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Abstract
To date, in lung cancer, early attempts to modulate the immune system via vaccine-based therapeutics have been unsuccessful. An improved understanding of tumor immunology has facilitated the production of more sophisticated lung cancer vaccines. It is anticipated that it will likely require multiple epitopes of a diverse set of genes restricted to multiple haplotypes to generate a truly effective vaccine that is able to overcome the various immunologic escape mechanisms that tumors employ. Other issues to overcome include optimal patient selection, which adjuvant agent to use, and how to adequately monitor for an immunologic response. This review discusses the most promising vaccination strategies for non-small cell lung cancer including the allogeneic tumor cell vaccine belagenpumatucel-L, which is a mixture of 4 allogeneic non-small cell lung cancer cell lines genetically modified to secrete an antisense oligonucleotide to transforming growth factor β2 and 3 other target protein-specific vaccines designed to induce responses against melanoma-associated antigen A3, mucin 1, and epidermal growth factor.
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52
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Zhang C, Zhang X, Chen XH. Hypothesis: Human Umbilical Cord Blood-Derived Stromal Cells Regulate the Foxp3 Expression of Regulatory T Cells Through the TGF-β1/Smad3 Pathway. Cell Biochem Biophys 2011; 62:463-6. [DOI: 10.1007/s12013-011-9328-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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53
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54
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The dendritic cell-regulatory T lymphocyte crosstalk contributes to tumor-induced tolerance. Clin Dev Immunol 2011; 2011:430394. [PMID: 22110524 PMCID: PMC3216392 DOI: 10.1155/2011/430394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2011] [Revised: 08/30/2011] [Accepted: 08/31/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Tumor cells commonly escape from elimination by innate and adaptive immune responses using multiple strategies among which is the active suppression of effector immune cells. Regulatory T lymphocytes (Treg) and tolerogenic dendritic cells play essential roles in the establishment and persistence of cancer-induced immunosuppression. Differentiating dendritic cells (DCs) exposed to tumor-derived factors may be arrested at an immature stage becoming inept at initiating immune responses and may induce effector T-cell anergy or deletion. These tolerogenic DCs, which accumulate in patients with different types of cancers, are also involved in the generation of Treg. In turn, Treg that expand during tumor progression contribute to the immune tolerance of cancer by impeding DCs' ability to orchestrate immune responses and by directly inhibiting antitumoral T lymphocytes. Herein we review these bidirectional communications between DCs and Treg as they relate to the promotion of cancer-induced tolerance.
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55
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He X, Li X, Liu B, Xu L, Zhao H, Lu A. Down-regulation of Treg cells and up-regulation of TH1/TH2 cytokine ratio were induced by polysaccharide from Radix Glycyrrhizae in H22 hepatocarcinoma bearing mice. Molecules 2011; 16:8343-52. [PMID: 21963624 PMCID: PMC6264273 DOI: 10.3390/molecules16108343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2011] [Revised: 09/26/2011] [Accepted: 09/27/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Radix Glycyrrhizae polysaccharide (GP) possesses multiple pharmacological activities. However, the effect of GP on CD4+CD25+ regulatory T (Treg) cells has not been elucidated. This study aimed to investigate the effects of GP on Treg cells and Th1/Th2 cytokines in H22 hepatocarcinoma tumor-bearing mice. The results demonstrated that GP inhibits tumor progression. In the lymph nodes of the tumor microenvironment and spleen, the proportion of Treg cells was significantly higher in the tumor-bearing mice. GP administration down-regulated the population of Treg cells (P < 0.01) and decreased lymph node Foxp3 and IL-10 mRNA expression (P < 0.01). In addition, GP treatment decreased IL-10 and TGF-β level (P < 0.01) and increased IL-2 and IL-12p70 level in serum (P < 0.01). In conclusion, GP reduced the proportion of Treg cells and Foxp3 lowered expression in Treg cells, and up-regulated Th1/Th2 cytokine ratio in serum in the tumor bearing mice, which might partially cause the inhibition of tumor growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojuan He
- Institute of Basic Research in Clinical Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100700, China; (X.J.H.)
| | - Xiaobing Li
- Institute of Basic Research in Clinical Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100700, China; (X.J.H.)
- School of Basic Medicine, Henan University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou 450008, China;
| | - Biao Liu
- School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China;
| | - Li Xu
- College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China;
| | - Hongyan Zhao
- Institute of Basic Theory, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100700, China;
| | - Aiping Lu
- Institute of Basic Research in Clinical Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100700, China; (X.J.H.)
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56
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FOXP3+ regulatory T cells: from suppression of rejection to induction of renal allograft tolerance. Transpl Immunol 2011; 26:1-10. [PMID: 21939765 DOI: 10.1016/j.trim.2011.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2011] [Revised: 08/31/2011] [Accepted: 08/31/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Naturally occurring and induced regulatory T cells (Tregs) can become hyporesponsive and anergic to antigen stimulation in autoimmune diseases and allograft rejection. The mechanisms of suppression of effector T cells by Tregs remain unclear, but there are in vitro and in vivo evidences showing that these cells are able to suppress antigen-specific responses via direct cell-to-cell contact, secrete anti-inflammatory cytokines such as TGF-β and IL-10, and inhibit the generation of memory T cells, among others. The transcription factor FOXP3 is a specific marker of Tregs and its deficiency is associated with autoimmune diseases and inflammation. During acute rejection of kidney allografts, an augmented FOXP3 gene expression as well as increased CD4(+)CD25(+)FOXP3(+) and other cell populations are observed in graft biopsies. However, it is not clear whether Tregs migrate into the graft and are retained there to suppress the inflammatory process, or whether they are directly associated with more complex mechanisms to induce immune tolerance. FOXP3(+) Tregs may direct the immune response toward a graft acceptance program, potentially affecting the long-term survival of transplanted organs and tissues. Immunosuppressive drugs modulate the number and function of circulating Tregs and FOXP3 expression. Experimental and clinical studies have shown that mTOR inhibitors have positive and calcineurin inhibitors negative effects on Tregs, but it is difficult to set apart the effect of multiple other factors known to be associated with short- and long-term renal graft outcomes. This review aimed to describe the functions of Tregs and its transcription factor FOXP3 in suppression of immune response during rejection and in induction of kidney graft tolerance, as well as to review the individual effects of immunosuppressive drugs on Tregs.
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57
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CTLA-4-Ig therapy diminishes the frequency but enhances the function of Treg cells in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J Clin Immunol 2011; 31:588-95. [PMID: 21487894 DOI: 10.1007/s10875-011-9527-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2011] [Accepted: 03/28/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune and inflammatory disease. Natural T regulatory (nTreg) cells, which constitutively express the CTLA-4 molecule, have an important role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune conditions. Although it has been reported that biological agents are able to modulate the levels or function of Treg lymphocytes, the possible effect of Abatacept (CTLA-4-Ig) therapy on these cells has not been studied in autoimmune conditions. We explored the effect of Abatacept therapy on Treg cells in patients with RA. The number of different subsets of Treg cells was analyzed by flow cytometry in the peripheral blood from 45 patients with RA that were (n = 30) or not (n = 15) under Abatacept therapy as well as in 20 healthy controls. The function of Treg cells was assessed by an assay of inhibition of lymphocyte proliferation. We found that Abatacept therapy was associated with a significant diminution in the levels of CD4+CD25(bright)Foxp3+, and CD4+CTLA-4+ nTreg cells. In contrast, the regulatory function of CD4+CD25+ lymphocytes was significantly enhanced after the administration of Abatacept. Our data suggest that CTLA-4-Ig exerts a complex and interesting effect on Treg cells in patients with RA.
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58
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Linley AJ, Ahmad M, Rees RC. Tumour-associated antigens: considerations for their use in tumour immunotherapy. Int J Hematol 2011; 93:263-273. [DOI: 10.1007/s12185-011-0783-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2011] [Accepted: 02/01/2011] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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59
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Daniel C, Nolting J, von Boehmer H. Mechanisms of self-nonself discrimination and possible clinical relevance. Immunotherapy 2011; 1:631-44. [PMID: 20582233 DOI: 10.2217/imt.09.29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
This review discusses different mechanisms that result in immunological tolerance, such as intrathymic deletion of immature T cells, intrathymic and extrathymic generation of regulatory T cells, effector mechanisms of regulatory T cells as well as molecular pathways involved in extrathymic generation of regulatory T cells in vivo and in vitro. These molecular mechanisms should enable investigators to develop clinical protocols aiming at the specific prevention of unwanted immune responses, thereby replacing indiscriminate immunosuppression that often has fatal consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolin Daniel
- Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, 44 Binney Street, Smith 736, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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60
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Tsujimoto H, Ono S, Ichikura T, Matsumoto Y, Yamamoto J, Hase K. Roles of inflammatory cytokines in the progression of gastric cancer: friends or foes? Gastric Cancer 2010. [PMID: 21128056 DOI: 10.1007/s10120-010-0568-x.] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/29/2022]
Abstract
Increasing evidence is being reported regarding the hypothesis that several proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines may promote tumor progression and affect the host antitumor response. However, the manner in which a local cytokine network operates in tumor development remains unclear. We reviewed the literature to examine the consequences of novel insights into inflammatory cytokines associated with gastric cancer progression. The Medline and EMBASE databases were searched for publications regarding the role of inflammatory cytokines in the development of gastric cancer. A number of studies have suggested that several proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines promote tumor progression through the direct activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and the upregulation of angiogenesis and adhesion molecules. Furthermore, these processes suppress host antitumor immunity, leading to tumor progression and metastasis. In patients with advanced gastric cancer, most cytokines that enhance or suppress host antitumor immunity appear to have elevated serum and local expression levels. The net cytokine environment fluctuates at various stages of tumor development. In conclusion, a more detailed understanding of the differential roles of malignant cell-derived and hostderived cytokines at different stages of the malignant process could, consequently, open new avenues for the manipulation of cytokine expression and function in cancer immunotherapy for gastric cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hironori Tsujimoto
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, Tokorozawa, Japan
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61
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Butler MO, Ansén S, Tanaka M, Imataki O, Berezovskaya A, Mooney MM, Metzler G, Milstein MI, Nadler LM, Hirano N. A panel of human cell-based artificial APC enables the expansion of long-lived antigen-specific CD4+ T cells restricted by prevalent HLA-DR alleles. Int Immunol 2010; 22:863-73. [PMID: 21059769 DOI: 10.1093/intimm/dxq440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Many preclinical experiments have attested to the critical role of CD4(+) T cell help in CD8(+) cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL)-mediated immunity. Recent clinical trials have demonstrated that reinfusion of CD4(+) T cells can induce responses in infectious diseases and cancer. However, few standardized and versatile systems exist to expand antigen-specific CD4(+) T(h) for clinical use. K562 is a human erythroleukemic cell line, which lacks expression of HLA class I and class II, invariant chain and HLA-DM but expresses adhesion molecules such as intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and leukocyte function-associated antigen-3. With this unique immunologic phenotype, K562 has been tested in clinical trials of cancer immunotherapy. Previously, we created a K562-based artificial antigen-presenting cell (aAPC) that generates ex vivo long-lived HLA-A2-restricted CD8(+) CTL with a central/effector memory phenotype armed with potent effector function. We successfully generated a clinical version of this aAPC and conducted a clinical trial where large numbers of anti-tumor CTL are reinfused to cancer patients. In this article, we shifted focus to CD4(+) T cells and developed a panel of novel K562-derived aAPC, where each expresses a different single HLA-DR allele, invariant chain, HLA-DM, CD80, CD83 and CD64; takes up soluble protein by endocytosis and processes and presents CD4(+) T-cell peptides. Using this aAPC, we were able to determine novel DR-restricted CD4(+) T-cell epitopes and expand long-lived CD4(+) T-cells specific for multiple antigens without growing bystander Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells. Our results suggest that K562-based aAPC may serve as a translatable platform to generate both antigen-specific CD8(+) CTL and CD4(+) T(h).
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus O Butler
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, 44 Binney Street, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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62
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Tsujimoto H, Ono S, Ichikura T, Matsumoto Y, Yamamoto J, Hase K. Roles of inflammatory cytokines in the progression of gastric cancer: friends or foes? Gastric Cancer 2010; 13:212-21. [PMID: 21128056 DOI: 10.1007/s10120-010-0568-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2010] [Accepted: 08/04/2010] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Increasing evidence is being reported regarding the hypothesis that several proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines may promote tumor progression and affect the host antitumor response. However, the manner in which a local cytokine network operates in tumor development remains unclear. We reviewed the literature to examine the consequences of novel insights into inflammatory cytokines associated with gastric cancer progression. The Medline and EMBASE databases were searched for publications regarding the role of inflammatory cytokines in the development of gastric cancer. A number of studies have suggested that several proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines promote tumor progression through the direct activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and the upregulation of angiogenesis and adhesion molecules. Furthermore, these processes suppress host antitumor immunity, leading to tumor progression and metastasis. In patients with advanced gastric cancer, most cytokines that enhance or suppress host antitumor immunity appear to have elevated serum and local expression levels. The net cytokine environment fluctuates at various stages of tumor development. In conclusion, a more detailed understanding of the differential roles of malignant cell-derived and hostderived cytokines at different stages of the malignant process could, consequently, open new avenues for the manipulation of cytokine expression and function in cancer immunotherapy for gastric cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hironori Tsujimoto
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, Tokorozawa, Japan
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63
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Deepak P, Acharya A. Anti-tumor immunity and mechanism of immunosuppression mediated by tumor cells: role of tumor-derived soluble factors and cytokines. Int Rev Immunol 2010; 29:421-58. [PMID: 20635882 DOI: 10.3109/08830185.2010.483027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The immune system plays a crucial role in the protection against tumor growth and progression. However, the activation of the immune system against the neoplastic cells does not always occur and, therefore, tumor cells are able to grow and progress continually in the host. It has now been realized that tumor cells themselves produce many of the important factors that are responsible for dismounting of effective immune response. These tumor-derived soluble factors invariably subdue the functions of almost every immune cell population. Therefore, we attempted to underline the mechanism of anti-tumor immune response and immunosuppression induced by tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Praveen Deepak
- Centre of Advance Study in Zoology, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, UP, India
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64
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McGuirk P, Higgins SC, Mills KHG. The role of regulatory T cells in respiratory infections and allergy and asthma. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2010; 10:21-8. [PMID: 20425510 DOI: 10.1007/s11882-009-0078-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The role of distinct CD4(+) T-cell populations in regulating the nature and strength of immune responses is well documented and in the past has principally focused on the cross-regulation of T-helper type 1 (Th1) and Th2 cells, which secrete interferon-gamma and interleukin-4, respectively. However, the identification of T cells capable of suppressing responses mediated by Th1 and Th2 cells, termed regulatory T cells (Treg cells), has prompted a paradigm shift in our understanding of the regulation of immune responses to infection and environmental antigens. This article focuses on the role of Treg cells in the lungs following infection with respiratory pathogens and discusses the targeting of Treg cells in the development of new therapies for immune-mediated respiratory diseases, such as allergy and asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter McGuirk
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
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65
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Lee J, Lin C, Chen T, Kok S, Chang M, Jeng J. Changes in peripheral blood lymphocyte phenotypes distribution in patients with oral cancer/oral leukoplakia in Taiwan. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2010; 39:806-14. [PMID: 20605406 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijom.2010.04.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2009] [Revised: 03/05/2010] [Accepted: 04/21/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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66
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Kelly RJ, Gulley JL, Giaccone G. Targeting the immune system in non-small-cell lung cancer: bridging the gap between promising concept and therapeutic reality. Clin Lung Cancer 2010; 11:228-37. [PMID: 20630824 PMCID: PMC3474196 DOI: 10.3816/clc.2010.n.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Developing effective immunotherapy for lung cancer is a daunting but hugely attractive challenge. Until recently, non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) was thought of as a nonimmunogenic tumor, but there is now evidence highlighting the integral role played by both inflammatory and immunologic responses in lung carcinogenesis. Despite recent encouraging preclinical and phase I/II data, there are a paucity of phase III trials showing a clear clinical benefit for vaccines in lung cancer. There are many difficulties to overcome before the development of a successful therapy. Perhaps a measurable immune response may not translate into a clinically meaningful or radiologic response. Patient selection may also be a problem for ongoing clinical studies. The majority of trials for lung cancer vaccines are focused on patients with an advanced stage of the disease; however, the ideal candidates may be patients with a lower tumor burden and stage I or II disease. Selecting the exact antigens to target is also difficult. It will likely require multiple epitopes of a diverse set of genes restricted to multiple haplotypes to generate a truly effective vaccine that is able to overcome the various immunologic escape mechanisms that tumors use. This review discusses the most promising active immunotherapy using protein/peptide vaccines, whole cell vaccines, and dendritic cell vaccines and examines current phase I and II clinical trial data on some novel nonspecific immunomodulating agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronan J Kelly
- Medical Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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67
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Kelly RJ, Morris JC. Transforming growth factor-beta: a target for cancer therapy. J Immunotoxicol 2010; 7:15-26. [PMID: 19916703 DOI: 10.3109/15476910903389920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) is a pleiotropic growth factor that regulates cell growth and differentiation, apoptosis, cell motility, extracellular matrix production, angiogenesis, and cellular immune responses. TGF-beta demonstrates paradoxical action whereby it can function to suppress early tumorigenesis; however, it can also facilitate malignant transformation and stimulate tumor growth by manipulating a more hospitable environment for tumor invasion and the development of metastases. Given the integral role of TGF-beta in transformation and cancer progression, various components of the TGF-beta signaling pathway offer potentially attractive therapeutic targets for cancer treatment. This review focuses on the role of TGF-beta in cancer and discusses both small and large molecule drugs currently in development that target TGF-beta, its receptor and important down stream steps along its signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronan J Kelly
- Medical Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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68
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Hoelzinger DB, Smith SE, Mirza N, Dominguez AL, Manrique SZ, Lustgarten J. Blockade of CCL1 Inhibits T Regulatory Cell Suppressive Function Enhancing Tumor Immunity without Affecting T Effector Responses. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 184:6833-42. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0904084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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69
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Takaku S, Terabe M, Ambrosino E, Peng J, Lonning S, McPherson JM, Berzofsky JA. Blockade of TGF-beta enhances tumor vaccine efficacy mediated by CD8(+) T cells. Int J Cancer 2010; 126:1666-74. [PMID: 19830696 PMCID: PMC2818422 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.24961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Though TGF-beta inhibition enhances antitumor immunity mediated by CD8(+) T cells in several tumor models, it is not always sufficient for rejection of tumors. In this study, to maximize the antitumor effect of TGF-beta blockade, we tested the effect of anti-TGF-beta combined with an irradiated tumor vaccine in a subcutaneous CT26 colon carcinoma tumor model. The irradiated tumor cell vaccine alone in prophylactic setting significantly delayed tumor growth, whereas anti-TGF-beta antibodies alone did not show any antitumor effect. However, tumor growth was inhibited significantly more in vaccinated mice treated with anti-TGF-beta antibodies compared to vaccinated mice without anti-TGF-beta, suggesting that anti-TGF-beta synergistically enhanced irradiated tumor vaccine efficacy. CD8(+) T-cell depletion completely abrogated the vaccine efficacy, and so protection required CD8(+) T cells. Depletion of CD25(+) T regulatory cells led to the almost complete rejection of tumors without the vaccine, whereas anti-TGF-beta did not change the number of CD25(+) T regulatory cells in unvaccinated and vaccinated mice. Though the abrogation of CD1d-restricted NKT cells, which have been reported to induce TGF-beta production by MDSC through an IL-13-IL-4R-STAT6 pathway, partially enhanced antitumor immunity regardless of vaccination, abrogation of the NKT cell-IL-13-IL-4R-STAT-6 immunoregulatory pathway did not enhance vaccine efficacy. Taken together, these data indicated that anti-TGF-beta enhances efficacy of a prophylactic vaccine in normal individuals despite their not having the elevated TGF-beta levels found in patients with cancer and that the effect is not dependent on TGF-beta solely from CD4(+)CD25(+) T regulatory cells or the NKT cell-IL-13-IL-4R-STAT-6 immunoregulatory pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shun Takaku
- Vaccine Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health
| | - Masaki Terabe
- Vaccine Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health
| | - Elena Ambrosino
- Vaccine Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health
| | - Judy Peng
- Vaccine Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health
| | | | | | - Jay A. Berzofsky
- Vaccine Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health
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70
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Infiltration of Foxp3- and Toll-like receptor-4-positive cells in the intestines of children with food allergy. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2010; 50:367-76. [PMID: 20216098 DOI: 10.1097/mpg.0b013e3181cd2636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Regulatory T (Treg) cells together with intestinal microflora play a central role in controlling allergic inflammation. We examined the markers related to Treg cells, and bacterial signaling, such as Toll-like receptors (TLR)-2 and -4, in the duodenal mucosa of patients with food allergy (FA). PATIENTS AND METHODS Small intestinal samples were collected from patients with FA on a normal or an elimination diet, from healthy controls and patients with untreated celiac disease. Single and double immunohistochemistry were used to enumerate the densities of Foxp3-positive cells and TLR2- and TLR4-positive cells in the mucosa and evaluate the colocalization of Foxp3 expression in CD4, CD25, and CTLA-4 cells. The mRNA expression of CD25, Foxp3, TLR2, and TLR4 was measured by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS The densities of Foxp3 and TLR4 cells were significantly increased in patients with untreated FA compared with healthy controls (P = 0.003, P = 0.033), and the Foxp3 cells were higher in untreated than in treated allergic patients (P < 0.001). The immense majority of Foxp3 cells were CD4 (median 100%), CTLA-4 (100%), or CD25 (81%). The ratio of Foxp3 mRNA to Foxp3 cells was decreased in patients with FA and in patients with celiac disease compared with controls (P = 0.036, P = 0.035). CONCLUSIONS Foxp3 cells are increased in the duodenum of patients with untreated FA, but these cells are not able to suppress the harmful immune response, indicated by the low expression of Foxp3 transcripts. The increase of TLR4 cells and their correlation with TCRgammadelta intraepithelial lymphocytes suggest a role for the innate immunity and intestinal microbiota in FA.
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71
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Chen W, Konkel JE. TGF-beta and 'adaptive' Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells. J Mol Cell Biol 2009; 2:30-6. [PMID: 19648226 DOI: 10.1093/jmcb/mjp004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
In naïve T cells transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) induces Foxp3, a transcription factor essential for programming and developing T regulatory cells (Treg cells). This finding reveals a physiological factor which can turn on the Foxp3 gene and establishes an experimental approach to induce antigen-specific Treg cells as a potential therapy for human diseases. While this role for TGF-beta is well confirmed, several critical questions remain largely unanswered and await further investigation. In this regard, it is imperative to understand the molecular pathways by which TGF-beta signaling initiates and regulates Foxp3 expression. It is also important to elucidate which factors and/or cytokines influence the TGF-beta-mediated conversion of naïve T cells and how to create an immunologically regulatory milieu to facilitate Treg cell generation in vivo. In this short article, we will highlight the key findings and recent progress in the field, discuss the molecular mechanisms underlying the TGF-beta-mediated induction of Foxp3, and attempt to outline the challenges ahead.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanjun Chen
- Mucosal Immunology Unit, Oral Infection and Immunity Branch, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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72
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Strober W, Fuss IJ. Experimental models of mucosal inflammation. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2009; 579:55-97. [PMID: 16620012 DOI: 10.1007/0-387-33778-4_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Warren Strober
- Mucosal Immunity Section, Laboratory of Host Defense NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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73
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Cao M, Cabrera R, Xu Y, Liu C, Nelson D. Gamma irradiation alters the phenotype and function of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells. Cell Biol Int 2009; 33:565-71. [PMID: 19268553 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellbi.2009.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2008] [Revised: 01/12/2009] [Accepted: 02/18/2009] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
To examine the effects of gamma irradiation on Tregs, changes in phenotype and suppression function in Tregs treated with or without gamma ray were analyzed. Purified CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T cells were irradiated at different dosages with a (137)Cs source gamma ray at 4.8 Gy/min. After culture, the phenotype and function changes were determined by flow cytometry and [(3)H]-thymidine incorporation, respectively. A dose-dependent reduction of Tregs proliferation in response to gamma irradiation was noted, which paralleled the apoptosis induction of Tregs. Gamma irradiation downregulated the Tregs expression of CD45RO, CD62L, FOXP3, membrane TGF-beta, but upregulated Bax and GITR. High dose gamma irradiation (30 Gy) significantly abolished the suppression of Tregs on CD4(+)CD25(-) T cells proliferation. Thus Tregs not only influences the phenotype but also alters their suppressive capacities. Our findings suggest that radiotherapy may be an important strategy to alter the immunologic balance of Tregs and effector cells in cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengde Cao
- Section of Hepatobiliary Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0214, USA.
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74
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Skin application of ketoprofen systemically suppresses contact hypersensitivity by inducing CD4+ CD25+ regulatory T cells. J Dermatol Sci 2009; 53:216-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2008.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2008] [Revised: 10/28/2008] [Accepted: 10/30/2008] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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75
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Abstract
Despite aggressive multi-modality therapy including surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy, the prognosis for patients with malignant primary brain tumors remains very poor. Moreover, the non-specific nature of conventional therapy for brain tumors often results in incapacitating damage to surrounding normal brain and systemic tissues. Thus, there is an urgent need for the development of therapeutic strategies that precisely target tumor cells while minimizing collateral damage to neighboring eloquent cerebral cortex. The rationale for using the immune system to target brain tumors is based on the premise that the inherent specificity of immunologic reactivity could meet the clear need for more specific and precise therapy. The success of this modality is dependent on our ability to understand the mechanisms of immune regulation within the central nervous system (CNS), as well as counter the broad defects in host cell-mediated immunity that malignant gliomas are known to elicit. Recent advances in our understanding of tumor-induced and host-mediated immunosuppressive mechanisms, the development of effective strategies to combat these suppressive effects, and a better understanding of how to deliver immunologic effector molecules more efficiently to CNS tumors have all facilitated significant progress toward the realization of true clinical benefit from immunotherapeutic treatment of malignant gliomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duane A Mitchell
- Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, The Preston Robert Tisch Brain Tumor Center, Duke, NC 27710, USA.
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76
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Hoek A, Rutten VPMG, Kool J, Arkesteijn GJA, Bouwstra RJ, Van Rhijn I, Koets AP. Subpopulations of bovine WC1(+) gammadelta T cells rather than CD4(+)CD25(high) Foxp3(+) T cells act as immune regulatory cells ex vivo. Vet Res 2009; 40:6. [PMID: 18928784 PMCID: PMC2695017 DOI: 10.1051/vetres:2008044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2008] [Accepted: 10/15/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Regulatory T cells (Treg) are regarded essential components for maintenance of immune homeostasis. Especially CD4(+)CD25(high) T cells are considered to be important regulators of immune reactivity. In humans and rodents these natural Treg are characterized by their anergic nature, defined as a non-proliferative state, suppressive function and expression of Foxp3. In this study the potential functional role of flowcytometry-sorted bovine white blood cell populations, including CD4(+)CD25(high) T cells and gammadelta T cell subpopulations, as distinct ex vivo regulatory cells was assessed in co-culture suppression assays. Our findings revealed that despite the existence of a distinct bovine CD4(+)CD25(high) T cell population, which showed Foxp3 transcription/expression, natural regulatory activity did not reside in this cell population. In bovine co-culture suppression assays these cells were neither anergic nor suppressive. Subsequently, the following cell populations were tested functionally for regulatory activity: CD4(+)CD25(low) T cells, WC1(+), WC1.1(+) and WC1.2(+) gammadelta T cells, NK cells, CD8(+) T cells and CD14(+) monocytes. Only the WC1.1(+) and WC1.2(+) gammadelta T cells and CD14(+) monocytes proved to act as regulatory cells in cattle, which was supported by the fact that these regulatory cells showed IL-10 transcription/expression. In conclusion, our data provide first evidence that cattle CD4(+)CD25(high)Foxp3(+) and CD4(+)CD25(low) T cells do not function as Treg ex vivo. The bovine Treg function appears to reside in the gammadelta T cell population, more precisely in the WC1.1(+) and the WC1.2(+) subpopulation, major populations present in blood of cattle in contrast to non-ruminant species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aad Hoek
- Division of Immunology, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 1, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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77
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Axelsson S, Faresjö M, Hedman M, Ludvigsson J, Casas R. Cryopreserved peripheral blood mononuclear cells are suitable for the assessment of immunological markers in type 1 diabetic children. Cryobiology 2008; 57:201-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cryobiol.2008.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2008] [Revised: 07/31/2008] [Accepted: 08/05/2008] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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78
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Samanta A, Li B, Song X, Bembas K, Zhang G, Katsumata M, Saouaf SJ, Wang Q, Hancock WW, Shen Y, Greene MI. TGF-beta and IL-6 signals modulate chromatin binding and promoter occupancy by acetylated FOXP3. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008; 105:14023-7. [PMID: 18779564 PMCID: PMC2544572 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0806726105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2008] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Expression of FOXP3, a potent gene-specific transcriptional repressor, in regulatory T cells is required to suppress autoreactive and alloreactive effector T cell function. Recent studies have shown that FOXP3 is an acetylated protein in a large nuclear complex and FOXP3 actively represses transcription by recruiting enzymatic corepressors, including histone modification enzymes. The mechanism by which extracellular stimuli regulate the FOXP3 complex ensemble is currently unknown. Although TGF-beta is known to induce murine FOXP3(+) Treg cells, TGF-beta in combination with IL-6 attenuates the induction of FOXP3 functional activities. Here we show that TCR stimuli and TGF-beta signals modulate the disposition of FOXP3 into different subnuclear compartments, leading to enhanced chromatin binding in human CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T cells. TGF-beta treatment increases the level of acetylated FOXP3 on chromatin and site-specific recruitment of FOXP3 on the human IL-2 promoter. However, the proinflammatory cytokine IL-6 down-regulates FOXP3 binding to chromatin in the presence of TGF-beta. Moreover, histone deacetylation inhibitor (HDACi) treatment abrogates the down-regulating effects of IL-6 and TGF-beta. These studies indicate that HDACi can enhance regulatory T cell function via promoting FOXP3 binding to chromatin even in a proinflammatory cellular microenvironment. Collectively, our data provide a framework of how different signals affect intranuclear redistribution, posttranslational modifications, and chromatin binding patterns of FOXP3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arabinda Samanta
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6082
| | - Bin Li
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6082
| | - Xiaomin Song
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6082
| | - Kathryn Bembas
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6082
| | - Geng Zhang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6082
| | - Makoto Katsumata
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6082
| | - Sandra J. Saouaf
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6082
| | - Qiang Wang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6082
| | - Wayne W. Hancock
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6082
| | - Yuan Shen
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6082
| | - Mark I. Greene
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6082
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79
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Savage NDL, de Boer T, Walburg KV, Joosten SA, van Meijgaarden K, Geluk A, Ottenhoff THM. Human anti-inflammatory macrophages induce Foxp3+ GITR+ CD25+ regulatory T cells, which suppress via membrane-bound TGFbeta-1. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 181:2220-6. [PMID: 18641362 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.181.3.2220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 195] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
CD4(+) T cell differentiation and function are critically dependent on the type of APC and the microenvironment in which Ag presentation occurs. Most studies have documented the effect of dendritic cells on effector and regulatory T cell differentiation; however, macrophages are the most abundant APCs in the periphery and can be found in virtually all organs and tissues. The effect of macrophages, and in particular their subsets, on T cell function has received little attention. Previously, we described distinct subsets of human macrophages (pro- and anti-inflammatory, m phi1 and m phi2, respectively) with highly divergent cell surface Ag expression and cytokine/chemokine production. We reported that human m phi1 promote, whereas m phi2 decrease, Th1 activation. Here, we demonstrate that m phi2, but not m phi1, induce regulatory T cells with a strong suppressive phenotype (T(m phi2)). Their mechanism of suppression is cell-cell contact dependent, mediated by membrane-bound TGFbeta-1 expressed on the regulatory T cell (Treg) population since inhibition of TGFbeta-1 signaling in target cells blocks the regulatory phenotype. T(m phi2), in addition to mediating cell-cell contact-dependent suppression, express typical Treg markers such as CD25, glucocorticoid-induced TNF receptor (GITR), and Foxp3 and are actively induced by m phi2 from CD25-depleted cells. These data identify m phi2 cells as a novel APC subset capable of inducing Tregs. The ability of anti-inflammatory macrophages to induce Tregs in the periphery has important implications for understanding Treg dynamics in pathological conditions where macrophages play a key role in inflammatory disease control and exacerbation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nigel D L Savage
- Department of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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80
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Dasu T, Qualls JE, Tuna H, Raman C, Cohen DA, Bondada S. CD5 plays an inhibitory role in the suppressive function of murine CD4(+) CD25(+) T(reg) cells. Immunol Lett 2008; 119:103-13. [PMID: 18573278 PMCID: PMC2604124 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2008.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2007] [Revised: 04/26/2008] [Accepted: 05/22/2008] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
A subset of CD4(+) T cells, the CD4(+) CD25(+) regulatory T (T(reg)) cells in the lymphoid organs and peripheral blood are known to possess suppressive function. Previous in vitro and in vivo studies have indicated that T cell receptor (TCR) signal is required for development of such 'natural regulatory (T(reg)) cells' and for activation of the effector function of CD4(+) CD25(+) regulatory T cells. CD5 is a cell surface molecule present on all T cells and a subtype of B lymphocytes, the B-1 cells, primarily localized to coelomic cavities, Peyer's patches, tonsils and spleen. CD5 acts as a negative regulator of T cell and B cell signaling via recruitment of SHP-1. Here, we demonstrate that T(reg) cells obtained from CD5(-/-) mice are more potent than those from wild type mice in suppressing the in vitro cell proliferation of anti-CD3 stimulated CD4(+) CD25(-) responder T cells. This phenomenon was cell contact and GITR dependent. Lack of CD5 expression on T(reg) cells (from spleen, lymph node and thymus) did not affect the intracellular levels of Foxp3. However, CD5(-/-) T(reg) thymocytes were able to elicit a higher Ca(2+) response to TCR + co-stimulatory signals than the wild type cells. CD5(-/-) mice expressed more Foxp3 mRNA in the colon than wild type mice, and additionally, the severity of the dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis in CD5(-/-) mice was less than the wild type strain. We suggest that manipulation of CD5 expression or the downstream signaling components of CD4(+) CD25(+) T(reg) cells as a potential strategy for therapeutic intervention in cases of auto-immune disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trivikram Dasu
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Molecular Genetics
| | | | - Halide Tuna
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Molecular Genetics
| | - Chander Raman
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, AL
| | - Donald A Cohen
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Molecular Genetics
| | - Subbarao Bondada
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Molecular Genetics
- Sanders Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536-0230
- Markey Cancer Research Center
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81
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Mechanisms of disease: the evolving role of regulatory T cells in atherosclerosis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 5:531-40. [PMID: 18607396 DOI: 10.1038/ncpcardio1279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2008] [Accepted: 04/18/2008] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis and related complications still represent the major cause of morbidity and mortality in the western world. The mechanisms that govern the progression and destabilization of atheromatous lesions are multiple and complex. Despite their widespread use, lipid-lowering agents do not provide sufficient protection from future clinical cardiovascular-associated events. Interest in the role of immunity in atherosclerosis and support for this relationship has grown significantly over recent years. This paradigm, in which inflammation is an instrumental process in plaque development and rupture, is further supported by studies showing that immune subsets are operative in atherosclerosis. Regulatory T-cell subpopulations consist of lymphocytes--with several phenotypic markers--that share the ability to suppress, by various mechanisms, inflammatory responses. These regulatory T cells consist of subsets such as interleukin-10 secreting type I regulatory cells, type 3 effector T-helper cells that produce transforming growth factor-beta, as well as adaptive and natural CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T cells. In this Review, I focus on the direct and indirect evidence for the involvement of regulatory T cells in atherogenesis in experimental models and in humans. The growing knowledge of the role of regulatory T cells could result in the future development of novel therapeutic modalities to attenuate atherosclerosis and stabilize vulnerable plaques.
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82
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Nam JS, Terabe M, Kang MJ, Chae H, Voong N, Yang YA, Laurence A, Michalowska A, Mamura M, Lonning S, Berzofsky JA, Wakefield LM. Transforming growth factor beta subverts the immune system into directly promoting tumor growth through interleukin-17. Cancer Res 2008; 68:3915-23. [PMID: 18483277 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-08-0206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Overexpression of the immunosuppressive cytokine transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) is one strategy that tumors have developed to evade effective immunesurveillance. Using transplantable models of breast and colon cancer, we made the unexpected finding that CD8+ cells in tumor-bearing animals can directly promote tumorigenesis, by a mechanism that is dependent on TGF-beta. We showed that CD8+ splenocytes from tumor-bearing mice expressed elevated interleukin (IL)-17 when compared with naive mice, and that CD8+ T cells could be induced to make IL-17 on addition of TGF-beta and IL-6 in vitro. Treatment of mice with anti-TGF-beta antibodies in vivo reduced IL-17 expression both in the tumor and the locoregional lymph nodes. Although IL-17 has not previously been shown to act as a survival factor for epithelial cells, we found that IL-17 suppressed apoptosis of several tumor cell lines in vitro, suggesting that this altered T-cell polarization has the potential to promote tumorigenesis directly, rather than indirectly through inflammatory sequelae. Consistent with this hypothesis, knockdown of the IL-17 receptor in 4T1 mouse mammary cancer cells enhanced apoptosis and decreased tumor growth in vivo. Thus, in addition to suppressing immune surveillance, tumor-induced TGF-beta may actively subvert the CD8+ arm of the immune system into directly promoting tumor growth by an IL-17-dependent mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeong-Seok Nam
- Lee Gil Ya Cancer and Diabetes Institute, Gachon University of Medicine and Science, Incheon, Korea
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83
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Abstract
A plethora of new regulatory T cell (Treg) mechanisms have recently emerged. This raises two important questions. First, how many molecules or mechanisms are required for Treg to work? Second, how should we evaluate the contribution of any given Treg molecule/mechanism and how is this likely to relate (or not) to the phenotype seen in Scurfy/Foxp3-deficient mice? In this discussion piece, I will briefly outline our current understanding of the Treg arsenal and address these important questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dario Vignali
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, 332 N Lauderdale, Memphis, TN 38105-2794, USA.
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84
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Richer MJ, Straka N, Fang D, Shanina I, Horwitz MS. Regulatory T-cells protect from type 1 diabetes after induction by coxsackievirus infection in the context of transforming growth factor-beta. Diabetes 2008; 57:1302-11. [PMID: 18268045 DOI: 10.2337/db07-1460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Coxsackievirus infections have long been associated with the induction of type 1 diabetes. Infection with coxsackievirus B4 (CB4) enhances type 1 diabetes onset in NOD mice by accelerating the presentation of beta-cell antigen to autoreactive T-cells. It has been reported that a progressive defect in regulatory T-cell (Treg) function is, in part, responsible for type 1 diabetes onset in NOD mice. This defect may contribute to susceptibility to viral-induced type 1 diabetes. We asked whether the immune response after CB4 infection could be manipulated to reestablish peripheral tolerance while maintaining the immune response to virus. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS NOD mice expressing transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) specifically in the beta-cells were infected with CB4, and the functional role of Tregs in disease protection was measured. Systemic treatments with TGF-beta were used to assess its therapeutic potential. RESULTS Here, we report that Tregs induced after CB4 infection in the presence of TGF-beta prevented type 1 diabetes. The capacity to directly infect pancreatic beta-cells correlated with increased numbers of pancreatic Tregs, suggesting that presentation of beta-cell antigen is integral to induction of diabetogenic protective Tregs. Furthermore, the presence of these viral induced Tregs correlated with protection from type 1 diabetes without altering the antiviral response. Finally, when TGF-beta was administered systemically to NOD mice after infection, the incidence of type 1 diabetes was reduced, thereby signifying a potential therapeutic role for TGF-beta. CONCLUSIONS We demonstrate manipulations of the immune response that result in Treg-mediated protection from type 1 diabetes without concomitant loss of the capacity to control viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin J Richer
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of British Columbia, 3551-2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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85
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Moutsopoulos NM, Wen J, Wahl SM. TGF-beta and tumors--an ill-fated alliance. Curr Opin Immunol 2008; 20:234-40. [PMID: 18486463 PMCID: PMC3371194 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2008.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2008] [Revised: 04/07/2008] [Accepted: 04/07/2008] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Mechanisms of host defense can form an unwitting alliance with tumor cells to promote tumor progression, invasion, and dissemination to distant sites. By secreting TGF-beta, an immunoregulatory molecule designated for both promoting inflammation and dampening immune responses, the tumor tricks the host into supporting its expansion and survival. TGF-beta not only recruits leukocytes to secrete chemokines, growth factors, cytokines, and proteases in support of a tumor-friendly niche but also in a context-specific manner, incapacitates the emergent immune response. As a profound immunosuppressant, TGF-beta, both directly and through the generation of regulatory T cells, blunts immune surveillance, favoring tumor escape. Collectively, the ability of the tumor to hijack these host defense pathways can tip the balance in favor of the tumor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niki M Moutsopoulos
- Oral Infection and Immunity Branch, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-4352, United States
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86
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T lymphocytes in Sjögren's syndrome: contributors to and regulators of pathophysiology. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 2008; 32:252-64. [PMID: 17992592 DOI: 10.1007/s12016-007-8011-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Sjögren's syndrome is a chronic autoimmune disorder characterized by lymphocytic infiltration and malfunction of the exocrine glands, resulting in dry mouth and eyes. This multigenic and multifunctional disease can present as primary Sjögren's syndrome or secondary to an underlying connective tissue disease. Immune activation subsequent to activation or apoptosis of glandular epithelial cells in genetically predisposed individuals may expose autoantigens, which engage self-perpetuating T cell dependent autoimmune sequelae. The cellular and molecular context of this immune response may drive proinflammatory (Th1 and Th17) and restrain inhibitory (Treg) pathways. Inability to suppress the immune response results in persistent tissue damage and compromised function of salivary and lacrimal glands. Defining the contributions of participating T cells may unravel strategies for therapeutic intervention.
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87
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Matsumura S, Shibakusa T, Fujikawa T, Yamada H, Matsumura K, Inoue K, Fushiki T. Intracisternal administration of transforming growth factor-β evokes fever through the induction of cyclooxygenase-2 in brain endothelial cells. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2008; 294:R266-75. [DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00181.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), a pleiotropic cytokine, regulates cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis, and plays a key role in development and tissue homeostasis. TGF-β functions as an anti-inflammatory cytokine because it suppresses microglia and B-lymphocyte functions, as well as the production of proinflammatory cytokines. However, we previously demonstrated that the intracisternal administration of TGF-β induces fever like that produced by proinflammatory cytokines. In this study, we investigated the mechanism of TGF-β-induced fever. The intracisternal administration of TGF-β increased body temperature in a dose-dependent manner. Pretreatment with cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)-selective inhibitor significantly suppressed TGF-β-induced fever. COX-2 is known as one of the rate-limiting enzymes of the PGE2 synthesis pathway, suggesting that fever induced by TGF-β is COX-2 and PGE2 dependent. TGF-β increased PGE2 levels in cerebrospinal fluid and increased the expression of COX-2 in the brain. Double immunostaining of COX-2 and von Willebrand factor (vWF, an endothelial cell marker) revealed that COX-2-expressing cells were mainly endothelial cells. Although not all COX-2-immunoreactive cells express TGF-β receptor, some COX-2-immunoreactive cells express activin receptor-like kinase-1 (ALK-1, an endothelial cell-specific TGF-β receptor), suggesting that TGF-β directly or indirectly acts on endothelial cells to induce COX-2 expression. These findings suggest a novel function of TGF-β as a proinflammatory cytokine in the central nervous system.
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88
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SØRENSEN MARIARATHMANN, THOMSEN ALLANRANDRUP. Virus-based immunotherapy of cancer: what do we know and where are we going? APMIS 2007; 115:1177-93. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0643.2007.00802.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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89
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Lin WW, Karin M. A cytokine-mediated link between innate immunity, inflammation, and cancer. J Clin Invest 2007; 117:1175-83. [PMID: 17476347 PMCID: PMC1857251 DOI: 10.1172/jci31537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1412] [Impact Index Per Article: 83.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been established that cancer can be promoted and/or exacerbated by inflammation and infections. Indeed, chronic inflammation orchestrates a tumor-supporting microenvironment that is an indispensable participant in the neoplastic process. The mechanisms that link infection, innate immunity, inflammation, and cancer are being unraveled at a fast pace. Important components in this linkage are the cytokines produced by activated innate immune cells that stimulate tumor growth and progression. In addition, soluble mediators produced by cancer cells recruit and activate inflammatory cells, which further stimulate tumor progression. However, inflammatory cells also produce cytokines that can limit tumor growth. Here we provide an overview of the current understanding of the role of inflammation-induced cytokines in tumor initiation, promotion, and progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan-Wan Lin
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Republic of China.
Laboratory of Gene Regulation and Signal Transduction, Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Center, School of Medicine, UCSD, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Michael Karin
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Republic of China.
Laboratory of Gene Regulation and Signal Transduction, Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Center, School of Medicine, UCSD, La Jolla, California, USA
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90
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Polak ME, Borthwick NJ, Gabriel FG, Johnson P, Higgins B, Hurren J, McCormick D, Jager MJ, Cree IA. Mechanisms of local immunosuppression in cutaneous melanoma. Br J Cancer 2007; 96:1879-87. [PMID: 17565341 PMCID: PMC2359967 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6603763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Cutaneous melanoma is highly immunogenic, yet primary melanomas and metastases develop successfully in otherwise immunocompetent patients. To investigate the local immunosuppressive microenvironment, we examined the presence of suppressor T lymphocytes and tolerising dendritic cells (DCs), the expression of immunosuppressive cytokines (IL-10, TGFβ1 and TGFβ2) and the enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) using qRT–PCR and immunohistochemistry in primary skin melanomas, negative and positive sentinel lymph nodes (SLN), and lymph nodes with advanced metastases. Our results indicate that tolerogenic DCs and suppressor T lymphocytes are present in melanoma at all stages of disease progression. They express transforming growth factor β receptor 1 (TGFβR1), and are therefore susceptible to TGFβ1 and TGFβ2 specifically expressed by primary melanoma. We found that expression of IDO and interleukin 10 (IL-10) increased with melanoma progression, with the highest concentration in positive SLN. We suggest that negative SLN contain immunosuppressive cells and cytokines, due to preconditioning by tolerogenic DCs migrating from the primary melanoma site to the SLN. In primary melanoma, TGFβ2 is likely to render peripheral DCs tolerogenic, while in lymph nodes IDO and TGFβ1 may have a major effect. This mechanism of tumour-associated immunosuppression may inhibit the immune response to the tumour and may explain the discrepancy between the induction of systemic immunity by anti-melanoma vaccines and their poor performance in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Polak
- Translational Oncology Research Centre, Department of Surgery and Histopathology, Queen Alexandra Hospital, Southwick Hill, Portsmouth PO6 3LY, UK.
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91
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Li H, Yu JP, Cao S, Wei F, Zhang P, An XM, Huang ZT, Ren XB. CD4 +CD25 + regulatory T cells decreased the antitumor activity of cytokine-induced killer (CIK) cells of lung cancer patients. J Clin Immunol 2007; 27:317-26. [PMID: 17468835 DOI: 10.1007/s10875-007-9076-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2006] [Accepted: 01/22/2007] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
: CD(4) (+)CD(25) (+) regulatory T cells (Tregs) have been shown to inhibit cytotoxic lymphocytes-mediated immune responses. Cytokine-induced killer (CIK) cells exert high impact on adoptive immunotherapeutic approaches. Therefore, the purpose of this report was to determine the effect of Tregs on CIK cell growth and CIK-induced cytotoxicity for inhibition of tumor growth in vivo as well as in vitro. After depletion of CD(4) (+)CD(25) (+) cells before culture, the proliferation and cytotoxicity of CIK cells, which indicated in bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) and lactic dehydrogenase (LDH) assays, were significantly increased. Depletion of CD(4) (+)CD(25) (+) cells preculture also enhanced the suppression effect on the lung cancer cells inoculated in experimental animals. Blockage of glucocorticoid-induced tumor necrosis factor receptor (GITR) and transforming growth factor beta1 (TGF-beta1) by antibodies partially abrogated the suppressive effect of CD(4) (+)CD(25) (+) cells on CIK. These results indicated that Tregs could inhibit the antitumor activity of CIK cells. The molecules TGF-beta and GITR may contribute to the suppressive function of CD(4) (+)CD(25) (+) cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Li
- Department of Immunology, Cancer Institute and Hospital, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, 30060, China,
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92
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Larmonier N, Marron M, Zeng Y, Cantrell J, Romanoski A, Sepassi M, Thompson S, Chen X, Andreansky S, Katsanis E. Tumor-derived CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T cell suppression of dendritic cell function involves TGF-beta and IL-10. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2007; 56:48-59. [PMID: 16612596 PMCID: PMC11030031 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-006-0160-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 158] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2006] [Accepted: 03/13/2006] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T cells have been characterized as a critical population of immunosuppressive cells. They play a crucial role in cancer progression by inhibiting the effector function of CD4(+) or CD8(+) T lymphocytes. However, whether regulatory T lymphocytes that expand during tumor progression can modulate dendritic cell function is unclear. To address this issue, we have evaluated the inhibitory potential of CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T cells from mice bearing a BCR-ABL(+) leukemia on bone marrow-derived dendritic cells. We present data demonstrating that CD4(+)CD25(+)FoxP3(+) regulatory T cells from tumor-bearing animals impede dendritic cell function by down-regulating the activation of the transcription factor NF-kappaB. The expression of the co-stimulatory molecules CD80, CD86 and CD40, the production of TNF-alpha, IL-12, and CCL5/RANTES by the suppressed DC is strongly down-regulated. The suppression mechanism requires TGF-beta and IL-10 and is associated with induction of the Smad signaling pathway and activation of the STAT3 transcription factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Larmonier
- Department of Pediatrics, Steele Children’s Research Center, University of Arizona, 1501 N. Campbell Ave., P.O. Box 245073, Tucson, AZ 85724-5073 USA
| | - Marilyn Marron
- Department of Pediatrics, Steele Children’s Research Center, University of Arizona, 1501 N. Campbell Ave., P.O. Box 245073, Tucson, AZ 85724-5073 USA
| | - Yi Zeng
- Department of Pediatrics, Steele Children’s Research Center, University of Arizona, 1501 N. Campbell Ave., P.O. Box 245073, Tucson, AZ 85724-5073 USA
| | - Jessica Cantrell
- Department of Pediatrics, Steele Children’s Research Center, University of Arizona, 1501 N. Campbell Ave., P.O. Box 245073, Tucson, AZ 85724-5073 USA
| | - Angela Romanoski
- Department of Pediatrics, Steele Children’s Research Center, University of Arizona, 1501 N. Campbell Ave., P.O. Box 245073, Tucson, AZ 85724-5073 USA
| | - Marjan Sepassi
- Department of Pediatrics, Steele Children’s Research Center, University of Arizona, 1501 N. Campbell Ave., P.O. Box 245073, Tucson, AZ 85724-5073 USA
| | - Sylvia Thompson
- Department of Pediatrics, Steele Children’s Research Center, University of Arizona, 1501 N. Campbell Ave., P.O. Box 245073, Tucson, AZ 85724-5073 USA
| | - Xinchun Chen
- Department of Pediatrics, Steele Children’s Research Center, University of Arizona, 1501 N. Campbell Ave., P.O. Box 245073, Tucson, AZ 85724-5073 USA
| | - Samita Andreansky
- Department of Pediatrics, Steele Children’s Research Center, University of Arizona, 1501 N. Campbell Ave., P.O. Box 245073, Tucson, AZ 85724-5073 USA
| | - Emmanuel Katsanis
- Department of Pediatrics, Steele Children’s Research Center, University of Arizona, 1501 N. Campbell Ave., P.O. Box 245073, Tucson, AZ 85724-5073 USA
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93
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Abstract
T regulatory (Treg) cells have been studied for more than 30 years. Recently, changing technology and attitudes have led to new interest in T cell regulation of the immune responses. The eye is an immune-privileged site with unique mechanisms for the prevention of damaging immune inflammation. The eye fashions its Treg cells in novel ways to prevent immune inflammation locally and systemically. The purpose of this mini-review is to condense and summarize reports of Treg cells dependent on the eye in the context of the Treg literature in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joan Stein-Streilein
- Schepens Eye Research Institute and Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
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94
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Abstract
Functionally barricaded immune responses or sites of immune privilege are no longer considered dependent on specific anatomical considerations, but rather, they can develop in any location where immunoregulatory cells congregate and express or release products capable of deviating the host response to foreign antigens. Among the pivotal molecules involved in orchestrating these ectopic sites of immune suppression is transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta), a secreted and cell-associated polypeptide with a multiplicity of actions in innate and adaptive immunity. While beneficial in initiating and controlling immune responses and maintaining immune homeostasis, immunosuppressive pathways mediated by TGF-beta may obscure immune surveillance mechanisms, resulting in failure to recognize or respond adequately to self, foreign, or tumor-associated antigens. CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells represent a dominant purveyor of TGF-beta-mediated suppression and are found in infiltrating tumors and other sites of immune privilege, where they influence CD8+ T cells; CD4+ T-helper (Th)1, Th2, and Th17 cells; natural killer cells; and cells of myeloid lineage to choreograph and/or muck up host defense. Defining the cellular sources, mechanisms of action, and networking that distinguish the dynamic establishment of localized immune privilege is vital for developing strategic approaches to diminish or to embellish these tolerogenic events for therapeutic benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon M Wahl
- Oral Infection and Immunity Branch, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-4352, USA.
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95
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Davies M, Paterson IC, Ganapathy A, Prime SS. Cell death induced by N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)retinamide in human epidermal keratinocytes is modulated by TGF-beta and diminishes during the progression of squamous cell carcinoma. Int J Cancer 2006; 119:2803-11. [PMID: 17044020 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.22263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
It has been demonstrated that the chemopreventive agent N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)retinamide (4-HPR) induces apoptotic cell death, but recent data has suggested that late stage/recurrent tumours lose their response to 4-HPR-induced cell death by mechanisms that are unknown. Our study investigated the ability of 4-HPR to induce cell death in keratinocyte cell lines that represent different stages of carcinogenesis and the role of TGF-beta signalling in the induction of cell death by 4-HPR. We show that treatment of the immortalised keratinocyte cell line HaCaT with 10(-5) M 4-HPR induced cell death by apoptosis and caused an accumulation of cells in the G0/G1 phase of the cell cycle. Using a genetically related series of human skin keratinocytes derived from HaCaT that reflect tumour progression and metastasis in vivo, we demonstrate that 4-HPR-induced cell death and apoptosis is attenuated in the more aggressive tumour cell lines but that a reduced level of response is retained. Response to TGF-beta-induced growth inhibition was also reduced in the more aggressive cell lines. Treatment of HaCaT cells with 4-HPR induced TGF-beta2 expression and an increase in the amount of active TGF-beta in the culture medium. The inhibition of TGF-beta signalling attenuated 4-HPR-induced apoptosis and both TGF-beta1 and TGF-beta2 potentiated 4-HPR-induced apoptosis and enhanced 4-HPR-induced growth inhibition. Our results demonstrate that loss of response to 4-HPR correlates with a loss of response to the growth inhibitory effects of TGF-beta and that adjuvant therapies that upregulate TGF-beta may enhance the chemopreventive effects of 4-HPR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Davies
- Department of Oral and Dental Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom.
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96
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Ménoret A, Myers LM, Lee SJ, Mittler RS, Rossi RJ, Vella AT. TGFbeta protein processing and activity through TCR triggering of primary CD8+ T regulatory cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 177:6091-7. [PMID: 17056535 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.177.9.6091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In general, TGFbeta is synthesized as a procytokine that requires proteolytic activation, release of the mature cytokine from its noncovalently associated latent-associated peptide, and binding to TGFbetaRII to mediate suppressive activity. We tracked this process in mice containing primed CD8 regulatory T cells (Tregs) by immunoblotting in primary whole cell lysates for pro-TGFbeta, latent-associated peptide and mature TGFbeta. Generation of CD8 Tregs promoted processing of the 50 kDa pro-TGFbeta protein into a 12.5 kDa mature TGFbeta species in vivo. Despite the inability to detect mature TGFbeta in the sera of mice with primed CD8 Tregs and in the synthetic culture medium of stimulated CD8 Tregs, we demonstrated engagement of TGFbetaRII through immunoblotting for Smad2 phosphorylation. This process relied on continual TCR triggering, which also induced Smad3 phosphorylation. To understand the movement of mature TGFbeta, we showed that in contrast to IFN-gamma, mature TGFbeta does not remain a soluble cytokine but is likely to be rapidly adsorbed by neighboring cells. These data show the exquisite local control directed toward TGFbeta by the immune system and underscore the fine specificity involved in its detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Ménoret
- Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT 06032, USA
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97
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Matsumura S, Shibakusa T, Fujikawa T, Yamada H, Inoue K, Fushiki T. Increase in transforming growth factor-beta in the brain during infection is related to fever, not depression of spontaneous motor activity. Neuroscience 2006; 144:1133-40. [PMID: 17156928 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.10.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2006] [Revised: 10/25/2006] [Accepted: 10/26/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
When viral infection occurs, this information is transmitted to the brain, and symptoms such as fever and tiredness are induced. One of the causes of these symptoms is the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines in blood and the brain. In this study, the i.p. administration of polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly I:C), a synthetic double-stranded RNA, to rats was used as an infection model. Poly I:C decreased spontaneous motor activity (SMA) 2 h after i.p. administration, and this decrease was maintained thereafter. The concentration of active transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) increased 1 h after the administration. This increase occurred earlier than those in the concentrations of other proinflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), in serum. The intracisternal administration of an anti-TGF-beta antibody partially inhibited fever induced by poly I:C administration; however, this treatment did not affect the decrease in SMA. Furthermore, intracisternal administration of TGF-beta raised the body temperature. These results indicate that TGF-beta in the brain, which was increased by poly I:C administration, is associated with fever but not with a decrease in SMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Matsumura
- Laboratory of Nutrition Chemistry, Division of Food Science and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Oiwakecho, Kitashirakawa, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan 606-8502
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98
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Wahl SM. Transforming growth factor-beta: innately bipolar. Curr Opin Immunol 2006; 19:55-62. [PMID: 17137775 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2006.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2006] [Accepted: 11/16/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Widely heralded for depressing ongoing immune responses, renewed interest in the proficiency by which transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) not only engages but also might drive an over-reactive innate response highlights its bipolar nature. Although coordination of the development and function of Treg, in addition to direct inhibition of cellular activation, are prominent pathways by which TGF-beta controls adaptive immunity, paradoxically TGF-beta appears instrumental in initiation of host responses to invasion through recruitment and activation of immune cells and persuasion of Th17 lineage commitment. Nevertheless, true to its manic-depressive behavior, new evidence links TGF-beta with depression of innate cells, including NK cells, and by way of a potential bridge between mast cells and Treg. Disruption of the tenuous balance between these opposing actions of TGF-beta underlies immunopathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon M Wahl
- Oral Infection and Immunity Branch, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892-4352, USA.
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99
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Liu Y, Amarnath S, Chen W. Requirement of CD28 signaling in homeostasis/survival of TGF-beta converted CD4+CD25+ Tregs from thymic CD4+CD25- single positive T cells. Transplantation 2006; 82:953-64. [PMID: 17038912 DOI: 10.1097/01.tp.0000232330.46688.37] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The thymus is a major organ that generates "natural" CD4+CD25+ T regulatory cells (Tregs). However, the detailed pathway(s) by which Tregs are developed remain a mystery. CD28-/- mice have profound decrease in Tregs, but the underlying molecular events remain largely undefined. METHODS CD4+CD25+ thymocytes from wildtype and CD28-/- mice were cultured with T-cell receptor (TCR) and transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta stimulation to generate CD25+ Tregs and their phenotype and function were studied in vitro and in vivo. RESULTS TGF-beta induced Foxp3 expression in thymic CD4+CD25+ cells and converted them to CD25+ Tregs. The converted Tregs expressed high levels of CD25, whereas the non-suppressive CD4+ T cells from the control cultures expressed CD25(low). CD28-/- thymic CD4+CD25+ cells showed transit lower levels of Foxp3 upon TCR and TGF-beta stimulation early in culture, but the defect in Foxp3 expression was restored to normal levels after 60-72 hr. Consequently, TGF-beta converted CD28-/- CD25+ cells to CD25+ Tregs that were indistinguishable from those of the wildtype mice. However, the total number of TGF-beta converted CD28-/- Tregs was significantly lower than that of wildtype mice. In vivo, TGF-beta converted CD28-/- CD25+ Tregs were less viable than those from the wildtype mice. Importantly, TGF-beta induced alloantigen specific CD4+CD25+ Tregs from thymic CD25-SP cells which also required CD28 to maintain their survival. CONCLUSIONS TGF-beta and TCR co-stimulation converts thymic CD4+CD25+ T cells into CD4+CD25+ Tregs by inducing Foxp3, and the contribution of CD28 stimulation to this process is mainly through maintaining survival of the induced Tregs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongzhong Liu
- Mucosal Immunology Unit, Oral Infection and Immunity Branch, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20895, USA
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100
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van Puijvelde GHM, Hauer AD, de Vos P, van den Heuvel R, van Herwijnen MJC, van der Zee R, van Eden W, van Berkel TJC, Kuiper J. Induction of oral tolerance to oxidized low-density lipoprotein ameliorates atherosclerosis. Circulation 2006; 114:1968-76. [PMID: 17060383 DOI: 10.1161/circulationaha.106.615609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Oxidation of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and the subsequent processing of oxidized LDL (oxLDL) by macrophages results in activation of specific T cells, which contributes to the development of atherosclerosis. Oral tolerance induction and the subsequent activation of regulatory T cells may be an adequate therapy for the treatment of atherosclerosis. METHODS AND RESULTS Tolerance to oxLDL and malondialdehyde-treated LDL (MDA-LDL) was induced in LDL receptor-/- mice fed a Western-type diet by oral administration of oxLDL or MDA-LDL before the induction of atherogenesis. Oral tolerance to oxLDL resulted in a significant attenuation of the initiation (30% to 71%; P<0.05) and progression (45%; P<0.05) of atherogenesis. Tolerance to oxLDL induced a significant increase in CD4+ CD25+ Foxp3+ cells in spleen and mesenteric lymph nodes, and these cells specifically responded to oxLDL with increased transforming growth factor-beta production. Tolerance to oxLDL also increased the mRNA expression of Foxp3, CTLA-4, and CD25 in the plaque. In contrast, tolerance to MDA-LDL did not affect atherogenesis. CONCLUSIONS OxLDL-specific T cells, present in LDL receptor-/- mice and important contributors in the immune response leading to atherosclerotic plaque, can be counteracted by oxLDL-specific CD4+ CD25+ Foxp3+ regulatory T cells activated via oral tolerance induction to oxLDL. We conclude that the induction of oral tolerance to oxLDL may be a promising strategy to modulate the immune response during atherogenesis and a new way to treat atherosclerosis.
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