live in Asia. Emerging scientific evidence suggests that diabetes is associated with environmental pollutants, exposures that are also abundant in Asia.

OBJECTIVE

To systematically review the literature concerning the association of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and non-persistent pesticides with diabetes and diabetes-related health outcomes in Asia.

METHODS

PubMed and Embase were searched to identify studies published up to November 2014. A secondary reference review of all extracted articles and the National Toxicology Program Workshop on the association of POPs with diabetes was also conducted. A total of 19 articles met the inclusion criteria and were evaluated in this review.

RESULTS

To date, the evidence relating POPs and non-persistent pesticides with diabetes in Asian populations is equivocal. Positive associations were reported between serum concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and several organochlorine pesticides (DDT, DDE, oxychlordane, trans-nonachlor, hexachlorobenzene, hexachlorocyclohexane) with diabetes. PCDD/Fs were also associated with blood glucose and insulin resistance, but not beta-cell function. There were substantial limitations of the literature including: most studies were cross-sectional, few studies addressed selection bias and confounding, and most effect estimates had exceptionally wide confidence intervals. Few studies evaluated the effects of organophosphates.

CONCLUSIONS

Well-conducted research is urgently needed on these pervasive exposures to inform policies to mitigate the diabetes epidemic in Asia.

Current challenges in air sampling of semivolatile organic contaminants: sampling artifacts and their influence on data comparability

With current science and policy needs, more attention is being given to expanding and improving air sampling of semivolatile organic contaminants (SVOCs). However, a wide range of techniques and configurations are currently used (active and passive samplers, different deployment times, different sorbents, etc.) and as the SVOC community looks to assess air measurements on a global scale, questions of comparability arise. We review current air sampling techniques, with a focus on sampling artifacts that can lead to uncertainties or biases in reported concentrations, in particular breakthrough, degradation, meteorological influences, and assumptions regarding passive sampling. From this assessment, we estimate the bias introduced for SVOC concentrations from all factors. Due to the effects of breakthrough, degradation, particle fractions and sampler uptake periods, some current passive and active sampler configurations may underestimate certain SVOCs by 30-95%. We then recommend future study design, appropriateness of sampler types for different study goals, and finally, how the SVOC community should move forward in both research and monitoring to best achieve comparability and consistency in air measurements.

Solanaceae plant malformation in Chongqing City, China, reveals a pollution threat to the Yangtze River

Water quality is under increasing threat from industrial and natural sources of pollutants. Here, we present our findings about a pollution incident involving the tap water of Chongqing City in China. In recent years, Solanaceae plants grown in greenhouses in this city have displayed symptoms of cupped, strappy leaves. These symptoms resembled those caused by chlorinated auxinic herbicides. We have determined that these symptoms were caused by the tap water used for irrigation. Using a bioactivity-guided fractionation method, we isolated a substance with corresponding auxinic activity from the tap water. The substance was named "solanicide" because of its strong bioactivity against Solanaceae plants. Further investigation revealed that the solanicide in the water system of Chongqing City is derived from the Jialing River, a major tributary of the Yangtze River. Therefore, it is also present in the Yangtze River downstream of Chongqing after the inflow of the Jialing River. Biological analyses indicated that solanicide is functionally similar to, but distinct from, other known chlorinated auxinic herbicides. Chemical assays further showed that solanicide structurally differs from those compounds. This study has highlighted a water pollution threat to the Yangtze River and its floodplain ecosystem.

The legal framework to manage chemical pollution in India and the lesson from the Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

India's rapid agro-economic growth has resulted into many environmental issues, especially related to chemical pollution. Environmental management and control of toxic chemicals have gained significant attention from policy makers, researchers, and enterprises in India. The present study reviews the policy and legal and non-regulatory schemes set in place in this country during the last decades to manage chemical risk and compares them with those in developed nations. India has a large and fragmented body of regulation to control and manage chemical pollution which appears to be ineffective in protecting environment and human health. The example of POPs contamination in India is proposed to support such a theory. Overlapping of jurisdictions and retrospectively approached environmental policy and risk management currently adopted in India are out of date and excluding Indian economy from the process of building and participating into new, environmentally-sustainable market spaces for chemical products. To address these issues, the introduction of a new integrated and scientifically-informed regulation and management scheme is recommended. Such scheme should acknowledge the principle of risk management rather than the current one based on risk acceptance. To this end, India should take advantage of the experience of recently introduced chemical management regulation in some developed nations.