Strategic objectives for improving understanding of informant discrepancies in developmental psychopathology research

Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and emotional and behavioural problems in children: a longitudinal population-based study

There is evidence that offspring of mothers who have hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (HDP) are at increased risk of adverse health outcomes. This study aims to examine the association between maternal HDP and emotional- and behavioural problems in offspring at age 11 years as reported by teachers and parents. The current study is based on the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), a prospective, population-based study that has followed a cohort of offspring since their mothers were pregnant. Childhood emotional- and behavioural problems were measured using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), completed by parents (n = 7196) and the child's teacher (n = 7411). Maternal preeclampsia, but not gestational hypertension, was associated with teacher-reported total behavioural difficulties (RR = 1.62; 95% CI 1.03-2.52) and internalising problems in children [peer problems (RR = 1.48; 95% CI 1.06-2.08) and emotional problems (RR = 1.68; 95% CI 1.13-2.51)]. No associations between preeclampsia and/or gestational hypertension and parent-reported emotional- and behaviour problems were observed. Our study showed that children exposed to preeclampsia had higher risk of teacher-reported total behavioural difficulties and internalising problems compared with unexposed children. The findings suggest emotional- and behavioural difficulties may not be evident in all settings, hence the importance of collecting evidence from multiple informants.

Perspective matters: Differences between child- and caregiver-reports of emotion regulation mediating the relationship between cumulative childhood trauma and mental health problems in foster children

BACKGROUND

Cumulative childhood trauma predicts mental health problems in children, mediated by emotion regulation (ER). To assess trauma history and mental health in children, different informants may be addressed, assessing data from different perspectives. Despite differences between child- and caregiver-reports as robust finding in child psychology, it remains unclear to which extent perspective matters when examining these variables and related associations.

OBJECTIVE

The current study was set to (1) examine whether ER mediates the relationship between cumulative childhood trauma and mental health problems in children, (2) test whether results differ with examined perspective, and (3) investigate if meaningful patterns of child-caregiver-reported discrepancies can be identified.

METHODS

Data were collected from 145 children living in foster care by child- and caregiver-reports using standardized measures to assess trauma history (CTQ), ER (FEEL-KJ), and mental health problems (CBCL). Mediation and latent profile analysis were calculated.

RESULTS

Mediation analysis identified ER as mediator for internalizing and externalizing mental health problems. Using data from different perspectives, mediation models differed considerably regarding significance, direction, and magnitude of effects. Using latent profile analysis, meaningful patterns of child-caregiver-reported discrepancies were identified and associated with children's sociodemographic and psychopathological characteristics.

CONCLUSIONS

Adaptive and maladaptive ER distinctively mediate the relationship between cumulative childhood trauma and mental health problems in children. Perspective matters when examining these variables and child- and caregiver-reports are not interchangeable. Practitioners and researchers should be aware of inherent limitations when using data from distinct perspectives. Informant discrepancies can carry meaning and should not be ignored, but examined and interpreted instead.

Factors Associated With Discrepancy in Parent-Teacher Reporting of Symptoms of ADHD in a Large Clinic-Referred Sample of Children

Objective: To identify factors associated with discrepancy in parent-teacher reporting of symptoms of ADHD. Method: Parents and teachers rated 1,364 children using an ADHD rating scale. Data were analyzed using multiple regressions and ANOVA. Results: Demographic variables predicted greater parent-teacher discrepancy for ethnic minority families than for Caucasian families. Comorbidity variables predicted greater discrepancy for children who had a comorbid externalizing disorder. Academic performance variables predicted discrepancy for children who showed more homework problems. When all significant predictors were entered together, externalizing disorders and homework problems emerged as significant predictors. Participants whose parents reported higher levels of symptoms were of significantly higher socioeconomic status. Participants whose teachers reported higher levels of symptoms were significantly less likely to have a comorbid externalizing disorder and parent-reported homework problems. Conclusion: Parent-teacher discrepancies are likely to occur when the child has significant homework and externalizing behavior problems.

When parents and children disagree: Informant discrepancies in reports of depressive symptoms in clinical interviews

BACKGROUND

Parents and their children often disagree on the existence and severity of psychopathological symptoms, especially in major depressive disorder (MDD). Discrepant estimations pose a problem for the validity of diagnoses and illness severity with major implications for treatment evaluation.

METHODS

118 adolescents aged 13-18 years and their parents were interviewed and their reports were compared regarding the presence of a MDD diagnosis. In addition, severity ratings of depression symptoms reported in the Children's Depression Rating Scale-Revised (CDRS-R) were compared between parents and their offspring using multivariate analyses and polynomial regressions. The association between borderline features, functional impairment, and treatment history variables with parent-child agreement was assessed.

RESULTS

In 38% of the cases, parents and adolescents agreed on DSM-IV diagnostic MDD criteria, while in 53%, only the adolescent endorsed criteria for a MDD. A MDD that was endorsed by parents and adolescents was characterized by higher depression severity, higher number of previous treatments, and higher functional impairment. Using a polynomial approach, neither age nor borderline tendencies were associated with agreement.

LIMITATIONS

We did not differentiate between mother's versus father's reports and borderline features were assessed by self-report only.

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescents and their parents gave differing reports of the existence and severity of depressive symptoms. The high discrepancy levels combined with the uncertainty of previously published findings due to methodological challenges are concerning. Clinicians and researchers need to consider discrepancies in agreement in relation to diagnosis and illness severity in the context of their clinical and research decisions.

Developmental stages and estimated prevalence of coexisting mental health and neurodevelopmental conditions and service use in youth with intellectual disabilities, 2011-2012

BACKGROUND

Few studies exist on mental health and neurodevelopmental conditions and service use among youth with intellectual disabilities (IDs), which makes it difficult to develop interventions for this population. The objective of the study is to (1) estimate and compare the prevalence of mental health and neurodevelopmental conditions in youth with and without ID across three developmental stages and (2) estimate and compare mental health service use in youth with and without ID across three developmental stages.

METHODS

We conducted secondary data analysis using cross-sectional data collected from caregivers completing the 2011-2012 National Survey of Children's Health. The data set represents a nationally representative sample of youth (0-17 years) in the USA with one child from each household being randomly selected. Data were collected from caregivers in 50 states, Washington D.C. and the US Virgin Islands. We restricted the sample to parents of youth between 3-17 years (N = 81 510).

RESULTS

Compared with youth without ID, youth ages 3-17 with ID had a statistically significantly higher prevalence of (1) mental health and neurodevelopmental conditions and (2) mental health care use and medication use for mental health and neurodevelopmental issues (other than attention deficit disorder/attention deficit hyperactivity disorder). Clinically significant differences in coexisting conditions and service use were also found across developmental stages.

CONCLUSIONS

Youth with ID are at greater risk of having coexisting mental health and neurodevelopmental conditions than youth without ID and are more likely to receive treatment. Therefore, clinicians should consider mental health and neurodevelopmental conditions and the unique needs of youth by developmental stage when tailoring interventions for youth with ID.

School Cohesion Perception Discrepancy and Student Delinquency

Research suggests that positive school environments contribute to lower levels of school disorder. Studies have also documented stark differences between how students and personnel perceive their schools. The current study examines such "perception discrepancies" as a meaningful dimension of the school environment, investigating the hypothesis that when students perceive their schools as less cohesive than their teachers, they are more likely to engage in delinquent conduct. The University of Missouri-St. Louis Comprehensive School Safety Initiative (UMSL CSSI) study allows comparisons between student and personnel perceptions of school climate among an analytic sample of 2741 students nested in 12 American middle schools (average age = 13.6; 54% female; 39% black; 39% white). The results of a series of hierarchical regression models demonstrate that students engage in higher levels of delinquency when they perceive their school environments as less cohesive, on average, than do school personnel. This suggests that discrepancies among students and personnel concerning aspects of the school climate represent a deficiency in the school's ability to protect against student delinquency.

The Relationship between Maternal Overprotection, Adolescent Internalizing and Externalizing Problems, and Psychological Need Frustration: A Multi-Informant Study Using Response Surface Analysis

Parents and adolescents may hold discrepant views about parents' behaviors, which may be related to adolescent maladjustment. The goal of the present investigation was to examine associations between overprotective parenting and adolescents' internalizing and externalizing problems and the frustration of their psychological needs (for autonomy, relatedness and competence), thereby considering both congruence and incongruence in adolescents' and mothers' reports of overprotective parenting. Our sample consisted of 402 mother-adolescent dyads (M adolescent age = 16.8 years, 63% female), who reported upon the mothers' overprotective parenting. In addition, adolescents filled out questionnaires assessing their internalizing and externalizing problems and psychological need frustration. Data were analyzed using polynomial regressions with response surface analysis. Results showed evidence for a linear, additive relationship between adolescents' and mothers' reports of overprotective parenting, and adolescents' internalizing and externalizing symptoms and relatedness and competence frustration. That is, higher scores in adolescents' and mothers' ratings of overprotective parenting were associated with more maladjustment and more need frustration. Moreover, results indicated that incongruence between adolescents' and mothers' reports related to more externalizing problems and more autonomy and relatedness frustration, and this was especially the case when adolescents perceived higher levels of overprotection than what was reported by mothers. These results underscore the importance of considering multiple perspectives when studying the dynamics involved in overprotective parenting.

Improving Interpretability of Subjective Assessments About Psychological Phenomena: A Review and Cross-Cultural Meta-Analysis

Attempts to understand subjectivity have historically involved distinguishing the strengths of subjective methods (e.g., survey ratings from informants) from those of alternative methods (e.g., observational/performance-based tasks). Yet a movement is underway in Psychology that considers the merits of intersubjectivity: Understanding the space between two or more informant’s subjective impressions of a common person or phenomenon. In mental health research, understanding differences between subjective impressions have less to do with informants’ characteristics and more to do with the social environments or contexts germane to the people or phenomena examined. Our article focuses on one relatively understudied social environment: the cultural context. We draw from seminal work on psychological universals, as well as emerging work on cultural norms (i.e., cultural tightness) to understand intersubjectivity effects through a cross-cultural lens. We report a meta-analysis of 314 studies of intersubjectivity effects in mental health, revealing that (a) this work involves independent research teams in more than 30 countries, (b) informants rating a target person’s mental health (e.g., parent and teacher ratings of a child’s behavior) commonly provide diverging estimates of that person’s mental health, and (c) greater convergence between subjective reports relates to a “tighter” or more norms-bound culture. Our article illustrates strategies for understanding divergence between subjective reports. In particular, we highlight theoretical and methodological frameworks for examining patterns of divergence between subjective reports in relation to data from nonsubjective methods. We also describe how research on intersubjectivity informs efforts to improve the interpretability of subjective assessments in multiple subdisciplines in Psychology.

Research priorities of people living with Turner syndrome

Despite major discoveries, traditional biomedical research has not always addressed topics perceived as priorities by patients and their families. Patient-centered care is predicated on research taking such priorities into account. The present study surveyed women with Turner syndrome (TS; 18+ years; n = 543), parents of women with TS (n = 232), and parents of younger daughters with TS (<18 years; n = 563), regarding their priorities for research. The study also included a quantitative audit of research categorized as either predominantly biomedical or psychological in the medical and other scientific literature. The overwhelming majority of all surveyed stakeholders (84% and higher) rated both biomedical and psychological research in TS as "very important," yet only approximately 9% of published research focused on psychological aspects of TS. The odds of women with TS identifying psychological research as "most important" was significantly lower (OR: 0.607; 95% CI: 0.375, 0.982] than the odds of parents making the same prioritization. Despite the majority of participants rating research as very important, only approximately half-rated participation in research as similarly important. The majority of respondents in all three groups (59%-73%) indicated they would "very likely" participate in research pertaining to eating or nutrition, quality of life, or genetic studies in TS. Substantially fewer expressed similar eagerness to participate in studies involving the study of a new medicine or medical device. Increased engagement of patient and family stakeholders in research requires that investigators select topics of study important to that community.

How Consistent Is Sluggish Cognitive Tempo Across Occasions, Sources, and Settings? Evidence From Latent State-Trait Modeling

Research has yet to determine how much of the variance in sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT) symptom ratings is consistent across occasions, sources, and settings versus specific to occasion, source, and setting. Our first objective was to determine the amount of variance in SCT ratings that was consistent ( trait consistency) across three occasions of measurement over 12 months versus specific to the occasion ( occasion-specificity) with ratings by mothers, fathers, primary teachers, and secondary teachers of 811 Spanish children. Our second objective was then to determine the convergent validity for trait consistency and occasion-specificity variance components within and across settings. SCT ratings reflected mostly trait consistency for mothers, fathers, and primary teachers (less so for secondary teachers) with the convergent validity for trait consistency also being strong for mothers with fathers and for primary teachers with secondary teachers. Across home and school, however, convergent validity for trait consistency was low and even lower for occasion-specificity. SCT appears to be more trait-like rather than state-like, with similar levels of trait consistency across occasions and convergent validity within settings as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms in a prior study. However, SCT symptoms had slightly weaker convergent validity for trait consistency across settings relative to ADHD symptoms.

Method effects of the relation between family history of alcoholism and parent reports of offspring impulsive behavior

There is an extensive, albeit inconsistent, literature on the relation between parental alcoholism and offspring impulsive behavior. The reasons for this inconsistency are likely multiple but it seems probable that method effects due to different methodological approaches might explain some of the inconsistencies. Offspring behavior is typically assessed based on informant reports. However, no specific method has been demonstrated as optimal for analyzing informant reports, and conclusions may differ depending on the method used. The present study compared findings derived from a multi-informant method proposed by Bauer et al. (2013) to other structural equation models. Participants came from Wave 7 of the Alcohol, Health and Behavior study and included mother and father reports of offspring impulsive behavior on the Health and Behavior Questionnaire (Armstrong, Goldstein, & the MacArthur Working Group on Outcome Assessment, 2003). There were 368 offspring (50% female, age range 3-17 years, meanage = 6.78, SDage = 3.07) from 205 families. The multi-informant model and the single-reporter models each provided a good fit of the data; however, findings differed based on the approach employed. Specifically, the mother-only report model found that offspring with a family history of alcoholism (FHA) were more impulsive compared to offspring without a FHA; no effect of FHA was found in the other single-reporter models. Ratings of offspring impulsive behavior were higher on the father perspective factor suggesting alcoholic fathers were biased in their reports. These findings highlight the relation between FHA and impulsive behavior varies depending on the analytic method used.

Caring electronically for young outpatients who have epilepsy

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to review electronic tools that might improve the delivery of epilepsy care, reduce medical care costs, and empower families to improve self-management capability.

METHOD

We reviewed the epilepsy-specific literature about self-management, electronic patient-reported or provider-reported outcomes, on-going remote surveillance, and alerting/warning systems.

CONCLUSIONS

The improved care delivery system that we envision includes self-management, electronic patient (or provider)-reported outcomes, on-going remote surveillance, and alerting/warning systems. This system and variants have the potential to reduce seizure burden through improved management, keep children out of the emergency department and hospital, and even reduce the number of outpatient visits.

Disagreeing about development: An analysis of parent-teacher agreement in ADHD symptom trajectories across the elementary school years

OBJECTIVES

It is well-known that in cross-sectional analyses, agreement between informants is modest as best when rating attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and other disruptive behaviour disorder symptoms. We here aimed to develop recommendations for the use of multi-informant data in the context of longitudinal developmental analyses that examine symptom trajectories over time.

METHOD

Using parallel process modelling, we estimated parent-teacher agreement in inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity symptom initial levels and slopes across the elementary school years (ages 7, 9, and 11) for a community sample of n = 1,388 youth. We also used these models to examine whether initial levels and slopes differed significantly across informants.

RESULTS

Informant agreement was low to moderate and higher for inattention slopes (r = .47) than for hyperactivity/impulsivity slopes (r = .23). Parents and teachers reported opposite developmental trends for inattention with teachers reporting declines and parents reporting increases over time. Parents reported overall higher levels of hyperactivity/impulsivity, but there were no average informant differences in slopes.

CONCLUSION

Of the options available, we recommend specifying separate but correlated factors for different informants in developmental analyses of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. This can be achieved within latent growth curve and growth mixture models.

In the Eye of the Beholder? Parent-Observer Discrepancies in Parenting and Child Disruptive Behavior Assessments

This study examined parent-observer discrepancies in assessments of negative child behavior and negative parenting behavior to shed more light on correlates with these discrepancies. Specifically, we hypothesized that informant discrepancy between observers and parents on child behavior would be larger when parents reported high levels of negative parenting (and vice versa) because high levels of these behaviors might be indicators of negative perceiver bias or patterns of family dysfunctioning. Using restricted correlated trait-models, we analyzed cross-sectional observation (coded with the Dyadic Parent-Child Interaction Coding System) and survey data (Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory and Parenting Practices Interview) of 386 Dutch parent-child dyads with children aged 4-8 years (Mage = 6.21, SD = 1.33; 55.30% boys). Small associations between parent-reported and observed child and parenting behavior were found, indicating high discrepancy. In line with our hypothesis, this discrepancy was higher when parents self-reported more negative parenting or more negative child behavior. Parent-observer discrepancy on negative child behavior was also predicted by child gender. For boys parents reported higher levels of negative child behavior than were observed, but for girls parents reported lower levels of negative child behavior than were observed. These findings suggest that informant discrepancies between observers and parents might provide important information on underlying, problematic family functioning and may help to identify those families most in need of help.

Pregnancy risk factors in relation to oppositional-defiant and conduct disorder symptoms in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children

BACKGROUND

Pregnancy factors have been implicated in offspring oppositional-defiant disorder (ODD) and conduct disorder (CD) symptoms. Literature still holds notable limitations, such as studying only a restricted set of pregnancy factors, use of screening questionnaires which assess broadly defined outcome measures, and lack of control for disruptive behavior comorbidity and genetic confounds. We aimed to address these gaps by prospectively studying a broad range of pregnancy factors in relation to both offspring ODD and CD symptomatology in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parent and Children.

METHODS

Outcomes were ODD and CD symptom scores at age 7;9 years using the Development and Well-Being Assessment interview. We analyzed maternal (N ≈ 6300) and teacher ratings (N ≈ 4400) of ODD and CD scores separately using negative binomial regression in multivariable models. Control variables included comorbid attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms, ODD or CD symptoms as appropriate, and genetic risk scores based on an independent CD genome-wide association study.

RESULTS

Higher ODD symptom scores were linked to paracetamol use (IRR = 1.24 [98.3% confidence interval 1.05-1.47], P = 0.002, teacher ratings) and life events stress (IRR = 1.22 [1.07-1.39], P = 0.002, maternal ratings) during pregnancy. Higher CD symptom scores were linked to maternal smoking (IRR = 1.33 [1.18-1.51], P < 0.001, maternal ratings), life events stress (IRR = 1.24 [1.11-1.38], P < 0.001, maternal ratings) and depressive symptoms (IRR = 1.14 [1.01-1.30], P = 0.006, maternal ratings) during pregnancy.

CONCLUSIONS

Common and potentially preventable pregnancy risk factors were independently related to both offspring ODD and CD symptomatology in children from the general population. Future studies should further address genetic confounds and confounding by environmental factors later in life.

Broader autism phenotype in parents of children with autism: a systematic review of percentage estimates

The broader autism phenotype (BAP) is a collection of sub-diagnostic autistic traits more common in families of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) than in the general population. BAP is a latent construct that can be defined using different domains, measured using multiple instruments, and reported using different techniques. Therefore, estimates of BAP may vary greatly across studies. Our objective was to systematically review studies that reported occurrence of BAP in parents of children with ASD in order to quantify and describe heterogeneity in estimates. We systematically searched PubMed and Scopus using PRISMA guidelines for studies quantifying percentage of parents of children with ASD who had BAP We identified 41 studies that measured BAP in parents of children with ASD. These studies used eight different instruments, four different forms of data collection, and had a wide range of sample sizes (N=4 to N=3299). Percentage with BAP ranged from 2.6% to 80%. BAP was more prevalent in fathers than mothers. Parental BAP may be an important tool for parsing heterogeneity in ASD etiology and for developing parent-mediated ASD interventions. However, the variety in measurement instruments and variability in study samples limits our ability to synthesize estimates. To improve measurement of BAP and increase consistency across studies, universal methods should be accepted and adopted across studies. A more consistent approach to BAP measurement may enable efficient etiologic research that can be meta-analyzed and may allow for a larger evidence base that can be used to account for BAP when developing parent-mediated interventions.

Estimated Prevalence of Psychiatric Comorbidities in U.S. Adolescents With Depression by Race/Ethnicity, 2011-2012

PURPOSE

Comorbid psychiatric conditions in adolescents with depression are a public health concern. However, little is known about the prevalence of comorbidities in separate racial/ethnic groups. This study estimated the national prevalence of comorbidities for black, Hispanic, and white adolescents separately, and compared the prevalence of comorbidities between adolescents with and without depression.

METHODS

This secondary analysis used data from the 2011-2012 National Survey of Children's Health, a nationally representative, cross-sectional survey of U.S. youth. We restricted the sample to 12-17 year olds, and obtained unweighted and weighted descriptive statistics. Using weighted probit regression models, we examined differences in prevalence of comorbidities by adolescents with and without depression for each racial/ethnic group.

RESULTS

For black, Hispanic, and white adolescents with depression, the prevalence of comorbidities ranged from 8% to 61% and varied by race/ethnicity (e.g., depression and anxiety were comorbid for 47% of black, 54% of Hispanic, and 59% of white adolescents). For all racial/ethnic groups, adolescents with depression had a higher prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder than adolescents without depression. However, only black and Hispanic adolescents with depression had a significantly higher prevalence of anxiety and behavior problems than their counterparts without depression. In each racial/ethnic group, the prevalence of autism spectrum disorder did not differ between adolescents with and without depression.

CONCLUSIONS

This study detected important differences in the prevalence of comorbid psychiatric conditions by race/ethnicity. Findings highlight the need for targeted interventions for black and Hispanic adolescents with depression that concurrently treat anxiety and behavior problems.

Is Older Age Associated with Higher Self- and Other-Rated ASD Characteristics?

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) characteristics seem to abate over time, but whether this protracts until late adulthood is largely unknown. We cross-sectionally investigated self- and other-reported ASD characteristics of adults with (ASD: Nmax-self = 237, Nmax-other = 130) and without ASD (COM: Nmax-self = 198, Nmax-other = 148) aged 19-79 years. Within the ASD group, self-reported ASD characteristics, and sensory sensitivities were highest in middle adulthood, while age was not associated to empathy. Sex differences were also found. However, age-and sex-related differences were not revealed by others and self- and other-report were poorly concordant. These results show that ASD characteristics in adulthood are differently perceived across age, sex, and informants and suggest that it is important to repeatedly assess self-reported ASD characteristics during adulthood.

Informant similarities, twin studies, and the assessment of externalizing behavior: A meta-analysis

The purpose of this study was to examine similarity within informant ratings of the externalizing behavior of monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twin pairs. To do this, we conducted a meta-analysis of correlations within ratings completed by mothers, fathers, teachers, and youth. We retrieved n=204 correlations for MZ twins and n=267 correlations for DZ twins from n=54 studies containing n=55 samples. Results indicated that all four informants were significant negative predictors of within-informant correlations in their ratings of MZ, but not DZ twins. In the case of longitudinal studies and as the age of MZ twins increased, similarity within ratings by mothers was significantly greater than similarity within ratings by fathers. Among participant characteristics, we found that (a) age was a significant negative predictor of similarity within ratings for MZ twins; (b) race was a significant predictor of similarity within ratings for both MZ and DZ twins, but in the opposite direction; and (c) DZ opposite sex twins were a significant negative predictor of within-rating similarity. Among study characteristics for MZ twins, participant group and longitudinal study were significant negative predictors of within-rating similarity, and for both MZ and DZ twin pairs, non-independence in the data was a significant negative predictor of within-rating similarity. For DZ twins, multiple informants were significant positive predictors of within-rating similarity, and in longitudinal studies with DZ twins, similarity within ratings by mothers was significantly greater than similarity within ratings by fathers, and similarity within ratings by fathers was significantly less than similarity within ratings by teachers and youth. For both MZ and DZ twins, the following study characteristics were significant positive predictors of similarity within ratings: study group, number of time points, and multiple constructs. All four informants appeared equally skilled at predicting within-informant correlations for MZ (but not DZ) twins, with participant characteristics having different predictive effects for MZ compared to DZ twins, and study characteristics having comparable predictive effects for both twin types. Overall, these findings suggest effective discrimination on the part of four informants who rated the externalizing behavior of MZ and DZ twins.

Caregiver-Teacher Concordance of Challenging Behaviors in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Served in Community Mental Health Settings

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) exhibit high rates of challenging behaviors that impair functioning and represent the primary presenting problem in mental health (MH) services. Obtaining symptom reports from multiple informants is critical for treatment planning. This study evaluated caregiver-teacher concordance of ratings of the intensity of challenging behaviors in children with ASD receiving MH services, and identified child clinical factors associated with concordance. This sample included 141 children (M = 9.07 years), their caregivers, and teachers. Caregiver-teacher concordance of challenging behaviors was low and impacted by the degree and type of child psychiatric comorbidity. Findings support need for increased attention to the range of psychiatric problems children with ASD present to tailor treatment recommendations and service delivery.

Psychometric Properties of the Parent Version of the Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale in a Clinical Sample of Turkish Children and Adolescents

The Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale-Parent version (RCADS-P) is a self-report questionnaire that assesses dimensions of DSM-based anxiety and depressive disorders in children and adolescents. The present study examined the psychometric properties of the Turkish version in a clinical sample of 483 children and adolescents. The child and parent versions of the RCADS, parent versions of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders, the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire and Adolescent Symptom Inventory-Depression Scale were administered. Current psychiatric diagnoses were assessed via the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children, Present Version. The RCADS-P demonstrated high internal consistency and test-retest reliability, and good convergent, divergent, and discriminant validity. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the DSM-related six-factor structure. With its demonstrated favorable psychometric properties, the Turkish RCADS-P is currently the only validated parent-report instrument that assesses DSM-based anxiety and depressive disorders in children and adolescents in Turkey.

Externalizing and internalizing pathways to Mexican American adolescents' risk taking

This study used four waves of data from a longitudinal study of 749 Mexican origin youths to test a developmental cascades model linking contextual adversity in the family and peer domains in late childhood to a sequence of unfolding processes hypothesized to predict problem substance use and risky sexual activity (greater number of sex partners) in late adolescence. Externalizing and internalizing problems were tested as divergent pathways, with youth-reported and mother-reported symptoms examined in separate models. Youth gender, nativity, and cultural orientation were tested as moderators. Family risk, peer social rejection, and their interaction were prospectively related to externalizing symptoms and deviant peer involvement, although family risk showed stronger effects on parent-reported externalizing and peer social rejection showed stronger effects on youth-reported externalizing. Externalizing symptoms and deviant peers were related, in turn, to risk taking in late adolescence, including problem alcohol-substance use and number of sexual partners. Peer social rejection predicted youth-reported internalizing symptoms, and internalizing was related, in turn, to problem alcohol and substance use in late adolescence. Tests of moderation showed some of these developmental cascades were stronger for adolescents who were female, less oriented to mainstream cultural values, and more oriented to Mexican American cultural values.

Depressive Symptoms in Mothers and Daughters: Attachment Style Moderates Reporter Agreement

Parents and adolescents show only modest agreement when reporting on depressive symptoms. Drawing from attachment theory and previous research on informant discrepancies, we tested hypotheses about how adolescent attachment style may impact reporting agreement in a sample of 184 low-income mother-adolescent daughter dyads (adolescent mean age = 15.4 (SD = 1.05), maternal mean age = 41.4 (SD = 7.60); 58 % Latina, 26 % African-American/Black, 16 % as non-Hispanic, White). Mothers and adolescents reported on their own and each others' depressive symptoms and adolescents reported on attachment style. Using a moderated Actor Partner Interdependence Model (APIM) to calculate reporter bias and accuracy estimates, we tested whether attachment style moderated maternal and adolescent accuracy in theoretically consistent ways. Mothers and adolescents showed similar levels of accuracy and bias when reporting on each other. Consistent with hypotheses, we found that adolescents who reported high levels of preoccupation were less accurate when reporting on their mothers because they tended to observe symptoms that their mothers did not endorse. Conversely, mothers were the most accurate in these dyads, potentially because preoccupied adolescents tend to elevate displays of emotional distress. Reporting accuracy was not affected by a dismissive style. These results add to literature indicating that parent-child reporting discrepancies often reflect meaningful information about relationships, and highlight the need to consider different sources of reporting bias and accuracy in assessment and treatment.

Emotion regulation as a transdiagnostic factor in the development of internalizing and externalizing psychopathology: Current and future directions

In response to rapidly growing rates of comorbidity among psychiatric disorders, clinical scientists have become interested in identifying transdiagnostic processes that can help explain dysfunction across diagnostic categories (e.g., Kring & Sloan, 2009). One factor that has received a great deal of attention is that of emotion regulation, namely, the ability to modulate the intensity and/or duration of emotional states (e.g., Cicchetti, Ackerman, & Izard, 1995; Gross, 1998). Recent theoretical and empirical work has begun to emphasize the role that emotion regulation plays in the temporal comorbidity between internalizing and externalizing conditions (e.g., Aldao & De Los Reyes, 2015; De Los Reyes & Aldao, 2015; Drabick & Kendall, 2010; Jarrett & Ollendick, 2008; Patrick & Hajcak, 2016). However, close inspection of this work reveals two very pertinent areas of growth: (a) this literature is characterized by mixed findings that are likely explained, in part, by methodological heterogeneity; and (b) emotion regulation tends to be studied in relatively narrow terms. To address these issues, we provide a series of recommendations for facilitating cross-study comparisons and leveraging multifaceted approaches to studying emotion regulation processes within a developmental psychopathology framework. We hope that our perspective can enhance the organization and growth of this very important area of inquiry, and ultimately result in more effective prevention and treatment programs.

Time-varying and time-invariant dimensions of depression in children and adolescents: Implications for cross-informant agreement

The longitudinal structure of depression in children and adolescents was examined by applying a Trait-State-Occasion structural equation model to 4 waves of self, teacher, peer, and parent reports in 2 age groups (9 to 13 and 13 to 16 years old). Analyses revealed that the depression latent variable consisted of 2 longitudinal factors: a time-invariant dimension that was completely stable over time and a time-varying dimension that was not perfectly stable over time. Different sources of information were differentially sensitive to these 2 dimensions. Among adolescents, self- and parent reports better reflected the time-invariant aspects. For children and adolescents, peer and teacher reports better reflected the time-varying aspects. Relatively high cross-informant agreement emerged for the time-invariant dimension in both children and adolescents. Cross-informant agreement for the time-varying dimension was high for adolescents but very low for children. Implications emerge for theoretical models of depression and for its measurement, especially when attempting to predict changes in depression in the context of longitudinal studies. (PsycINFO Database Record

Parent-child discrepancies in the report of adolescent emotional and behavioral problems in Taiwan

The majority of studies on parent-child discrepancies in the assessment of adolescent emotional and behavioral problems have been conducted in Western countries. It is believed that parent-adolescent agreement would be higher in societies with a strong culture of familism. We examined whether parent-adolescent discrepancies in the rating of adolescent emotional and behavioral problems are related to parental and family factors in Taiwan. Participants included 1,421 child-parent pairs of 7^th-grade students from 12 middle schools in Northern Taiwan and their parents. We calculated Pearson’s correlation coefficients to assess the relationship between parental (Child Behavior Checklist, CBCL) and adolescent (Youth Self Report, YSR) report of emotional/behavioral problem syndromes. Regression models were used to assess parent-adolescent differences in relation to parental psychopathology and family factors. We found that parent-adolescent agreement was moderate (r = 0.37). Adolescents reported higher symptom scores than their parents (Mean Total Problem Score: CBCL: 20.79, YSR: 33.14). Parental psychopathology was related to higher parental ratings and better informant agreement. Parents with higher socioeconomic status (SES) tended to report lower scores for adolescent problem syndromes, resulting in higher levels of disagreement. Greater maternal care was related to higher parent-adolescent agreement. Based on our study findings, we conclude that familism values do not seem to improve parent-child agreement in the assessment of adolescent problem syndromes. The finding that higher SES was related to increased discrepancies speaks to the need to explore the culture-specific mechanisms giving rise to informant discrepancies.

Community violence exposure, family management practices, and substance use in youth: a cross-cultural study

Associations between community violence exposure, family management practices, and substance use were compared in a sample of early adolescents in low-income communities from the United States (N = 151; M age = 12.71 years, standard deviation = 0.65; 50.3% female) and South Africa (N = 175; M age = 12.55 years, standard deviation = 0.85; 64.6% female) using home interviews with youth and their maternal caregivers. Past year victimization was associated with recent youth substance use. The moderating role of family management practices varied by type of practice (e.g., parental knowledge, control, solicitation, or child disclosure), reporter, and country. High parental knowledge reported by caregiver was protective against substance use only for South African youth. In youth reports, parental knowledge was protective across the United States and South Africa. Youth reports of their disclosure to parents were negatively associated with substance use in the United States but not South Africa. These data highlight the importance of considering both ecological context and reporter in the links between violence exposure, parenting, and substance use in youth.

Does parent-child agreement vary based on presenting problems? Results from a UK clinical sample

BACKGROUND

Discrepancies are often found between child and parent reports of child psychopathology, nevertheless the role of the child's presenting difficulties in relation to these is underexplored. This study investigates whether parent-child agreement on the conduct and emotional scales of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) varied as a result of certain child characteristics, including the child's presenting problems to clinical services, age and gender.

METHODS

The UK-based sample consisted of 16,754 clinical records of children aged 11-17, the majority of which were female (57%) and White (76%). The dataset was provided by the Child Outcomes Research Consortium , which collects outcome measures from child services across the UK. Clinicians reported the child's presenting difficulties, and parents and children completed the SDQ.

RESULTS

Using correlation analysis, the main findings indicated that agreement varied as a result of the child's difficulties for reports of conduct problems, and this seemed to be related to the presence or absence of externalising difficulties in the child's presentation. This was not the case for reports of emotional difficulties. In addition, agreement was higher when reporting problems not consistent with the child's presentation; for instance, agreement on conduct problems was greater for children presenting with internalising problems. Lastly, the children's age and gender did not seem to have an impact on agreement.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings demonstrate that certain child presenting difficulties, and in particular conduct problems, may be related to informant agreement and need to be considered in clinical practice and research. Trial Registration This study was observational and as such did not require trial registration.

Predictors of discrepancies between fathers and mothers in rating behaviors of preschool children with and without ADHD

To examine child factors and parental characteristics as predictors of discrepancies between parents' ratings of externalizing and internalizing behavior problems in a sample of preschool children with ADHD and behavior problems and in a nonclinical sample. We investigated correspondence and discrepancies between parents' ratings on the externalizing and internalizing behavior problems broadband scales of the Child Behavior Checklist version for preschool children (CBCL/1.5-5). Parents of 152 preschool children, with ADHD and behavior problems (n = 72) and nonclinical children (n = 80), aged between 28 and 72 months (M = 47.26, SD = 12.7), completed the CBCL/1.5-5. Candidate predictors of discrepancy included the child's age and sex, and parents' levels of parenting stress, depressive mood, attention-deficit and disruptive behavior. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted. Correspondence between parents, both for ratings on internalizing and externalizing behavior problems, was high (r = .63-.77). In the clinical sample, mothers rated the severity of externalizing behavior problems significantly higher than did fathers (p = < .001). Discrepancy between fathers and mothers on externalizing behavior problems was not predicted by child factors or interparental differences in psychopathology, but it was predicted by interparental differences in parenting stress (R 2 = .25, p < .001). This effect was significantly larger in the nonclinical sample (ΔR 2 = .06, p < .001). When parents disagree on the severity level of preschool children's externalizing behavior problems, the clinician should take into consideration that differences in parenting stress might be involved.

Agreement Between Parent- and Self-Reports of Psychopathic Traits and Externalizing Behaviors in a Clinical Sample

A number of studies have identified discrepancies in informant ratings of externalizing behaviors in youth, but it is unclear whether similar discrepancies exist between informants when rating psychopathic traits. In this study, we examined parent-child agreement on ratings of both psychopathic traits and externalizing behaviors, and examined the factors that influence agreement in both of these domains. A total of 282 children between 7 and 16 years (M = 10.60 years, SD = 1.91) from an outpatient child psychiatric clinic participated in this study. Our findings revealed low levels of parent-child agreement on these measures (ICC values ranging from .02 to .30 for psychopathic traits; ICC values ranging from .09 to .30 for externalizing behaviors). In addition, our findings did not support the moderating effects of child's age, gender, clinical diagnosis, informant, and parental conflict on the relationship between parent- and child-ratings of psychopathic traits and externalizing behaviors. Further research is needed to better understand how parents and child reports of child's externalizing behaviors and psychopathic traits are similar and/or different from one another and factors that influence these agreements.

Research Review: Multi-informant integration in child and adolescent psychopathology diagnosis

BACKGROUND

An empirically based, clinically usable approach to cross-informant integration in clinical assessment is needed. Although the importance of this ongoing issue is becoming increasingly recognized, little in the way of solid recommendations is currently provided to researchers and clinicians seeking to incorporate multiple informant reports in diagnosis of child psychopathology. The issue is timely because recent developments have created new opportunities for improved handling of this problem. For example, advanced theories of psychopathology and normal and abnormal child development provide theoretical guidance for how integration of multiple informants should be handled for specific disorders and at particular ages. In addition, more sophisticated data analytic approaches are now available, including advanced latent variable models, which allow for complex measurement approaches with consideration of measurement invariance.

FINDINGS

The increasing availability and mobility of computing devices suggests that it will be increasingly feasible for clinicians to implement more advanced methods rather than being confined to the easily memorized algorithms of the DSM system.

CONCLUSIONS

Development of models of cross-informant integration for individual disorders based on theory and tests of the incremental validity of more sophisticated cross-informant integration approaches in comparison to external validation criteria (e.g. longitudinal trajectories and outcomes, treatment response, and behavior genetic etiology) should be a focus of future work.

Congruence of Parents' and Children's Perceptions of Parenting: A Meta-Analysis

Parents and children often report different perspectives about parents' behaviors. Such lack of congruence is important because it may reflect problems in their relationship and may be associated with children's maladjustment. We conducted a systematic, quantitative review of parent-child agreement and discrepancy about parenting behaviors, and potential moderators (e.g., children's age, race, clinical status, family intactness) of the extent of mother-child and father-child congruence. The meta-analyses included 85 studies with 476 effect sizes of the degree of agreement and discrepancy in parent-child reports of three parenting behaviors: Acceptance, Psychological Control, and Behavioral Control assessed with one of the most widely-used measures of parenting-the Children's Report of Parental Behavior Inventory. Mother-child and father-child dyads exhibited significant but modest levels of agreement (r) across parenting constructs. The amount and direction of discrepancy (Hedges' g) varied by the parenting construct and parents' sex. Overall, parents' reports were more favorable than their children's report about the parents' behaviors. Significant associations were found between the magnitude of agreement/discrepancy and children's age, race, clinical status, and family intactness. Moderators differed by parenting construct, parents' sex, and type of effect size. Implications of these findings for researchers and clinicians are discussed and highlight the need for further research about the meaning of parent-child incongruence, its relation to children's psychopathology, and interventions for reducing it.

A Longitudinal Test of the Parent-Adolescent Family Functioning Discrepancy Hypothesis: A Trend toward Increased HIV Risk Behaviors Among Immigrant Hispanic Adolescents

Parent-adolescent discrepancies in family functioning play an important role in HIV risk behaviors among adolescents, yet longitudinal research with recent immigrant Hispanic families remains limited. This study tested the effects of trajectories of parent-adolescent family functioning discrepancies on HIV risk behaviors among recent-immigrant Hispanic adolescents. Additionally, we examined whether and to what extent trajectories of parent-adolescent family functioning discrepancies vary as a function of gender. We assessed family functioning of 302 Hispanic adolescents (47 % female) and their parent (70 % female) at six time points over a three-year period and computed latent discrepancy scores between parent and adolescent reports at each timepoint. Additionally, adolescents completed measures of sexual risk behaviors and alcohol use. We conducted a confirmatory factor analysis to determine the feasibility of collapsing parent and adolescent reported family functioning indicators onto a single latent discrepancy variable, tested model invariance over time, and conducted growth mixture modeling (GMM). GMM yielded a three-class solution for discrepancies: High-Increasing, High-Stable, and Low-Stable. Relative to the Low-Stable class, parent-adolescent dyads in the High-Increasing and High-Stable classes were at greater risk for adolescents reporting sexual debut at time 6. Additionally, the High-Stable class was at greater risk, relative to the Low-Stable class, in terms of adolescent lifetime alcohol use at 30 months post-baseline. Multiple group GMM indicated that trajectories of parent-adolescent family functioning trajectories did not vary by gender. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

When Do Adolescents Accept or Defy to Maternal Prohibitions? The Role of Social Domain and Communication Style

Drawing upon both Social-Cognitive Domain Theory and Self-Determination Theory, the goal of the present multi-informant study was to test whether the correlates of maternal prohibitions depend on what is prohibited (i.e., the content of the social domain involved), thereby contrasting moral with friendship prohibitions, as well on how the prohibition is communicated, thereby contrasting an autonomy-supportive with a controlling communication style. In a sample of adolescents (N = 196; mean age = 13.9 years; 63 % female) and their mothers (N = 185; mean age = 44 years), we first examined mean-level differences between the two domains in terms of mothers' degree and style of prohibition, as well as on a number of developmental outcomes (i.e., adolescents' legitimacy perceptions, internalization, and oppositional defiance). Both adolescents and mothers reported more maternal involvement in the moral domain (e.g., higher scores for degree of prohibition and controlling communication style). In addition, adolescents reported greater perceived legitimacy and less oppositional defiance in the moral domain (as compared to the friendships domain). Second, we tested whether associations between degree and style of prohibition and the developmental outcomes were moderated by social domain. Whereas associations between degree of prohibition and developmental outcomes either were non-significant or moderated by domain, the associations with communication style were more domain-invariant, with an autonomy-supportive style generally yielding an adaptive pattern of correlates and with a controlling style relating to maladaptive outcomes. The discussion focuses on similarities and differences in the characteristics and correlates of both types of prohibitions.

Sources and Implications of Maternal Accuracy About Young Adolescents' Vulnerability to Friendship Jealousy

To assist effectively with social difficulties, parents must accurately understand the peer situations that are difficult for their child. Mothers' insight into their young adolescent's vulnerability to friendship jealousy was assessed by posing identical vignettes to 72 young adolescents and their mothers and matching their responses. Mothers and children also completed questionnaires on their relationship and the child's adjustment. Mothers as a group were poor judges of their child's jealousy, but considerable variability existed. Accuracy was greater when mother-child pairs were closer. Polynomial regression and response surface analyses indicated that maternal accuracy could dampen the friendship and aggression risks otherwise associated with being vulnerable to jealousy.

Do We Need Multiple Informants When Assessing Autistic Traits? The Degree of Report Bias on Offspring, Self, and Spouse Ratings

This study focused on the degree of report bias in assessing autistic traits. Both parents of 124 preschoolers completed the Social Communication Questionnaire and the Autism-spectrum Quotient. Acceptable agreement existed between mother and father reports of children’s mean scores of autistic traits, but interrater reliability for rank-order correlations was only fair. No evidence was found for report bias regarding parent-offspring autistic traits. However, adult autistic ratings were strongly biased: spouse-ratings were higher than self-ratings, correlations were only fair when both parents reported about the same person, and resemblance was higher for reports from the same person than for spouses’ separate self-reports. It is advisable to involve multiple informants when assessing autistic traits, and to use procedural and/or statistical remedies to control for report bias.

Psychometrically Informed Approach to Integration of Multiple Informant Ratings in Adult ADHD in a Community-Recruited Sample

Although Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fifth edition requires that attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms are apparent across settings, assessed by multiple informants, there remains no standardized approach to integration of multiple sources in adult ADHD diagnosis. The goal of the study was to evaluate informant effects on adult ADHD symptom ratings. Participants were 406 adults, ages 18 to 37, and identified second reporters, recruited from the community, and completing a comprehensive diagnostic and cognitive assessment, including a clinician-administered diagnostic interview and self- and other-report questionnaires of ADHD symptoms. Structural equation modeling indicated good fit for a trifactor model of ADHD, including general ADHD, specific inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity, and self- and other-perspective factors. Yet there were a number of symptoms on the specific hyperactive-impulsive and self-factors that exhibited nonsignificant loadings. Significant differential item functioning across self-ratings and informant ratings was also noted. The external validation indices of laboratory executive function and diagnostic team-rated impairment was significantly correlated with the specific inattentive factor. While executive function was marginally significantly correlated with the other perspective factor, impairment was associated with the self-perspective factor. Overall, inattentive symptoms may be more sensitive measures of adult ADHD, and other and self-ratings may provide different information in relation to external criteria.

Introduction to the Special Issue: Discrepancies in Adolescent-Parent Perceptions of the Family and Adolescent Adjustment

Researchers commonly rely on adolescents' and parents' reports to assess family functioning (e.g., conflict, parental monitoring, parenting practices, relationship quality). Recent work indicates that these reports may vary as to whether they converge or diverge in estimates of family functioning. Further, patterns of converging or diverging reports may yield important information about adolescent adjustment and family functioning. This work is part of a larger literature seeking to understand and interpret multi-informant assessments of psychological phenomena, namely mental health. In fact, recent innovations in conceptualizing, measuring, and analyzing multi-informant mental health assessments might meaningfully inform efforts to understand multi-informant assessments of family functioning. Therefore, in this Special Issue we address three aims. First, we provide a guiding framework for using and interpreting multi-informant assessments of family functioning, informed by recent theoretical work focused on using and interpreting multi-informant mental health assessments. Second, we report research on adolescents' and parents' reports of family functioning that leverages the latest methods for measuring and analyzing patterns of convergence and divergence between informants' reports. Third, we report research on measurement invariance and its role in interpreting adolescents' and parents' reports of family functioning. Research and theory reported in this Special Issue have important implications for improving our understanding of the links between multi-informant assessments of family functioning and adolescent adjustment.

Subjective - Objective Sleep Comparisons and Discrepancies Among Clinically-Anxious and Healthy Children

We compared subjective and objective sleep patterns and problems, and examined cross-method correspondence across parent reports, child reports, and actigraphy-derived sleep variables in clinically-anxious children and healthy controls. In a multi-site, cross-sectional study, 75 pre-adolescent children (6 to 11 years; M = 8.7 years; SD = 1.4; n = 39/52 % female) were examined including 39 with a diagnosis of primary generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and 36 controls recruited from university-based clinics in Houston, TX and Washington, DC. Structured interviews, validated sleep questionnaires, and 1 week of actigraphy data were utilized. Despite subjective reports of significantly greater sleep problems among anxious children, actigraphy data revealed no significant differences between the groups. All parents estimated earlier bedtimes and greater total sleep duration relative to actigraphy, and all children endorsed more sleep problems than parents. With few exceptions, subjective reports exhibited low and non-significant correspondence with actigraphy-based sleep patterns and problems. Our findings suggest that high rates of sleep complaints found among children with GAD (and their parents) are not corroborated by objective sleep abnormalities, with the exception of marginally prolonged sleep onset latency compared to controls. Objective-subjective sleep discrepancies were observed in both groups but more apparent overall in the GAD group. Frequent complaints of sleep problems and daytime tiredness among anxious youth might more accurately reflect difficulties prior to the actual sleep period, cognitive-affective biases associated with sleep, and/or poor sleep quality. Findings highlight the importance of considering sleep from multiple perspectives.

Patterns and Predictors of Mother-Adolescent Discrepancies across Family Constructs

Parent-child discrepancies pervade the family literature; they appear in reports of relationship dynamics (e.g., conflict; Laursen et al. 1998), parent and child behaviors (e.g., monitoring; De Los Reyes et al. 2010), and individual family members' beliefs (e.g., parental legitimate authority; Smetana 2011). Discrepancies are developmentally normative (Steinberg 2001) but also may be indicators of relationship and adjustment problems for teens (Ohannessian 2012). Because of this variation, it is important to consider the extent to which parent-child discrepancies are a function of both the dyad and the family construct considered. The present study contributed to our understanding of informant discrepancies in family relationships by considering the patterning, consistency, and correlates of mother-adolescent discrepancies across three family constructs that vary in their objectivity. Using person-centered analyses, discrepancies in adolescents' and mothers' ratings of parents' right to know about teens' activities, mothers' knowledge of them, and positive mother-adolescents relationships were examined in 167 middle class, primarily European American mother-adolescent dyads (M teen age = 15.68 years, SD = .64, 53 % female). Each construct was best described by three profiles, one where adolescents' standardized ratings were consistently higher than mothers', one showing the reverse, and one revealing little disagreement. Adolescent-reported problem behavior (but not depression), behavioral and psychological control, and mothers' wellbeing significantly predicted profile membership. Most dyads maintained consistent membership in a discrepancy profile across at least two family constructs. Results contribute to understanding the different sources of discrepancies in views of the family.

A Social Domain Approach to Informant Discrepancies in Parental Solicitation and Family Rules

An extensive body of research has explored the effects of parental monitoring on adolescent outcomes, but studies consistently find substantial discrepancies between parent and adolescent reports of different monitoring behaviors. Little research has examined whether parents and adolescents are more or less discrepant when reporting on parents' rules or solicitation for different adolescent problem and health risk behaviors and few studies have explored potential explanatory variables to explicate individual variability in parent-adolescent discrepant reporting. To address this gap in the literature, the current study examined discrepancies in mother-adolescent reports of family rules and solicitation across five distinct adolescent behaviors: personal behaviors and four different risk behaviors (alcohol-related, cyber, over- and under-eating). Participants were 143 mother-adolescent dyads (Adolescent M age  = 14.42, SD = 1.73, range = 12-18, 81 % white, 60 % female). Mean-level discrepancies between maternal and adolescent reports significantly differed by category of adolescent behavior and also varied as a function of reported parental monitoring behavior (rules vs. solicitation). Discrepancies in mother-adolescent reports of behavior-specific rules and solicitation were positively associated with discrepancies in mother and adolescent judgments of the harmfulness of the activities. The results demonstrate that discrepancies in mother-adolescent reports of family process differ by category of adolescent behavior and may be undergirded by differences in mother and adolescent informational assumptions about the potential harm involved with different activities.

Only complementary voices tell the truth: a reevaluation of validity in multi-informant approaches of child and adolescent clinical assessments

Multi-informant approaches are thought to be key to clinical assessment. Classical theories of psychological measurements assume that only convergence among different informants' reports allows for an estimate of the true nature and causes of clinical presentations. However, the integration of multiple accounts is fraught with problems because findings in child and adolescent psychiatry do not conform to the fundamental expectation of convergence. Indeed, reports provided by different sources (self, parents, teachers, peers) share little variance. Moreover, in some cases informant divergence may be meaningful and not error variance. In this review, we give an overview of conceptual and theoretical foundations of valid multi-informant assessment and discuss why our common concepts of validity need revaluation.

Comparing Multi-Informant Assessment Measures of Parental Monitoring and Their Links with Adolescent Delinquent Behavior

OBJECTIVE

Parents' poor monitoring of adolescents' whereabouts and activities is commonly linked to adolescents' increased engagement in delinquent behaviors. Yet, different domains of parental monitoring (parental monitoring behaviors vs. parental knowledge) and reports from multiple informants (parent vs. adolescent) may vary in their links to delinquent behavior.

DESIGN

Seventy-four parental caregivers and 74 adolescents completed survey measures of parental monitoring and knowledge, and adolescents completed self-report surveys of delinquent behavior.

RESULTS

We observed low-to-moderate magnitudes of correspondence between parent- and adolescent-reports of parental monitoring behaviors and parental knowledge. Adolescent self-reported delinquent behavior related to parent and adolescent reports of parental monitoring behaviors and parental knowledge, with adolescents who self-reported engagement in delinquent behaviors evidencing lower levels of parental knowledge and higher levels of poor monitoring compared to adolescents who did not self-report engagement in delinquent behaviors. Adolescent self-reported engagement in delinquent behaviors evidenced stronger links to parental monitoring when based on adolescent reports of monitoring (relative to parent reports), whereas stronger links held between adolescent self-reported delinquent behavior and parental knowledge when based on parent reports of knowledge (relative to adolescent reports).

CONCLUSIONS

Links between monitoring and adolescents' delinquent behavior vary by the kind of monitoring measure completed as well as the informant completing the measure. These findings inform measurement selection in research and clinical assessments of parental monitoring and adolescent delinquent behavior.