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Riederer P, Monoranu C, Strobel S, Iordache T, Sian-Hülsmann J. Iron as the concert master in the pathogenic orchestra playing in sporadic Parkinson's disease. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2021; 128:1577-1598. [PMID: 34636961 PMCID: PMC8507512 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-021-02414-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
About 60 years ago, the discovery of a deficiency of dopamine in the nigro-striatal system led to a variety of symptomatic therapeutic strategies to supplement dopamine and to substantially improve the quality of life of patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). Since these seminal developments, neuropathological, neurochemical, molecular biological and genetic discoveries contributed to elucidate the pathology of PD. Oxidative stress, the consequences of reactive oxidative species, reduced antioxidative capacity including loss of glutathione, excitotoxicity, mitochondrial dysfunction, proteasomal dysfunction, apoptosis, lysosomal dysfunction, autophagy, suggested to be causal for ɑ-synuclein fibril formation and aggregation and contributing to neuroinflammation and neural cell death underlying this devastating disorder. However, there are no final conclusions about the triggered pathological mechanism(s) and the follow-up of pathological dysfunctions. Nevertheless, it is a fact, that iron, a major component of oxidative reactions, as well as neuromelanin, the major intraneuronal chelator of iron, undergo an age-dependent increase. And ageing is a major risk factor for PD. Iron is significantly increased in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) of PD. Reasons for this finding include disturbances in iron-related import and export mechanisms across the blood-brain barrier (BBB), localized opening of the BBB at the nigro-striatal tract including brain vessel pathology. Whether this pathology is of primary or secondary importance is not known. We assume that there is a better fit to the top-down hypotheses and pathogens entering the brain via the olfactory system, then to the bottom-up (gut-brain) hypothesis of PD pathology. Triggers for the bottom-up, the dual-hit and the top-down pathologies include chemicals, viruses and bacteria. If so, hepcidin, a regulator of iron absorption and its distribution into tissues, is suggested to play a major role in the pathogenesis of iron dyshomeostasis and risk for initiating and progressing ɑ-synuclein pathology. The role of glial components to the pathology of PD is still unknown. However, the dramatic loss of glutathione (GSH), which is mainly synthesized in glia, suggests dysfunction of this process, or GSH uptake into neurons. Loss of GSH and increase in SNpc iron concentration have been suggested to be early, may be even pre-symptomatic processes in the pathology of PD, despite the fact that they are progression factors. The role of glial ferritin isoforms has not been studied so far in detail in human post-mortem brain tissue and a close insight into their role in PD is called upon. In conclusion, "iron" is a major player in the pathology of PD. Selective chelation of excess iron at the site of the substantia nigra, where a dysfunction of the BBB is suggested, with peripherally acting iron chelators is suggested to contribute to the portfolio and therapeutic armamentarium of anti-Parkinson medications.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Riederer
- Clinic and Policlinic for Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Wuerzburg, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany. .,Department of Psychiatry, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark.
| | - C Monoranu
- Institute of Pathology, Department of Neuropathology, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - S Strobel
- Institute of Pathology, Department of Neuropathology, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - T Iordache
- George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology of Targu Mures, Târgu Mureș, Romania
| | - J Sian-Hülsmann
- Department of Medical Physiology, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197, Nairobi, 00100, Kenya
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The Positive Role and Mechanism of Herbal Medicine in Parkinson's Disease. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2021; 2021:9923331. [PMID: 34567415 PMCID: PMC8457986 DOI: 10.1155/2021/9923331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Revised: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a complex neurodegenerative disease, manifested by the progressive functional impairment of the midbrain nigral dopaminergic neurons. Due to the unclear underlying pathogenesis, disease-modifying drugs for PD remain elusive. In Asia, such as in China and India, herbal medicines have been used in the treatment of neurodegenerative disease for thousands of years, which recently attracted considerable attention because of the development of curative drugs for PD. In this review, we first summarized the pathogenic factors of PD including protein aggregation, mitochondrial dysfunction, ion accumulation, neuroinflammation, and oxidative stress, and the related recent advances. Secondly, we summarized 32 Chinese herbal medicines (belonging to 24 genera, such as Acanthopanax, Alpinia, and Astragalus), 22 Chinese traditional herbal formulations, and 3 Indian herbal medicines, of which the ethanol/water extraction or main bioactive compounds have been extensively investigated on PD models both in vitro and in vivo. We elaborately provided pictures of the representative herbs and the structural formula of the bioactive components (such as leutheroside B and astragaloside IV) of the herbal medicines. Also, we specified the potential targets of the bioactive compounds or extractions of herbs in view of the signaling pathways such as PI3K, NF-κB, and AMPK which are implicated in oxidative and inflammatory stress in neurons. We consider that this knowledge of herbal medicines or their bioactive components can be favorable for the development of disease-modifying drugs for PD.
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Fu X, Deng W, Cui X, Zhou X, Song W, Pan M, Chi X, Xu J, Jiang Y, Wang Q, Xu Y. Time-Specific Pattern of Iron Deposition in Different Regions in Parkinson's Disease Measured by Quantitative Susceptibility Mapping. Front Neurol 2021; 12:631210. [PMID: 34421781 PMCID: PMC8371047 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2021.631210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies have shown the spatial specificity of cranial iron deposition in different regions in Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the time-specific patterns of iron deposition are not yet clear. The purpose of this study was to investigate the time pattern of iron variations and its clinical relevance in multiple gray matter nuclei in PD using quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM). Thirty controls and 33 PD patients were enrolled, namely, 11 cases of early stage of PD (ESP) and 22 cases of advanced stage of PD (ASP) according to the Hoehn-Yahr stages. The iron content in the subcortical nuclei covering substantia nigra (SN), red nucleus (RN), head of the caudate nucleus (CN), globus pallidus (GP), and putamen (PT) was measured using QSM, and the clinical symptoms of PD were evaluated by various rating scales. The QSM values in SN, RN, GP, and PT significantly increased in PD patients compared with the controls. Further subgroup comparison with the controls indicated that the iron content in SN and GP (paleostriatum) gradually elevated in the whole disease duration and was related to clinical features. While the iron content in RN and PT (neostriatum) only elevated significantly in ESP patients, further iron deposition was not obvious in ASP patients. Our study confirmed that QSM could be used as a disease biomarker and could be suitable for longitudinal monitoring. However, considering the temporal characteristics of iron deposition in neostriatum, iron deposition in the neostriatum should be paid more attention in the early stage of the disease, even in the preclinical stage, in future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaodi Fu
- Department of Neurology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wenbin Deng
- Department of Neurology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiangqin Cui
- Department of Neurology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiao Zhou
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Weizheng Song
- Department of Neurosurgery, the Eighth People's Hospital of Chengdu, Chengdu, China
| | - Mengqiu Pan
- Department of Neurology, Guangdong 999 Brain Hospital, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiao Chi
- Department of Neurology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jinghui Xu
- The Third Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ying Jiang
- The Third Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qun Wang
- Department of Neurology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yunqi Xu
- Department of Neurology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
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Toxic Feedback Loop Involving Iron, Reactive Oxygen Species, α-Synuclein and Neuromelanin in Parkinson's Disease and Intervention with Turmeric. Mol Neurobiol 2021; 58:5920-5936. [PMID: 34426907 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-021-02516-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a movement disorder associated with severe loss of mainly dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Pathological hallmarks include Lewy bodies, and loss of neuromelanin, due to degeneration of neuromelanin-containing dopaminergic neurons. Despite being described over 200 years ago, the etiology of PD remains unknown. Here, we highlight the roles of reactive oxygen species (ROS), iron, alpha synuclein (α-syn) and neuromelanin in a toxic feedback loop culminating in neuronal death and spread of the disease. Dopaminergic neurons are particularly vulnerable due to decreased antioxidant concentration with aging, constant exposure to ROS and presence of neurotoxic compounds (e.g. ortho-quinones). ROS and iron increase each other's levels, creating a state of oxidative stress. α-Syn aggregation is influenced by ROS and iron but also increases ROS and iron via its induced mitochondrial dysfunction and ferric-reductase activity. Neuromelanin's binding affinity is affected by increased ROS and iron. Furthermore, during neuronal death, neuromelanin is degraded in the extracellular space, releasing its bound toxins. This cycle of events continues to neighboring neurons in the form of a toxic loop, causing PD pathology. The increase in ROS and iron may be an important target for therapies to disrupt this toxic loop, and therefore diets rich in certain 'nutraceuticals' may be beneficial. Turmeric is an attractive candidate, as it is known to have anti-oxidant and iron chelating properties. More studies are needed to test this theory and if validated, this would be a step towards development of lifestyle-based therapeutic modalities to complement existing PD treatments.
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Vijiaratnam N, Simuni T, Bandmann O, Morris HR, Foltynie T. Progress towards therapies for disease modification in Parkinson's disease. Lancet Neurol 2021; 20:559-572. [PMID: 34146514 DOI: 10.1016/s1474-4422(21)00061-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Revised: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The development of interventions to slow or halt the progression of Parkinson's disease remains a priority for patients and researchers alike. To date, no agents have been shown to have unequivocal evidence of disease-modifying effects in Parkinson's disease. The absence of disease-modifying treatments might relate not only to inadequate approaches for the selection of therapeutic candidates but also to insufficient attention to detail in clinical trial design. Better understanding of Parkinson's disease pathogenesis associated with advances in laboratory models, the use of objective biomarkers of disease progression and target engagement, and a focus on agents known to be safe for human use, alongside the use of precision medicine approaches, should together greatly increase the likelihood for successful identification of disease-modifying treatments for Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nirosen Vijiaratnam
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, UK; The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, Queen Square, London, UK
| | - Tanya Simuni
- Parkinson's Disease and Movement Disorders Center, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Oliver Bandmann
- Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Huw R Morris
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, UK; The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, Queen Square, London, UK
| | - Thomas Foltynie
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, UK; The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, Queen Square, London, UK.
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Mursaleen L, Noble B, Somavarapu S, Zariwala MG. Micellar Nanocarriers of Hydroxytyrosol Are Protective against Parkinson's Related Oxidative Stress in an In Vitro hCMEC/D3-SH-SY5Y Co-Culture System. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10060887. [PMID: 34073115 PMCID: PMC8226543 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10060887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Revised: 05/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Hydroxytyrosol (HT) is a natural phenolic antioxidant which has neuroprotective effects in models of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Due to issues such as rapid metabolism, HT is unlikely to reach the brain at therapeutic concentrations required for a clinical effect. We have previously developed micellar nanocarriers from Pluronic F68® (P68) and dequalinium (DQA) which have suitable characteristics for brain delivery of antioxidants and iron chelators. The aim of this study was to utilise the P68 + DQA nanocarriers for HT alone, or in combination with the iron chelator deferoxamine (DFO), and assess their physical characteristics and ability to pass the blood–brain barrier and protect against rotenone in a cellular hCMEC/D3-SH-SY5Y co-culture system. Both HT and HT + DFO formulations were less than 170 nm in size and demonstrated high encapsulation efficiencies (up to 97%). P68 + DQA nanoformulation enhanced the mean blood–brain barrier (BBB) passage of HT by 50% (p < 0.0001, n = 6). This resulted in increased protection against rotenone induced cytotoxicity and oxidative stress by up to 12% and 9%, respectively, compared to the corresponding free drug treatments (p < 0.01, n = 6). This study demonstrates for the first time the incorporation of HT and HT + DFO into P68 + DQA nanocarriers and successful delivery of these nanocarriers across a BBB model to protect against PD-related oxidative stress. These nanocarriers warrant further investigation to evaluate whether this enhanced neuroprotection is exhibited in in vivo PD models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah Mursaleen
- Centre for Nutraceuticals, School of Life Sciences, University of Westminster, 115 New Cavendish Street, London W1W 6UW, UK; (L.M.); (B.N.)
- Department of Pharmaceutics, UCL School of Pharmacy, 29–39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, UK
- Cure Parkinson’s, 120 New Cavendish Street, Fitzrovia, London W1W 6XX, UK
| | - Brendon Noble
- Centre for Nutraceuticals, School of Life Sciences, University of Westminster, 115 New Cavendish Street, London W1W 6UW, UK; (L.M.); (B.N.)
| | - Satyanarayana Somavarapu
- Department of Pharmaceutics, UCL School of Pharmacy, 29–39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, UK
- Correspondence: (S.S.); (M.G.Z.)
| | - Mohammed Gulrez Zariwala
- Centre for Nutraceuticals, School of Life Sciences, University of Westminster, 115 New Cavendish Street, London W1W 6UW, UK; (L.M.); (B.N.)
- Correspondence: (S.S.); (M.G.Z.)
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57
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Doble PA, de Vega RG, Bishop DP, Hare DJ, Clases D. Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry Imaging in Biology. Chem Rev 2021; 121:11769-11822. [PMID: 34019411 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c01219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Elemental imaging gives insight into the fundamental chemical makeup of living organisms. Every cell on Earth is comprised of a complex and dynamic mixture of the chemical elements that define structure and function. Many disease states feature a disturbance in elemental homeostasis, and understanding how, and most importantly where, has driven the development of laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) as the principal elemental imaging technique for biologists. This review provides an outline of ICP-MS technology, laser ablation cell designs, imaging workflows, and methods of quantification. Detailed examples of imaging applications including analyses of cancers, elemental uptake and accumulation, plant bioimaging, nanomaterials in the environment, and exposure science and neuroscience are presented and discussed. Recent incorporation of immunohistochemical workflows for imaging biomolecules, complementary and multimodal imaging techniques, and image processing methods is also reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip A Doble
- Atomic Medicine Initiative, University of Technology Sydney, Broadway, New South Wales 2007, Australia
| | - Raquel Gonzalez de Vega
- Atomic Medicine Initiative, University of Technology Sydney, Broadway, New South Wales 2007, Australia
| | - David P Bishop
- Atomic Medicine Initiative, University of Technology Sydney, Broadway, New South Wales 2007, Australia
| | - Dominic J Hare
- Atomic Medicine Initiative, University of Technology Sydney, Broadway, New South Wales 2007, Australia.,School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - David Clases
- Atomic Medicine Initiative, University of Technology Sydney, Broadway, New South Wales 2007, Australia
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58
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He M, Fan M, Peng Z, Wang G. An overview of hydroxypyranone and hydroxypyridinone as privileged scaffolds for novel drug discovery. Eur J Med Chem 2021; 221:113546. [PMID: 34023737 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2021.113546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2021] [Revised: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Hydroxypyranone and hydroxypyridinone are important oxygen-containing or nitrogen-containing heterocyclic nucleus and attracted increasing attention in medicinal chemistry and drug discovery over the past decade. Previous literature reports revealed that hydroxypyranone and hydroxypyridinone derivatives exhibit a wide range of pharmacological activities such as antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticonvulsant, and anti-diabetic activities. In this review, we systematically summarized the literature reported biological activities of hydroxypyranone and hydroxypyridinone derivatives. In particular, we focus on their biological activity, structure-activity relationship (SAR), mechanism of action, and interaction mechanisms with the target. The collected information is expected to provide rational guidance for the development of clinically useful agents from these pharmacophores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min He
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutics, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China; School of Pharmacy, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| | - Meiyan Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutics, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China; School of Pharmacy, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| | - Zhiyun Peng
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Guangcheng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutics, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China; Engineering Research Center for the Development and Application of Ethnic Medicine and TCM (Ministry of Education), Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China.
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59
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Ma L, Gholam Azad M, Dharmasivam M, Richardson V, Quinn RJ, Feng Y, Pountney DL, Tonissen KF, Mellick GD, Yanatori I, Richardson DR. Parkinson's disease: Alterations in iron and redox biology as a key to unlock therapeutic strategies. Redox Biol 2021; 41:101896. [PMID: 33799121 PMCID: PMC8044696 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2021.101896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A plethora of studies indicate that iron metabolism is dysregulated in Parkinson's disease (PD). The literature reveals well-documented alterations consistent with established dogma, but also intriguing paradoxical observations requiring mechanistic dissection. An important fact is the iron loading in dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc), which are the cells primarily affected in PD. Assessment of these changes reveal increased expression of proteins critical for iron uptake, namely transferrin receptor 1 and the divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1), and decreased expression of the iron exporter, ferroportin-1 (FPN1). Consistent with this is the activation of iron regulator protein (IRP) RNA-binding activity, which is an important regulator of iron homeostasis, with its activation indicating cytosolic iron deficiency. In fact, IRPs bind to iron-responsive elements (IREs) in the 3ꞌ untranslated region (UTR) of certain mRNAs to stabilize their half-life, while binding to the 5ꞌ UTR prevents translation. Iron loading of dopaminergic neurons in PD may occur through these mechanisms, leading to increased neuronal iron and iron-mediated reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. The "gold standard" histological marker of PD, Lewy bodies, are mainly composed of α-synuclein, the expression of which is markedly increased in PD. Of note, an atypical IRE exists in the α-synuclein 5ꞌ UTR that may explain its up-regulation by increased iron. This dysregulation could be impacted by the unique autonomous pacemaking of dopaminergic neurons of the SNpc that engages L-type Ca+2 channels, which imparts a bioenergetic energy deficit and mitochondrial redox stress. This dysfunction could then drive alterations in iron trafficking that attempt to rescue energy deficits such as the increased iron uptake to provide iron for key electron transport proteins. Considering the increased iron-loading in PD brains, therapies utilizing limited iron chelation have shown success. Greater therapeutic advancements should be possible once the exact molecular pathways of iron processing are dissected.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Ma
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University Nathan, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - M Gholam Azad
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University Nathan, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Centre for Cancer Cell Biology and Drug Discovery, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - M Dharmasivam
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University Nathan, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Centre for Cancer Cell Biology and Drug Discovery, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - V Richardson
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University Nathan, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Centre for Cancer Cell Biology and Drug Discovery, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - R J Quinn
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Y Feng
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University Nathan, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - D L Pountney
- School of Medical Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - K F Tonissen
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University Nathan, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - G D Mellick
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University Nathan, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - I Yanatori
- Department of Pathology and Biological Responses, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, 466-8550, Japan
| | - D R Richardson
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University Nathan, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Centre for Cancer Cell Biology and Drug Discovery, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Department of Pathology and Biological Responses, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, 466-8550, Japan.
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Ficiarà E, Munir Z, Boschi S, Caligiuri ME, Guiot C. Alteration of Iron Concentration in Alzheimer's Disease as a Possible Diagnostic Biomarker Unveiling Ferroptosis. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:4479. [PMID: 33923052 PMCID: PMC8123284 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22094479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Proper functioning of all organs, including the brain, requires iron. It is present in different forms in biological fluids, and alterations in its distribution can induce oxidative stress and neurodegeneration. However, the clinical parameters normally used for monitoring iron concentration in biological fluids (i.e., serum and cerebrospinal fluid) can hardly detect the quantity of circulating iron, while indirect measurements, e.g., magnetic resonance imaging, require further validation. This review summarizes the mechanisms involved in brain iron metabolism, homeostasis, and iron imbalance caused by alterations detectable by standard and non-standard indicators of iron status. These indicators for iron transport, storage, and metabolism can help to understand which biomarkers can better detect iron imbalances responsible for neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Ficiarà
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Turin, 10124 Turin, Italy; (Z.M.); (S.B.); (C.G.)
| | - Zunaira Munir
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Turin, 10124 Turin, Italy; (Z.M.); (S.B.); (C.G.)
| | - Silvia Boschi
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Turin, 10124 Turin, Italy; (Z.M.); (S.B.); (C.G.)
| | - Maria Eugenia Caligiuri
- Neuroscience Research Center, University “Magna Graecia” of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy;
| | - Caterina Guiot
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Turin, 10124 Turin, Italy; (Z.M.); (S.B.); (C.G.)
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Apoferritin improves motor deficits in MPTP-treated mice by regulating brain iron metabolism and ferroptosis. iScience 2021; 24:102431. [PMID: 33997705 PMCID: PMC8105649 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2021.102431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2021] [Revised: 03/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Iron deposition is one of the key factors in the etiology of Parkinson's disease (PD). Iron-free-apoferritin has the ability to store iron by combining with a ferric hydroxide-phosphate compound to form ferritin. In this study, we investigated the role of apoferritin in 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced PD mice models and elucidated the possible underlying mechanisms. Results showed that apoferritin remarkably improved MPTP-induced motor deficits by rescuing dopaminergic neurodegeneration in the substantia nigra. Apoferritin inhibited MPTP-induced iron aggregation by down-regulating iron importer divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1). Meanwhile, we also showed that apoferritin prevented MPTP-induced ferroptosis effectively by inhibiting the up-regulation of long-chain acyl-CoA synthetase 4 (ACSL4) and the down-regulation of ferroptosis suppressor protein 1 (FSP1). These results indicate that apoferritin exerts a neuroprotective effect against MPTP by inhibiting iron aggregation and modulating ferroptosis. This provides a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of PD.
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Is Chelation Therapy a Potential Treatment for Parkinson's Disease? Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22073338. [PMID: 33805195 PMCID: PMC8036775 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22073338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Iron loading in some brain regions occurs in Parkinson’s Disease (PD), and it has been considered that its removal by iron chelators could be an appropriate therapeutic approach. Since neuroinflammation with microgliosis is also a common feature of PD, it is possible that iron is sequestered within cells as a result of the “anaemia of chronic disease” and remains unavailable to the chelator. In this review, the extent of neuroinflammation in PD is discussed together with the role played by glia cells, specifically microglia and astrocytes, in controlling iron metabolism during inflammation, together with the results of MRI studies. The current use of chelators in clinical medicine is presented together with a discussion of two clinical trials of PD patients where an iron chelator was administered and showed encouraging results. It is proposed that the use of anti-inflammatory drugs combined with an iron chelator might be a better approach to increase chelator efficacy.
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Cell specific quantitative iron mapping on brain slices by immuno-µPIXE in healthy elderly and Parkinson's disease. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2021; 9:47. [PMID: 33752749 PMCID: PMC7986300 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-021-01145-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Iron is essential for neurons and glial cells, playing key roles in neurotransmitter synthesis, energy production and myelination. In contrast, high concentrations of free iron can be detrimental and contribute to neurodegeneration, through promotion of oxidative stress. Particularly in Parkinson’s disease (PD) changes in iron concentrations in the substantia nigra (SN) was suggested to play a key role in degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in nigrosome 1. However, the cellular iron pathways and the mechanisms of the pathogenic role of iron in PD are not well understood, mainly due to the lack of quantitative analytical techniques for iron quantification with subcellular resolution. Here, we quantified cellular iron concentrations and subcellular iron distributions in dopaminergic neurons and different types of glial cells in the SN both in brains of PD patients and in non-neurodegenerative control brains (Co). To this end, we combined spatially resolved quantitative element mapping using micro particle induced X-ray emission (µPIXE) with nickel-enhanced immunocytochemical detection of cell type-specific antigens allowing to allocate element-related signals to specific cell types. Distinct patterns of iron accumulation were observed across different cell populations. In the control (Co) SNc, oligodendroglial and astroglial cells hold the highest cellular iron concentration whereas in PD, the iron concentration was increased in most cell types in the substantia nigra except for astroglial cells and ferritin-positive oligodendroglial cells. While iron levels in astroglial cells remain unchanged, ferritin in oligodendroglial cells seems to be depleted by almost half in PD. The highest cellular iron levels in neurons were located in the cytoplasm, which might increase the source of non-chelated Fe3+, implicating a critical increase in the labile iron pool. Indeed, neuromelanin is characterised by a significantly higher loading of iron including most probable the occupancy of low-affinity iron binding sites. Quantitative trace element analysis is essential to characterise iron in oxidative processes in PD. The quantification of iron provides deeper insights into changes of cellular iron levels in PD and may contribute to the research in iron-chelating disease-modifying drugs.
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Xu J, Xiao C, Song W, Cui X, Pan M, Wang Q, Feng Y, Xu Y. Elevated Heme Oxygenase-1 Correlates With Increased Brain Iron Deposition Measured by Quantitative Susceptibility Mapping and Decreased Hemoglobin in Patients With Parkinson's Disease. Front Aging Neurosci 2021; 13:656626. [PMID: 33815094 PMCID: PMC8012799 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2021.656626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Brain iron deposition, low hemoglobin (HGB), and increased heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) have been implicated in Parkinson’s disease (PD). However, the association among them in PD is poorly studied. Objective: To explore the association of the level of HO-1 with brain iron deposition and low level of HGB in PD. Methods: A total of 32 patients with PD and 26 controls were recruited for this study. C57BL/6 male mice were used in generating 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced chronic PD model. The Levels of serum HO-1 and HGB of human subjects and mice were assayed by ELISA, blood routine test, respectively. Quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM) was used to quantitatively analyze brain iron deposition in human subjects and mice. HO-1 inhibitor (Sn-protoporphyrin, SnPP) was used to suppress the function and expression of HO-1 in PD mice. Correlations between the concentration of serum HO-1 and iron deposition of the region of interests (ROIs), levels of HGB, between the three factors mentioned above, and scores of clinical scales were explored in PD patients. Results: This study revealed significant elevation of the serum HO-1 concentration, iron deposition within bilateral substantial nigra (SN), red nucleus (RN), and putamen (PUT) and decrease of HGB level in PD patients. There was a significantly positive correlation between the serum HO-1 concentration and iron deposition within SN, an inverse correlation between the serum HO-1 concentration and HGB level in PD patients. A significant increase in HO-1 expression of serum and iron deposition in SN was also observed in the PD mouse model, and the SnPP could significantly reduce iron deposition in the SN. Conclusions: The high level of HO-1 may be the common mechanism of iron deposition and low HGB in PD. Therefore, the findings presented in this study indicate that HO-1 correlates with brain iron deposition and anemia in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinghui Xu
- Department of Neurology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chi Xiao
- Department of Neurology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Weizheng Song
- Department of Neurosurgery, the Eighth People's Hospital of Chengdu, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiangqin Cui
- Department of Neurology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Mengqiu Pan
- Department of Neurology, Guangdong 999 Brain Hospital, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qun Wang
- Department of Neurology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yanqiu Feng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Image Processing, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yunqi Xu
- Department of Neurology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
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Shekoohi S, Rajasekaran S, Patel D, Yang S, Liu W, Huang S, Yu X, Witt SN. Knocking out alpha-synuclein in melanoma cells dysregulates cellular iron metabolism and suppresses tumor growth. Sci Rep 2021; 11:5267. [PMID: 33664298 PMCID: PMC7933179 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-84443-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The protein alpha-synuclein (α-syn) is unusual because, depending on its conformation and the type of cell in which it is expressed, it is pro-death or pro-survival, triggering neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease and enhancing cell survival of some melanomas. To probe the function of α-syn in melanoma, we used CRISPR/Cas9 to knockout SNCA, the gene that codes for α-syn, in SK-Mel-28 melanoma cells. The SNCA-knockout clones in culture exhibited a decrease in the transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1), an increase in ferritin, an increase of reactive oxygen species and proliferated slower than control cells. These SNCA-knockout clones grafted into SCID mice grew significantly slower than the SK-Mel-28 control cells that expressed α-syn. In the excised SNCA-knockout xenografts, TfR1 decreased 3.3-fold, ferritin increased 6.2-fold, the divalent metal ion transporter 1 (DMT1) increased threefold, and the iron exporter ferroportin (FPN1) decreased twofold relative to control xenografts. The excised SNCA-KO tumors exhibited significantly more ferric iron and TUNEL staining relative to the control melanoma xenografts. Collectively, depletion of α-syn in SK-Mel-28 cells dysregulates cellular iron metabolism, especially in xenografts, yielding melanoma cells that are deficient in TfR1 and FPN1, that accumulate ferric iron and ferritin, and that undergo apoptosis relative to control cells expressing α-syn.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahar Shekoohi
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA, 71103, USA
| | - Santhanasabapathy Rajasekaran
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA, 71103, USA
| | - Dhaval Patel
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA, 71103, USA
| | - Shu Yang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA, 71103, USA
| | - Wang Liu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA, 71103, USA
| | - Shile Huang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA, 71103, USA
| | - Xiuping Yu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA, 71103, USA
| | - Stephan N Witt
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA, 71103, USA.
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The Neuromelanin Paradox and Its Dual Role in Oxidative Stress and Neurodegeneration. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10010124. [PMID: 33467040 PMCID: PMC7829956 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10010124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Aging is associated with an increasing dysfunction of key brain homeostasis mechanisms and represents the main risk factor across most neurodegenerative disorders. However, the degree of dysregulation and the affectation of specific pathways set apart normal aging from neurodegenerative disorders. In particular, the neuronal metabolism of catecholaminergic neurotransmitters appears to be a specifically sensitive pathway that is affected in different neurodegenerations. In humans, catecholaminergic neurons are characterized by an age-related accumulation of neuromelanin (NM), rendering the soma of the neurons black. This intracellular NM appears to serve as a very efficient quencher for toxic molecules. However, when a neuron degenerates, NM is released together with its load (many undegraded cellular components, transition metals, lipids, xenobiotics) contributing to initiate and worsen an eventual immune response, exacerbating the oxidative stress, ultimately leading to the neurodegenerative process. This review focuses on the analysis of the role of NM in normal aging and neurodegeneration related to its capabilities as an antioxidant and scavenging of harmful molecules, versus its involvement in oxidative stress and aberrant immune response, depending on NM saturation state and its extracellular release.
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Guo JJ, Yue F, Song DY, Bousset L, Liang X, Tang J, Yuan L, Li W, Melki R, Tang Y, Chan P, Guo C, Li JY. Intranasal administration of α-synuclein preformed fibrils triggers microglial iron deposition in the substantia nigra of Macaca fascicularis. Cell Death Dis 2021; 12:81. [PMID: 33441545 PMCID: PMC7807015 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-020-03369-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Revised: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Iron deposition is present in main lesion areas in the brains of patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) and an abnormal iron content may be associated with dopaminergic neuronal cytotoxicity and degeneration in the substantia nigra of the midbrain. However, the cause of iron deposition and its role in the pathological process of PD are unclear. In the present study, we investigated the effects of the nasal mucosal delivery of synthetic human α-synuclein (α-syn) preformed fibrils (PFFs) on the pathogenesis of PD in Macaca fascicularis. We detected that iron deposition was clearly increased in a time-dependent manner from 1 to 17 months in the substantia nigra and globus pallidus, highly contrasting to other brain regions after treatments with α-syn PFFs. At the cellular level, the iron deposits were specifically localized in microglia but not in dopaminergic neurons, nor in other types of glial cells in the substantia nigra, whereas the expression of transferrin (TF), TF receptor 1 (TFR1), TF receptor 2 (TFR2), and ferroportin (FPn) was increased in dopaminergic neurons. Furthermore, no clear dopaminergic neuron loss was observed in the substantia nigra, but with decreased immunoreactivity of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and appearance of axonal swelling in the putamen. The brain region-enriched and cell-type-dependent iron localizations indicate that the intranasal α-syn PFFs treatment-induced iron depositions in microglia in the substantia nigra may appear as an early cellular response that may initiate neuroinflammation in the dopaminergic system before cell death occurs. Our data suggest that the inhibition of iron deposition may be a potential approach for the early prevention and treatment of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Jun Guo
- Institute of Neuroscience, College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, China
| | - Feng Yue
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Parkinson's Disease, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Department of Neurobiology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100053, China
| | - Dong-Yan Song
- Institute of Neuroscience, College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, China
| | - Luc Bousset
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, CNRS and Institut François Jacob (MIRCen), CEA, Fontenay-aux-Roses, 92260, France
| | - Xin Liang
- Department of Histology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400000, China
| | - Jing Tang
- Department of Histology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400000, China
| | - Lin Yuan
- Unit of Neurodegenerative Diseases and Repair, Institute of Health Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110112, China
| | - Wen Li
- Unit of Neurodegenerative Diseases and Repair, Institute of Health Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110112, China
- Neural Plasticity and Repair Unit, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, Lund University, Lund, 22184, Sweden
| | - Ronald Melki
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, CNRS and Institut François Jacob (MIRCen), CEA, Fontenay-aux-Roses, 92260, France
| | - Yong Tang
- Department of Histology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400000, China
| | - Piu Chan
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Parkinson's Disease, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Department of Neurobiology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100053, China
| | - Chuang Guo
- Institute of Neuroscience, College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, China.
| | - Jia-Yi Li
- Institute of Neuroscience, College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, China.
- Unit of Neurodegenerative Diseases and Repair, Institute of Health Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110112, China.
- Neural Plasticity and Repair Unit, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, Lund University, Lund, 22184, Sweden.
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Wang Y, Wang Y, Zhou M, Jiang D, Deng X. Association of transferrin G258A and transferrin receptor A82G polymorphisms with the risk of Parkinson disease in certain area. Medicine (Baltimore) 2020; 99:e23432. [PMID: 33235126 PMCID: PMC7710248 DOI: 10.1097/md.0000000000023432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND It has been reported that polymorphisms of transferrin (TF) G258A and transferrin receptor (TFR) A82G might be associated with susceptibility to Parkinson disease (PD). OBJECTIVE Owing to limitation of sample size and inconclusive results, we conducted a meta-analysis to clarify the association. METHODS By searching PubMed, Embase, Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure, China Biological Medicine Database, and Wanfang Databases, the published articles about studies of the association of the TF G258A, TFR A82G gene polymorphisms with the risk of PD were collected. Q-statistics and I statistics were calculated to examine heterogeneity and summary odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) were evaluated the association. RESULTS Five studies assessed the relationship between TF G258A and risk of PD. A significant increased protective of A allele and AA genotype was observed in allele model and recessive model (the allele model A vs G: OR = 0.54, 95%CI 0.40-0.72, P < .001; the recessive model AA vs GA + GG: OR = 0.32, 95%CI 0.20-0.52, P < .001). The remaining models of the TF G258A genotype showed no significant association with PD risk, while the protective tendency were increased (the heterozygote model GA vs GG: OR = 0.93, 95%CI 0.61-1.43, P = .75; the homozygous model AA vs GG: OR = 0.47, 95%CI 0.21-1.04, P = .06; the dominant model GA + AA vs GG: OR = 0.75, 95%CI 0.50-1.11, P = .15). There was also a lack of association between TFR A82G polymorphism and PD (the allele model G vs A: OR = 0.92, 95%CI 0.75-1.13, P = .43; the heterozygote model AG vs AA: OR = 1.17, 95%CI 0.79-1.71, P = .43; the homozygous model GG vs AA: OR = 0.91, 95%CI 0.60-139, P = .66; the dominant model AG + GG vs AA: OR = 1.05, 95%CI 0.73-1.49, P = .81; the recessive model GG vs AG +AA: OR = 0.80, 95%CI 0.59-1.09, P = .16). CONCLUSION Our study suggests that TF G258A polymorphism may be associated with PD, while TFR A82G polymorphism may not contribute to PD based on the current evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, Guangdong Provincial Hospital of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Foshan
| | - Yong Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong
| | - Minhua Zhou
- Department of Pharmacy, Guangdong Provincial Hospital of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Foshan
| | - Deqi Jiang
- Department of Biopharmaceutical, Yulin Normal University, Yulin, Guangxi, China
| | - Xun Deng
- Department of Pharmacy, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong
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69
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Martin-Bastida A, Tilley BS, Bansal S, Gentleman SM, Dexter DT, Ward RJ. Iron and inflammation: in vivo and post-mortem studies in Parkinson's disease. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2020; 128:15-25. [PMID: 33079260 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-020-02271-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
In these present studies, in vivo and and post-mortem studies have investigated the association between iron and inflammation. Early-stage Parkinson's disease (PD) patients, of less than 5 years disease duration, showed associations of plasmatic ferritin concentrations with both proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 and hepcidin, a regulator of iron metabolism as well as clinical measures. In addition ratios of plasmatic ferritin and iron accumulation in deep grey matter nuclei assessed with relaxometry T2* inversely correlated with disease severity and duration of PD. On the hand, post-mortem material of the substantia nigra compacta (SNc) divided according to Braak and Braak scores, III-IV and V-VI staging, exhibited comparable microgliosis, with a variety of phenotypes present. There was an association between the intensity of microgliosis and iron accumulation as assayed by Perl's staining in the SNc sections. In conclusion, markers of inflammation and iron metabolism in both systemic and brain systems are closely linked in PD, thus offering a potential biomarker for progression of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Martin-Bastida
- Centre for Neurodegeneration and Neuroinflammation, Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK.
- Department of Neurology and Neurosciences, Clínica Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona-Madrid, Spain.
| | - Bension Shlomo Tilley
- Centre for Neurodegeneration and Neuroinflammation, Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Sukhi Bansal
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Steve M Gentleman
- Centre for Neurodegeneration and Neuroinflammation, Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - David T Dexter
- Centre for Neurodegeneration and Neuroinflammation, Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Roberta J Ward
- Centre for Neurodegeneration and Neuroinflammation, Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
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Farr AC, Xiong MP. Challenges and Opportunities of Deferoxamine Delivery for Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease, Parkinson's Disease, and Intracerebral Hemorrhage. Mol Pharm 2020; 18:593-609. [PMID: 32926630 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.0c00474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Deferoxamine mesylate (DFO) is an FDA-approved, hexadentate iron chelator routinely used to alleviate systemic iron burden in thalassemia major and sickle cell patients. Iron accumulation in these disease states results from the repeated blood transfusions required to manage these conditions. Iron accumulation has also been implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and secondary injury following intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). Chelation of brain iron is thus a promising therapeutic strategy for improving behavioral outcomes and slowing neurodegeneration in the aforementioned disease states, though the effectiveness of DFO treatment is limited on several accounts. Systemically administered DFO results in nonspecific toxicity at high doses, and the drug's short half-life leads to low patient compliance. Mixed reports of DFO's ability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) also appear in literature. These limitations necessitate novel DFO formulations prior to the drug's widespread use in managing neurodegeneration. Herein, we discuss the various dosing regimens and formulations employed in intranasal (IN) or systemic DFO treatment, as well as the physiological and behavioral outcomes observed in animal models of AD, PD, and ICH. The clinical progress of chelation therapy with DFO in managing neurodegeneration is also evaluated. Finally, the elimination of intranasally administered particles via the glymphatic system and efflux transporters is discussed. Abundant preclinical evidence suggests that intranasal DFO treatment improves memory retention and behavioral outcome in rodent models of AD, PD, and ICH. Several other biochemical and physiological metrics, such as tau phosphorylation, the survival of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive neurons, and infarct volume, are also positively affected by intranasal DFO treatment. However, dosing regimens are inconsistent across studies, and little is known about brain DFO concentration following treatment. Systemic DFO treatment yields similar results, and some complex formulations have been developed to improve permeability across the BBB. However, despite the success in preclinical models, clinical translation is limited with most clinical evidence investigating DFO treatment in ICH patients, where high-dose treatment has proven dangerous and dosing regimens are not consistent across studies. DFO is a strong drug candidate for managing neurodegeneration in the aging population, but before it can be routinely implemented as a therapeutic agent, dosing regimens must be standardized, and brain DFO content following drug administration must be understood and controlled via novel formulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Corbin Farr
- Department of Pharmaceutical & Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - May P Xiong
- Department of Pharmaceutical & Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
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D’Mello SR, Kindy MC. Overdosing on iron: Elevated iron and degenerative brain disorders. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2020; 245:1444-1473. [PMID: 32878460 PMCID: PMC7553095 DOI: 10.1177/1535370220953065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
IMPACT STATEMENT Brain degenerative disorders, which include some neurodevelopmental disorders and age-associated diseases, cause debilitating neurological deficits and are generally fatal. A large body of emerging evidence indicates that iron accumulation in neurons within specific regions of the brain plays an important role in the pathogenesis of many of these disorders. Iron homeostasis is a highly complex and incompletely understood process involving a large number of regulatory molecules. Our review provides a description of what is known about how iron is obtained by the body and brain and how defects in the homeostatic processes could contribute to the development of brain diseases, focusing on Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease as well as four other disorders belonging to a class of inherited conditions referred to as neurodegeneration based on iron accumulation (NBIA) disorders. A description of potential therapeutic approaches being tested for each of these different disorders is provided.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mark C Kindy
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
- James A. Haley Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
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Langley J, Huddleston DE, Crosson B, Song DD, Factor SA, Hu X. Multimodal assessment of nigrosomal degeneration in Parkinson's disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2020; 80:102-107. [PMID: 32979784 DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2020.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Approximately forty percent of all dopaminergic neurons in SNpc are located in five dense neuronal clusters, named nigrosomes. T2- or T2*-weighted images are used to delineate the largest nigrosome, named nigrosome-1. In these images, nigrosome-1 is a hyperintense region in the caudal and dorsal portion of the T2- or T2*-weighted substantia nigra. In PD, nigrosome-1 experiences iron accumulation, which leads to a reduction in T2-weighted hyperintensity. Here, we examine neuromelanin-depletion and iron deposition in regions of interest (ROIs) derived from quantitative-voxel based morphometry (qVBM) on neuromelanin-sensitive images and compare the ROIs with nigrosome-1 identified in T2*-weighted images. METHODS Neuromelanin-sensitive and multi-echo gradient echo imaging data were obtained. R2* was calculated from multi-echo gradient echo imaging data. qVBM analysis was performed on neuromelanin-sensitive images and restricted to SNpc. Mean neuromelanin-sensitive contrast and R2* was measured from the resulting qVBM clusters. Nigrosome-1 was segmented in T2*-weighted images of control subjects and its location was compared to the spatial location of the qVBM clusters. RESULTS Two bilateral clusters emerged from the qVBM analysis. These clusters showed reduced neuromelanin-sensitive contrast and increased mean R2* in PD as compared to controls. Cluster-1 from the qVBM analysis was in a similar spatial location as nigrosome-1, as seen in T2*-weighted images. CONCLUSION qVBM cluster-1 shows reduced neuromelanin-sensitive contrast and is in a similar spatial position as nigrosome-1. This region likely corresponds to nigrosome-1 while the second cluster may correspond to nigrosome-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Langley
- Center for Advanced Neuroimaging, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | | | - Bruce Crosson
- Department of Neurology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Department of Veterans Affairs Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA; Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - David D Song
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | | | - Xiaoping Hu
- Center for Advanced Neuroimaging, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA; Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA.
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Miranda-Díaz AG, García-Sánchez A, Cardona-Muñoz EG. Foods with Potential Prooxidant and Antioxidant Effects Involved in Parkinson's Disease. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2020; 2020:6281454. [PMID: 32832004 PMCID: PMC7424374 DOI: 10.1155/2020/6281454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Oxidative stress plays a fundamental role in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). Oxidative stress appears to be responsible for the gradual dysfunction that manifests via numerous cellular pathways throughout PD progression. This review will describe the prooxidant effect of excessive consumption of processed food. Processed meat can affect health due to its high sodium content, advanced lipid oxidation end-products, cholesterol, and free fatty acids. During cooking, lipids can react with proteins to form advanced end-products of lipid oxidation. Excessive consumption of different types of carbohydrates is a risk factor for PD. The antioxidant effects of some foods in the regular diet provide an inconclusive interpretation of the environment's mechanisms with the modulation of oxidation stress-induced PD. Some antioxidant molecules are known whose primary mechanism is the neuroprotective effect. The melatonin mechanism consists of neutralizing reactive oxygen species (ROS) and inducing antioxidant enzyme's expression and activity. N-acetylcysteine protects against the development of PD by restoring levels of brain glutathione. The balanced administration of vitamin B3, ascorbic acid, vitamin D and the intake of caffeine every day seem beneficial for brain health in PD. Excessive chocolate intake could have adverse effects in PD patients. The findings reported to date do not provide clear benefits for a possible efficient therapeutic intervention by consuming the nutrients that are consumed regularly.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrés García-Sánchez
- Department of Physiology, University Health Sciences Center, University of Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico
| | - Ernesto Germán Cardona-Muñoz
- Department of Physiology, University Health Sciences Center, University of Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico
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Rosito M, Testi C, Parisi G, Cortese B, Baiocco P, Di Angelantonio S. Exploring the Use of Dimethyl Fumarate as Microglia Modulator for Neurodegenerative Diseases Treatment. Antioxidants (Basel) 2020; 9:antiox9080700. [PMID: 32756501 PMCID: PMC7465338 DOI: 10.3390/antiox9080700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 08/01/2020] [Accepted: 08/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The maintenance of redox homeostasis in the brain is critical for the prevention of the development of neurodegenerative diseases. Drugs acting on brain redox balance can be promising for the treatment of neurodegeneration. For more than four decades, dimethyl fumarate (DMF) and other derivatives of fumaric acid ester compounds have been shown to mitigate a number of pathological mechanisms associated with psoriasis and relapsing forms of multiple sclerosis (MS). Recently, DMF has been shown to exert a neuroprotective effect on the central nervous system (CNS), possibly through the modulation of microglia detrimental actions, observed also in multiple brain injuries. In addition to the hypothesis that DMF is linked to the activation of NRF2 and NF-kB transcription factors, the neuroprotective action of DMF may be mediated by the activation of the glutathione (GSH) antioxidant pathway and the regulation of brain iron homeostasis. This review will focus on the role of DMF as an antioxidant modulator in microglia processes and on its mechanisms of action in the modulation of different pathways to attenuate neurodegenerative disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Rosito
- Center for Life Nanoscience, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 00161 Rome, Italy; (M.R.); (C.T.); (G.P.)
| | - Claudia Testi
- Center for Life Nanoscience, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 00161 Rome, Italy; (M.R.); (C.T.); (G.P.)
| | - Giacomo Parisi
- Center for Life Nanoscience, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 00161 Rome, Italy; (M.R.); (C.T.); (G.P.)
| | - Barbara Cortese
- Nanotechnology Institute, CNR-Nanotechnology Institute, Sapienza University, 00185 Rome, Italy;
| | - Paola Baiocco
- Department of Biochemical Sciences “A. Rossi Fanelli” Sapienza University, 00185 Rome, Italy
- Correspondence: (P.B.); (S.D.A.)
| | - Silvia Di Angelantonio
- Center for Life Nanoscience, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 00161 Rome, Italy; (M.R.); (C.T.); (G.P.)
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University, 00185 Rome, Italy
- Correspondence: (P.B.); (S.D.A.)
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Mahoney-Sánchez L, Bouchaoui H, Ayton S, Devos D, Duce JA, Devedjian JC. Ferroptosis and its potential role in the physiopathology of Parkinson's Disease. Prog Neurobiol 2020; 196:101890. [PMID: 32726602 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2020.101890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Revised: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's Disease (PD) is a common and progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterised by motor impairments as well as non-motor symptoms. While dopamine-based therapies are effective in fighting the symptoms in the early stages of the disease, a lack of neuroprotective drugs means that the disease continues to progress. Along with the traditionally recognised pathological hallmarks of dopaminergic neuronal death and intracellular α-synuclein (α-syn) depositions, iron accumulation, elevated oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation damage are further conspicuous features of PD pathophysiology. However, the underlying mechanisms linking these pathological hallmarks with neurodegeneration still remain unclear. Ferroptosis, a regulated iron dependent cell death pathway involving a lethal accumulation of lipid peroxides, shares several features with PD pathophysiology. Interestingly, α-syn has been functionally linked with the metabolism of both iron and lipid, suggesting a possible interplay between dysregulated α-syn and other PD pathological hallmarks related to ferroptosis. This review will address the importance for understanding these disease mechanisms that could be targeted therapeutically. Anti-ferroptosis molecules are neuroprotective in PD animal models and the anti-ferroptotic iron chelator, deferiprone, slowed disease progression and improved motor function in two independent clinical trials for PD. An ongoing larger multi-centre phase 2 clinical trial will confirm the therapeutic potential of deferiprone and the relevance of ferroptosis in PD. This review addresses the known pathological features of PD in relation to the ferroptosis pathway with therapeutic implications of targeting this cell death pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Mahoney-Sánchez
- Department of Medical Pharmacology, Lille University, INSERM UMRS_1172, University Hospital Centre, LICEND COEN Centre, LilNCog - Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, 59000, France
| | - Hind Bouchaoui
- Department of Medical Pharmacology, Lille University, INSERM UMRS_1172, University Hospital Centre, LICEND COEN Centre, LilNCog - Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, 59000, France
| | - Scott Ayton
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, 30 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia
| | - David Devos
- Department of Medical Pharmacology, Lille University, INSERM UMRS_1172, University Hospital Centre, LICEND COEN Centre, LilNCog - Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, 59000, France.
| | - James A Duce
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, 30 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia; ALBORADA Drug Discovery Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Hills Road, Cambridge, CB2 0AH, United Kingdom.
| | - Jean-Christophe Devedjian
- Department of Medical Pharmacology, Lille University, INSERM UMRS_1172, University Hospital Centre, LICEND COEN Centre, LilNCog - Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, 59000, France; Université du Littoral Côte d'Opale-1, place de l'Yser, BP 72033, 59375, Dunkerque Cedex, France
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77
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Liang T, Qian ZM, Mu MD, Yung WH, Ke Y. Brain Hepcidin Suppresses Major Pathologies in Experimental Parkinsonism. iScience 2020; 23:101284. [PMID: 32623334 PMCID: PMC7334576 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2020.101284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2020] [Revised: 04/26/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite intensive research on Parkinson disease (PD) for decades, this common neurodegenerative disease remains incurable. We hypothesize that abnormal iron accumulation is a common thread underlying the emergence of the hallmarks of PD, namely mitochondrial dysfunction and α-synuclein accumulation. We investigated the powerful action of the main iron regulator hepcidin in the brain. In both the rotenone and 6-hydroxydopamine models of PD, overexpression of hepcidin by means of a virus-based strategy prevented dopamine neuronal loss and suppressed major pathologies of Parkinsonism as well as motor deficits. Hepcidin protected rotenone-induced mitochondrial deficits by reducing cellular and mitochondrial iron accumulation. In addition, hepcidin decreased α-synuclein accumulation and promoted clearance of α-synuclein through decreasing iron content that leads to activation of autophagy. Our results not only pinpoint a critical role of iron-overload in the pathogenesis of PD but also demonstrate that targeting brain iron levels through hepcidin is a promising therapeutic direction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuo Liang
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong, China
| | - Zhong-Ming Qian
- Institute of Translational and Precision Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China
| | - Ming-Dao Mu
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong, China; Gerald Choa Neuroscience Centre, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Wing-Ho Yung
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong, China; Gerald Choa Neuroscience Centre, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Ya Ke
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong, China; Gerald Choa Neuroscience Centre, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
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Kim Y, Connor JR. The roles of iron and HFE genotype in neurological diseases. Mol Aspects Med 2020; 75:100867. [PMID: 32654761 DOI: 10.1016/j.mam.2020.100867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Iron accumulation is a recurring pathological phenomenon in many neurological diseases including Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and others. Iron is essential for normal development and functions of the brain; however, excess redox-active iron can also lead to oxidative damage and cell death. Especially for terminally differentiated cells like neurons, regulation of reactive oxygen species is critical for cell viability. As a result, cellular iron level is tightly regulated. Although iron accumulation related to neurological diseases has been well documented, the pathoetiological contributions of the homeostatic iron regulator (HFE), which controls cellular iron uptake, is less understood. Furthermore, a common HFE variant, H63D HFE, has been identified as a modifier of multiple neurological diseases. This review will discuss the roles of iron and HFE in the brain as well as their impact on various disease processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunsung Kim
- Penn State College of Medicine, Department of Neurosurgery, Hershey, PA, USA
| | - James R Connor
- Penn State College of Medicine, Department of Neurosurgery, Hershey, PA, USA.
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Shahandeh A, Bui BV, Finkelstein DI, Nguyen CTO. Therapeutic applications of chelating drugs in iron metabolic disorders of the brain and retina. J Neurosci Res 2020; 98:1889-1904. [DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Revised: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ali Shahandeh
- Department of Optometry and Vision Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences University of Melbourne Parkville VIC Australia
| | - Bang V. Bui
- Department of Optometry and Vision Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences University of Melbourne Parkville VIC Australia
| | | | - Christine T. O. Nguyen
- Department of Optometry and Vision Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences University of Melbourne Parkville VIC Australia
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80
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Song IY, Snyder AM, Kim Y, Neely EB, Wade QW, Connor JR. The Nrf2-mediated defense mechanism associated with HFE genotype limits vulnerability to oxidative stress-induced toxicity. Toxicology 2020; 441:152525. [PMID: 32540480 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2020.152525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
There is considerable interest in gene and environment interactions in neurodegenerative diseases. The HFE (homeostatic iron regulator) gene variant (H63D) is highly prevalent in the population and has been investigated as a disease modifier in multiple neurodegenerative diseases. We have developed a mouse model to interrogate the impact of this gene variant in a model of paraquat toxicity. Using primary astrocytes, we found that the H67D-Hfe(equivalent of the human H63D variant) astrocytes are less vulnerable than the WT-Hfe astrocytes to paraquat-induced cell death, mitochondrial damage, and cellular senescence. We hypothesized that the Hfe variant-associated protection is a result of the activation of the Nrf2 antioxidant defense system and found a significant increase in Nrf2 levels after paraquat exposure in the H67D-Hfe astrocytes than the WT-Hfe astrocytes. Moreover, decreasing Nrf2 by molecular or pharmaceutical manipulation resulted in increased vulnerability to paraquat in the H67D-Hfe astrocytes. To further elucidate the role of Hfe variant genotype in neuroprotection mediated by astrocytes, we added media from the paraquat-treated astrocytes to differentiated SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells and found a significantly larger reduction in the viability when treated with WT-Hfe astrocyte media than the H67D-Hfe astrocyte media possibly due to higher secretion of IL-6 observed in the WT-Hfe astrocytes. To further explore the mechanism of Nrf2 protection, we measured NQO1, the Nrf2-mediated antioxidant, in primary astrocytes and found a significantly higher NQO1 level in the H67D-Hfe astrocytes. To consider the translational potential of our findings, we utilized the PPMI (Parkinson's Progression Markers Initiative) clinical database and found that, consistent with the mouse study, H63D-HFE carriers had a significantly higher NQO1 level in the CSF than the WT-HFE carriers. Consistent with our previous reports on H63D-HFE in disease, these data further suggest that HFE genotype in the human population impacts the antioxidant defense system and can therefore alter pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Insung Y Song
- Department of Neurosurgery, M.S. Hershey Penn State University College of Medicine, M.S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey, Pennsylvania 17033, United States.
| | - Amanda M Snyder
- Department of Neurosurgery, M.S. Hershey Penn State University College of Medicine, M.S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey, Pennsylvania 17033, United States
| | - Yunsung Kim
- Department of Neurosurgery, M.S. Hershey Penn State University College of Medicine, M.S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey, Pennsylvania 17033, United States
| | - Elizabeth B Neely
- Department of Neurosurgery, M.S. Hershey Penn State University College of Medicine, M.S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey, Pennsylvania 17033, United States
| | - Quinn W Wade
- Department of Neurosurgery, M.S. Hershey Penn State University College of Medicine, M.S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey, Pennsylvania 17033, United States
| | - James R Connor
- Department of Neurosurgery, M.S. Hershey Penn State University College of Medicine, M.S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey, Pennsylvania 17033, United States
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Shokrzadeh M, Javanmard H, Golmohammad Zadeh G, Asgarian Emran H, Modanlou M, Yaghubi-Beklar S, Ataee R. Evaluation of the Anti-apoptotic and Anti-cytotoxic Effect of Epicatechin Gallate and Edaravone on SH-SY5Y Neuroblastoma Cells. Basic Clin Neurosci 2020; 10:619-630. [PMID: 32477479 PMCID: PMC7253806 DOI: 10.32598/bcn.9.10.1159.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2018] [Revised: 12/10/2018] [Accepted: 05/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Parkinson disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease affecting older individuals with signs of motor disability and cognitive impairment. Epicatechin (EC) and edaravone have neuroprotective effects most probably due to their antioxidant activity; however, a limited number of studies have considered their role in PD. This research aimed at investigating the neuroprotective effect of EC and edaravone in a neurotoxin-induced model of PD. Methods: An in vitro model of PD was made by subjecting SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells to neurotoxin: 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) 100 μM/well. The cytoprotective effect of EC and edaravone in five concentrations on cell viability was tested using the MTT (3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-Diphenyltetrazolium Bromide) assay. The apoptotic assay was done by annexin V and propidium iodide method using flow cytometry. Results: According to the MTT assay analysis, EC and edaravone had protective effects against 6-OH DA-induced cytotoxicity in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells that were much more significant for edaravone and also a relative synergistic effect between EC and edaravone was observed. The apoptotic analysis showed that edaravone alone could decrease early and late apoptosis, whereas EC diminished early apoptosis, but enhanced late apoptosis and necrosis. Besides, co-treatment of edaravone and EC had a synergistic effect on decreasing apoptosis and increasing cell viability. Conclusion: The protective effect of edaravone on apoptosis and cytotoxicity was demonstrated clearly and EC had a synergistic effect with edaravone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Shokrzadeh
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Hashem Javanmard
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | | | | | - Mona Modanlou
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Saeed Yaghubi-Beklar
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Ramin Ataee
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran.,Immunology Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
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Chen J, Yang X, Fang X, Wang F, Min J. [The role of ferroptosis in chronic diseases]. Zhejiang Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban 2020; 49:44-57. [PMID: 32621416 DOI: 10.3785/j.issn.1008-9292.2020.02.24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Recently, ferroptosis, an iron-dependent novel type of cell death, has been characterized as an excessive accumulation of lipid peroxides and reactive oxygen species. Emerging studies demonstrate that ferroptosis not only plays an important role in the pathogenesis and progression of chronic diseases, but also functions differently in the different disease context. Notably, it is shown that activation of ferroptosis could potently inhibit tumor growth and increase sensitivity to chemotherapy and immunotherapy in various cancer settings. As a result, the development of more efficacious ferroptosis agonists remains the mainstay of ferroptosis-targeting strategy for cancer therapeutics. By contrast, in non-cancerous chronic diseases, including cardiovascular & cerebrovascular diseases and neurodegenerative diseases, ferroptosis functions as a risk factor to promote these diseases progression through triggering or accelerating tissue injury. As a matter of fact, blocking ferroptosis has been demonstrated to effectively prevent ischemia-reperfusion heart disease in preclinical animal models. Therefore, it is a promising field to develope potent ferroptosis inhibitors for preventing and treating cardiovascular & cerebrovascular diseases and neurodegenerative diseases. In this article, we summarize the most recent progress on ferroptosis in chronic diseases, and draw attention to the possible clinical impact of this recently emerged ferroptosis modalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junyi Chen
- School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xiang Yang
- School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xuexian Fang
- School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Fudi Wang
- School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Junxia Min
- School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
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Poewe W, Seppi K, Marini K, Mahlknecht P. New hopes for disease modification in Parkinson's Disease. Neuropharmacology 2020; 171:108085. [PMID: 32298705 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2020.108085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
To date, despite numerous clinical trials, no intervention has been demonstrated to modify the progression of Parkinson's disease (PD). However, over the past decades encouraging progress has been made towards a better understanding of molecular pathways relevant for the neurodegenerative process in PD. This is also based on new insights into the genetic architecture of the disease, revealing multiple novel targets for potentially disease-modifying interventions. Important achievements have also been made in the field of risk markers and combinations thereof, in the form of risk algorithms, will hopefully soon provide the possibility to identify affected individuals at yet prediagnostic or prodromal stages of the illness. Such phases of the disease would provide an ideal window for neuroprotection trials. Taken together, these developments offer hope that a breakthrough towards modifying the course of PD might be reached. In this article we summarize various approaches currently pursued in this quest. This article is part of the special issue entitled 'The Quest for Disease-Modifying Therapies for Neurodegenerative Disorders'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Werner Poewe
- Department of Neurology, Medical University Innsbruck, Austria.
| | - Klaus Seppi
- Department of Neurology, Medical University Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Kathrin Marini
- Department of Neurology, Medical University Innsbruck, Austria
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Ci YZ, Li H, You LH, Jin Y, Zhou R, Gao G, Hoi MPM, Wang C, Chang YZ, Yu P. Iron overload induced by IRP2 gene knockout aggravates symptoms of Parkinson's disease. Neurochem Int 2020; 134:104657. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2019.104657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Revised: 12/14/2019] [Accepted: 12/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Abstract
While the initial causes of Parkinson's disease (PD) are not clearly defined, iron deposition has long been implicated in the pathogenesis of PD. The substantia nigra of PD patients, where the selective loss of dopaminergic neurons occurs, show a fairly selective and significant elevation in iron contents. However, the question remains whether iron deposition represents the initiation cause or merely the consequence of nigral degeneration. Here, we describe existing findings regarding the interaction of iron with neuromelanin and alpha synuclein, the iron deposition in experimental animal model of PD and sporadic and familial PD patients, and the treatment option involving the use of iron chelators for targeting the aberration of iron level in brain. This review may provide us a better understanding of the role of iron in PD to address the question of cause or consequence.
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Ahmadi SA, Bötzel K, Levin J, Maiostre J, Klein T, Wein W, Rozanski V, Dietrich O, Ertl-Wagner B, Navab N, Plate A. Analyzing the co-localization of substantia nigra hyper-echogenicities and iron accumulation in Parkinson's disease: A multi-modal atlas study with transcranial ultrasound and MRI. NEUROIMAGE-CLINICAL 2020; 26:102185. [PMID: 32050136 PMCID: PMC7013333 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2020.102185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2019] [Revised: 01/12/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Volumetric 3D analysis of hyper-echogenicities from transcranial ultrasound (TCS). First multi-modal analysis of TCS and QSM-MRI in Parkinson's disease. Computations of TCS-MRI registration and a novel multi-modal anatomical template. TCS hyper-echogenicities are co-localized with QSM iron accumulations. Co-localizations occur in the SNc and VTA, but nowhere else in the midbrain.
Background Transcranial B-mode sonography (TCS) can detect hyperechogenic speckles in the area of the substantia nigra (SN) in Parkinson's disease (PD). These speckles correlate with iron accumulation in the SN tissue, but an exact volumetric localization in and around the SN is still unknown. Areas of increased iron content in brain tissue can be detected in vivo with magnetic resonance imaging, using quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM). Methods In this work, we i) acquire, co-register and transform TCS and QSM imaging from a cohort of 23 PD patients and 27 healthy control subjects into a normalized atlas template space and ii) analyze and compare the 3D spatial distributions of iron accumulation in the midbrain, as detected by a signal increase (TCS+ and QSM+) in both modalities. Results We achieved sufficiently accurate intra-modal target registration errors (TRE<1 mm) for all MRI volumes and multi-modal TCS-MRI co-localization (TRE<4 mm) for 66.7% of TCS scans. In the caudal part of the midbrain, enlarged TCS+ and QSM+ areas were located within the SN pars compacta in PD patients in comparison to healthy controls. More cranially, overlapping TCS+ and QSM+ areas in PD subjects were found in the area of the ventral tegmental area (VTA). Conclusion Our findings are concordant with several QSM-based studies on iron-related alterations in the area SN pars compacta. They substantiate that TCS+ is an indicator of iron accumulation in Parkinson's disease within and in the vicinity of the SN. Furthermore, they are in favor of an involvement of the VTA and thereby the mesolimbic system in Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seyed-Ahmad Ahmadi
- Department of Neurology, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Marchioninistraße 15, Munich 81377, Germany; German Center for Vertigo and Balance Disorders (DSGZ), Ludwig-Maximilians University, Marchioninistraße 15, Munich 81377, Germany; Chair for Computer Aided Medical Procedures (CAMP), Technical University of Munich, Boltzmannstr. 3, Garching 85748, Germany
| | - Kai Bötzel
- Department of Neurology, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Marchioninistraße 15, Munich 81377, Germany
| | - Johannes Levin
- Department of Neurology, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Marchioninistraße 15, Munich 81377, Germany
| | - Juliana Maiostre
- Department of Neurology, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Marchioninistraße 15, Munich 81377, Germany
| | | | - Wolfgang Wein
- ImFusion GmbH, Agnes-Pockels-Bogen 1, München 80992, Germany
| | | | - Olaf Dietrich
- Department of Radiology, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Marchioninistr. 15, Munich 81377, Germany
| | - Birgit Ertl-Wagner
- Department of Radiology, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Marchioninistr. 15, Munich 81377, Germany; The Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1 × 8, Canada
| | - Nassir Navab
- Chair for Computer Aided Medical Procedures (CAMP), Technical University of Munich, Boltzmannstr. 3, Garching 85748, Germany
| | - Annika Plate
- Department of Neurology, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Marchioninistraße 15, Munich 81377, Germany.
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Mursaleen L, Somavarapu S, Zariwala MG. Deferoxamine and Curcumin Loaded Nanocarriers Protect Against Rotenone-Induced Neurotoxicity. JOURNAL OF PARKINSONS DISEASE 2020; 10:99-111. [DOI: 10.3233/jpd-191754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Leah Mursaleen
- School of Life Sciences, University of Westminster, London, UK
- Department of Pharmaceutics, UCL School of Pharmacy, London, UK
- The Cure Parkinson’s Trust, London, UK
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Ashraf A, Michaelides C, Walker TA, Ekonomou A, Suessmilch M, Sriskanthanathan A, Abraha S, Parkes A, Parkes HG, Geraki K, So PW. Regional Distributions of Iron, Copper and Zinc and Their Relationships With Glia in a Normal Aging Mouse Model. Front Aging Neurosci 2019; 11:351. [PMID: 31920630 PMCID: PMC6930884 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2019.00351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia and astrocytes can quench metal toxicity to maintain tissue homeostasis, but with age, increasing glial dystrophy alongside metal dyshomeostasis may predispose the aged brain to acquire neurodegenerative diseases. The aim of the present study was to investigate age-related changes in brain metal deposition along with glial distribution in normal C57Bl/6J mice aged 2-, 6-, 19- and 27-months (n = 4/age). Using synchrotron-based X-ray fluorescence elemental mapping, we demonstrated age-related increases in iron, copper, and zinc in the basal ganglia (p < 0.05). Qualitative assessments revealed age-associated increases in iron, particularly in the basal ganglia and zinc in the white matter tracts, while copper showed overt enrichment in the choroid plexus/ventricles. Immunohistochemical staining showed augmented numbers of microglia and astrocytes, as a function of aging, in the basal ganglia (p < 0.05). Moreover, qualitative analysis of the glial immunostaining at the level of the fimbria and ventral commissure, revealed increments in the number of microglia but decrements in astroglia, in older aged mice. Upon morphological evaluation, aged microglia and astroglia displayed enlarged soma and thickened processes, reminiscent of dystrophy. Since glial cells have major roles in metal metabolism, we performed linear regression analysis and found a positive association between iron (R2 = 0.57, p = 0.0008), copper (R2 = 0.43, p = 0.0057), and zinc (R2 = 0.37, p = 0.0132) with microglia in the basal ganglia. Also, higher levels of iron (R2 = 0.49, p = 0.0025) and zinc (R2 = 0.27, p = 0.040) were correlated to higher astroglia numbers. Aging was accompanied by a dissociation between metal and glial levels, as we found through the formulation of metal to glia ratios, with regions of basal ganglia being differentially affected. For example, iron to astroglia ratio showed age-related increases in the substantia nigra and globus pallidus, while the ratio was decreased in the striatum. Meanwhile, copper and zinc to astroglia ratios showed a similar regional decline. Our findings suggest that inflammation at the choroid plexus, part of the blood-cerebrospinal-fluid barrier, prompts accumulation of, particularly, copper and iron in the ventricles, implying a compromised barrier system. Moreover, age-related glial dystrophy/senescence appears to disrupt metal homeostasis, likely due to induced oxidative stress, and hence increase the risk of neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azhaar Ashraf
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Christos Michaelides
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas A Walker
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Antigoni Ekonomou
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Maria Suessmilch
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Achvini Sriskanthanathan
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Semhar Abraha
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Adam Parkes
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Harold G Parkes
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Kalotina Geraki
- Diamond Light Source, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, United Kingdom
| | - Po-Wah So
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
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89
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Ben-Shachar D. The bimodal mechanism of interaction between dopamine and mitochondria as reflected in Parkinson's disease and in schizophrenia. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2019; 127:159-168. [PMID: 31848775 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-019-02120-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 12/09/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) and schizophrenia (SZ) are two CNS disorders in which dysfunctions in the dopaminergic system and mitochondria are major pathologies. The symptomology of both, PD a neurodegenerative disorder and SZ a neurodevelopmental disorder, is completely different. However, the pharmacological treatment of each of the diseases can cause a shift of symptoms into those characteristic of the other disease. In this review, I describe a pathological interaction between dopamine and mitochondria in both disorders, which due to differences in the extent of oxidative stress leads either to cell death and tissue degeneration as in PD substantia nigra pars compacta or to distorted neuronal activity, imbalanced neuronal circuitry and abnormal behavior and cognition in SZ. This review is in the honor of Moussa Youdim who introduced me to the secrets of research work. His enthusiasm, curiosity and novelty-seeking inspired me throughout my career. Thank you Moussa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorit Ben-Shachar
- Laboratory of Psychobiology, Department of Psychiatry, Rambam Health Care Campus, and B. Rappaport Faculty of Medicine Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, POB 9649, 31096, Haifa, Israel.
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90
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Langley J, Hussain S, Flores JJ, Bennett IJ, Hu X. Characterization of age-related microstructural changes in locus coeruleus and substantia nigra pars compacta. Neurobiol Aging 2019; 87:89-97. [PMID: 31870645 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2019.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2019] [Revised: 11/19/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Locus coeruleus (LC) and substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) degrade with normal aging, but not much is known regarding how these changes manifest in MRI images, or whether these markers predict aspects of cognition. Here, we use high-resolution diffusion-weighted MRI to investigate microstructural and compositional changes in LC and SNpc in young and older adult cohorts, as well as their relationship with cognition. In LC, the older cohort exhibited a significant reduction in mean and radial diffusivity, but a significant increase in fractional anisotropy compared with the young cohort. We observed a significant correlation between the decrease in LC mean, axial, and radial diffusivities and measures examining cognition (Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test delayed recall) in the older adult cohort. This observation suggests that LC is involved in retaining cognitive abilities. In addition, we observed that iron deposition in SNpc occurs early in life and continues during normal aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Langley
- Center for Advanced Neuroimaging, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Sana Hussain
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Justino J Flores
- Department of Psychology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Ilana J Bennett
- Department of Psychology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Xiaoping Hu
- Center for Advanced Neuroimaging, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA; Department of Bioengineering, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA.
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91
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Li SJ, Ren YD, Li J, Cao B, Ma C, Qin SS, Li XR. The role of iron in Parkinson's disease monkeys assessed by susceptibility weighted imaging and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Life Sci 2019; 240:117091. [PMID: 31760102 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2019.117091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Revised: 11/15/2019] [Accepted: 11/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Mounting evidences indicated that elevated iron levels in the substantia nigra (SN) have been concerned as the underlying mechanisms of neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease (PD). The present study used the 1-Methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6 -tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-treated cynomolgus monkeys for PD to evaluate the usability of SWI for assessing iron deposition in the cerebral nuclei of PD. The results showed that susceptibility-weighted imaging (SWI) phase values of the ipsilateral (MPTP-lesion side) SN of MPTP-treated monkeys were lower than those in the contralateral SN of MPTP-treated monkeys and the same side of Control monkeys, suggesting that iron deposition were elevated in the affected side SN of MPTP-treated monkeys. Whereas MPTP has not effects on the SWI phase values in other detected brain regions of monkeys, including red nucleus (RN), putamen (PUT) and caudate nucleus (CA). Furthermore, ICP-MS results showed that MPTP increased the iron levels in MPTP injection side, but no in the ipsilateral striatum. Additionally, MPTP treatment did not affect the calcium and manganese levels in the detected brain regions of monkeys. However, Pearson correlation analysis results indicated that there were not relationship between SWI phase values in MPTP-lesion side of SN with the behavioral score, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-positive cells number and iron levels in the MPTP-lesion side of midbrain. Taken together, the results confirm the involvement of SN iron accumulations in the MPTP-treated monkey models for PD, and indirectly verify the usability of SWI for the measurement of iron deposition in the cerebral nuclei of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shao-Jun Li
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Guangxi Medical University, No. 22, Shuangyong Road, Nanning 530021, Guangxi Province, China
| | - Yan-De Ren
- Department of Radiology, the Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266003, Shandong Province, China.
| | - Jin Li
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, No. 6, Shuangyong Road, Nanning 530021, Guangxi Province, China
| | - Bin Cao
- Department of Radiology, the Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266003, Shandong Province, China
| | - Chi Ma
- Department of Radiology, the Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266003, Shandong Province, China
| | - Shan-Shan Qin
- Department of Radiology, the Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266003, Shandong Province, China
| | - Xiang-Rong Li
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, No. 6, Shuangyong Road, Nanning 530021, Guangxi Province, China.
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92
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Bergsland N, Tavazzi E, Schweser F, Jakimovski D, Hagemeier J, Dwyer MG, Zivadinov R. Targeting Iron Dyshomeostasis for Treatment of Neurodegenerative Disorders. CNS Drugs 2019; 33:1073-1086. [PMID: 31556017 PMCID: PMC6854324 DOI: 10.1007/s40263-019-00668-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
While iron has an important role in the normal functioning of the brain owing to its involvement in several physiological processes, dyshomeostasis has been found in many neurodegenerative disorders, as evidenced by both histopathological and imaging studies. Although the exact causes have remained elusive, the fact that altered iron levels have been found in disparate diseases suggests that iron may contribute to their development and/or progression. As such, the processes involved in iron dyshomeostasis may represent novel therapeutic targets. There are, however, many questions about the exact interplay between neurodegeneration and altered iron homeostasis. Some insight can be gained by considering the parallels with respect to what occurs in healthy aging, which is also characterized by increased iron throughout many regions in the brain along with progressive neurodegeneration. Nevertheless, the exact mechanisms of iron-mediated damage are likely disease specific to a certain degree, given that iron plays a crucial role in many disparate biological processes, which are not always affected in the same way across different neurodegenerative disorders. Moreover, it is not even entirely clear yet whether iron actually has a causative role in all of the diseases where altered iron levels have been noted. For example, there is strong evidence of iron dyshomeostasis leading to neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease, but there is still some question as to whether changes in iron levels are merely an epiphenomenon in multiple sclerosis. Recent advances in neuroimaging now offer the possibility to detect and monitor iron levels in vivo, which allows for an improved understanding of both the temporal and spatial dynamics of iron changes and associated neurodegeneration compared to post-mortem studies. In this regard, iron-based imaging will likely play an important role in the development of therapeutic approaches aimed at addressing altered iron dynamics in neurodegenerative diseases. Currently, the bulk of such therapies have focused on chelating excess iron. Although there is some evidence that these treatment options may yield some benefit, they are not without their own limitations. They are generally effective at reducing brain iron levels, as assessed by imaging, but clinical benefits are more modest. New drugs that specifically target iron-related pathological processes may offer the possibility to prevent, or at the least, slow down irreversible neurodegeneration, which represents an unmet therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niels Bergsland
- Buffalo Neuroimaging Analysis Center, Department of Neurology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, 100 High St., Buffalo, NY, 14203, USA.
| | - Eleonora Tavazzi
- Buffalo Neuroimaging Analysis Center, Department of Neurology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Ferdinand Schweser
- Buffalo Neuroimaging Analysis Center, Department of Neurology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA,Center for Biomedical Imaging, Clinical and Translational Science Institute, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Dejan Jakimovski
- Buffalo Neuroimaging Analysis Center, Department of Neurology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Jesper Hagemeier
- Buffalo Neuroimaging Analysis Center, Department of Neurology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Michael G. Dwyer
- Buffalo Neuroimaging Analysis Center, Department of Neurology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA,Center for Biomedical Imaging, Clinical and Translational Science Institute, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Robert Zivadinov
- Buffalo Neuroimaging Analysis Center, Department of Neurology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA,Center for Biomedical Imaging, Clinical and Translational Science Institute, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA
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93
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Redox active metals in neurodegenerative diseases. J Biol Inorg Chem 2019; 24:1141-1157. [PMID: 31650248 DOI: 10.1007/s00775-019-01731-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 10/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Copper (Cu) and iron (Fe) are redox active metals essential for the regulation of cellular pathways that are fundamental for brain function, including neurotransmitter synthesis and release, neurotransmission, and protein turnover. Cu and Fe are tightly regulated by sophisticated homeostatic systems that tune the levels and localization of these redox active metals. The regulation of Cu and Fe necessitates their coordination to small organic molecules and metal chaperone proteins that restrict their reactions to specific protein centres, where Cu and Fe cycle between reduced (Fe2+, Cu+) and oxidised states (Fe3+, Cu2+). Perturbation of this regulation is evident in the brain affected by neurodegeneration. Here we review the evidence that links Cu and Fe dyshomeostasis to neurodegeneration as well as the promising preclinical and clinical studies reporting pharmacological intervention to remedy Cu and Fe abnormalities in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD) and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).
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94
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Axonal iron transport in the brain modulates anxiety-related behaviors. Nat Chem Biol 2019; 15:1214-1222. [PMID: 31591566 DOI: 10.1038/s41589-019-0371-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Iron is essential for a broad range of biochemical processes in the brain, but the mechanisms of iron metabolism in the brain remain elusive. Here we show that iron functionally translocates among brain regions along specific axonal projections. We identified two pathways for iron transport in the brain: a pathway from ventral hippocampus (vHip) to medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) to substantia nigra; and a pathway from thalamus (Tha) to amygdala (AMG) to mPFC. While vHip-mPFC transport modulates anxiety-related behaviors, impairment of Tha-AMG-mPFC transport did not. Moreover, vHip-mPFC iron transport is necessary for the behavioral effects of diazepam, a well-known anxiolytic drug. By contrast, genetic or pharmacological promotion of vHip-mPFC transport produced anxiolytic-like effects and restored anxiety-like behaviors induced by repeated restraint stress. Taken together, these findings provide key insights into iron metabolism in the brain and identify the mechanisms underlying iron transport in the brain as a potential target for development of novel anxiety treatments.
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95
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The Efficacy of Iron Chelators for Removing Iron from Specific Brain Regions and the Pituitary-Ironing out the Brain. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2019; 12:ph12030138. [PMID: 31533229 PMCID: PMC6789569 DOI: 10.3390/ph12030138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Revised: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Iron chelation therapy, either subcutaneous or orally administered, has been used successfully in various clinical conditions. The removal of excess iron from various tissues, e.g., the liver spleen, heart, and the pituitary, in beta thalassemia patients, has become an essential therapy to prolong life. More recently, the use of deferiprone to chelate iron from various brain regions in Parkinson’s Disease and Friederich’s Ataxia has yielded encouraging results, although the side effects, in <2% of Parkinson’s Disease(PD) patients, have limited its long-term use. A new class of hydroxpyridinones has recently been synthesised, which showed no adverse effects in preliminary trials. A vital question remaining is whether inflammation may influence chelation efficacy, with a recent study suggesting that high levels of inflammation may diminish the ability of the chelator to bind the excess iron.
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96
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Iron homeostasis and iron-regulated ROS in cell death, senescence and human diseases. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2019; 1863:1398-1409. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2019.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2019] [Revised: 06/17/2019] [Accepted: 06/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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97
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Savitt D, Jankovic J. Targeting α-Synuclein in Parkinson's Disease: Progress Towards the Development of Disease-Modifying Therapeutics. Drugs 2019; 79:797-810. [PMID: 30982161 DOI: 10.1007/s40265-019-01104-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD), the second most common neurodegenerative movement disorder, is characterized by progressive motor and non-motor symptoms [1]. Despite treatment with pharmacologic and surgical therapies, the disease will continue to relentlessly advance. Hence, there is a great deal of interest in potential disease-modifying therapies with the hope that the neurodegenerative process can be slowed or halted. The purpose of this review is to highlight the role toxic α-synuclein (α-syn) plays in PD pathogenesis and critically review the relevant literature about therapeutic modalities targeting α-syn. Toxic α-syn plays a key role in PD pathogenesis, disrupting important cellular functions, and, thus, targeting α-syn is a reasonable disease-modifying strategy. Current approaches under investigation include decreasing α-syn production with RNA interference (RNAi), inhibiting α-syn aggregation, promoting intracellular degradation of α-syn aggregates (via enhancing autophagy and enhancing lysosomal degradation), and promoting extracellular degradation of α-syn via active and passive immunization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Savitt
- Parkinson's Disease Center and Movement Disorders Clinic, Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, 7200 Cambridge, Suite 9A, Houston, TX, 77030-4202, USA
| | - Joseph Jankovic
- Parkinson's Disease Center and Movement Disorders Clinic, Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, 7200 Cambridge, Suite 9A, Houston, TX, 77030-4202, USA.
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98
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Rashid T, Hwang R, DiMarzio M, Hancu I, Pilitsis JG. Evaluating the role of 1.5T quantitative susceptibility mapping for subthalamic nucleus targeting in deep brain stimulation surgery. J Neuroradiol 2019; 48:37-42. [PMID: 31150663 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurad.2019.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2018] [Revised: 03/29/2019] [Accepted: 04/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM) has been shown to be valuable in direct targeting for subthalamic nucleus (STN) DBS, given its higher quality of contrast between the STN border and adjacent anatomical structures. The objective is to demonstrate the feasibility of using 1.5T QSM for direct targeting in STN DBS planning. MATERIAL AND METHODS Eleven patients underwent MRI acquisitions using a 1.5T scanner, including multi-echo gradient echo sequences for generating QSM images. 22 STN targets were planned with direct targeting method using QSM images by one stereotactic neurosurgeon and indirect targeting method using standard protocol by a second stereotactic neurosurgeon. The two physicians were blinded to each other's results. RESULTS The mean coordinates for the STN using direct targeting relative to the mid-commissural point (MCP) was 11.41±2.43mm lateral, 2.48±0.53mm posterior and 4.45±0.95mm inferior. The mean coordinates for the STN using indirect targeting was 11.79±2.51mm lateral, 2.55±0.54mm posterior, and 4.84±1.03mm inferior. The mean (±SEM) radial error between the direct and indirect target was 0.67±0.14mm. In cases where DBS electrodes were implanted, the radial difference between the indirect and actual target (1.19±0.30mm) was statistically equivalent to the radial difference between the direct and actual target (1.0±0.27mm). CONCLUSIONS Direct targeting of the STN for DBS implantation using 1.5T QSM was found to be statistically equivalent to standard protocol surgery planning. This may offer a simpler, more intuitive alternative for DBS surgery planning at centers with 1.5T MRIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanweer Rashid
- Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, USA
| | - Roy Hwang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Albany Medical Center, Albany, NY, USA
| | - Marisa DiMarzio
- Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, USA
| | | | - Julie G Pilitsis
- Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Albany Medical Center, Albany, NY, USA.
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99
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Chen Q, Chen Y, Zhang Y, Wang F, Yu H, Zhang C, Jiang Z, Luo W. Iron deposition in Parkinson's disease by quantitative susceptibility mapping. BMC Neurosci 2019; 20:23. [PMID: 31117957 PMCID: PMC6532252 DOI: 10.1186/s12868-019-0505-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2019] [Accepted: 05/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD) have elevated levels of brain iron, especially in the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the iron deposition in the substantia nigra (SN) and other deep gray matter nuclei of PD patients using quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM) and its clinical relationship, and to explore whether there is a gradient of iron deposition pattern in globus pallidus (GP)–fascicula nigrale (FN)–SN pathway. Methods Thirty-three PD patients and 26 age- and sex-matched healthy volunteers (HVs) were included in this study. Subjects underwent brain MRI and constructed QSM data. The differences in iron accumulation in the deep gray matter nuclei of the subjects were compared, including the PD group and the control group, the early-stage PD (EPD) group and the late-stage PD (LPD) group. The iron deposition pattern of the GP–FN–SN pathway was analyzed. Results The PD group showed increased susceptibility values in the FN, substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc), internal globus pallidus (GPi), red nucleus (RN), putamen and caudate nucleus compared with the HV group (P < 0.05). In both PD and HV group, iron deposition along the GP–FN–SN pathway did not show an increasing gradient pattern. The SNc, substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr) and RN showed significantly increased susceptibility values in the LPD patients compared with the EPD patients. Conclusion PD is closely related to iron deposition in the SNc. The condition of PD patients is related to the SNc and the SNr. There is not an increasing iron deposition gradient along the GP–FN–SN pathway. The source and mechanism of iron deposition in the SN need to be further explored, as does the relationship between the iron deposition in the RN and PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiqi Chen
- Department of Radiology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Yiting Chen
- Department of Neurology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Yue Zhang
- Department of Radiology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Furu Wang
- Department of Radiology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Hongchang Yu
- Department of Radiology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Caiyuan Zhang
- Department of Radiology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Zhen Jiang
- Department of Radiology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China.
| | - Weifeng Luo
- Department of Neurology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China.
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100
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Kanthasamy A, Jin H, Charli A, Vellareddy A, Kanthasamy A. Environmental neurotoxicant-induced dopaminergic neurodegeneration: a potential link to impaired neuroinflammatory mechanisms. Pharmacol Ther 2019; 197:61-82. [PMID: 30677475 PMCID: PMC6520143 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2019.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
With the increased incidence of neurodegenerative diseases worldwide, Parkinson's disease (PD) represents the second-most common neurodegenerative disease. PD is a progressive multisystem neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a marked loss of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons and the formation of Lewy pathology in diverse brain regions. Although the mechanisms underlying dopaminergic neurodegeneration remain poorly characterized, data from animal models and postmortem studies have revealed that heightened inflammatory responses mediated via microglial and astroglial activation and the resultant release of proinflammatory factors may act as silent drivers of neurodegeneration. In recent years, numerous studies have demonstrated a positive association between the exposure to environmental neurotoxicants and the etiology of PD. Although it is unclear whether neuroinflammation drives pesticide-induced neurodegeneration, emerging evidence suggests that the failure to dampen neuroinflammatory mechanisms may account for the increased vulnerability to pesticide neurotoxicity. Furthermore, recent studies provide additional evidence that shifts the focus from a neuron-centric view to glial-associated neurodegeneration following pesticide exposure. In this review, we propose to summarize briefly the possible factors that regulate neuroinflammatory processes during environmental neurotoxicant exposure with a focus on the potential roles of mitochondria-driven redox mechanisms. In this context, a critical discussion of the data obtained from experimental research and possible epidemiological studies is included. Finally, we hope to provide insights on the pivotal role of exosome-mediated intercellular transmission of aggregated proteins in microglial activation response and the resultant dopaminergic neurodegeneration after exposure to pesticides. Collectively, an improved understanding of glia-mediated neuroinflammatory signaling might provide novel insights into the mechanisms that contribute to neurodegeneration induced by environmental neurotoxicant exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arthi Kanthasamy
- Parkinson's Disorder Research Laboratory, Iowa Center for Advanced Neurotoxicology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA.
| | - Huajun Jin
- Parkinson's Disorder Research Laboratory, Iowa Center for Advanced Neurotoxicology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Adhithiya Charli
- Parkinson's Disorder Research Laboratory, Iowa Center for Advanced Neurotoxicology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Anantharam Vellareddy
- Parkinson's Disorder Research Laboratory, Iowa Center for Advanced Neurotoxicology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Anumantha Kanthasamy
- Parkinson's Disorder Research Laboratory, Iowa Center for Advanced Neurotoxicology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
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