Calcium-activated potassium channels sustain calcium signaling in T lymphocytes. Selective blockers and manipulated channel expression levels

Trafficking of intermediate (KCa3.1) and small (KCa2.x) conductance, Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channels: a novel target for medicinal chemistry efforts?

Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (KCa) channels play a pivotal role in the physiology of a wide variety of tissues and disease states, including vascular endothelia, secretory epithelia, certain cancers, red blood cells (RBC), neurons, and immune cells. Such widespread involvement has generated an intense interest in elucidating the function and regulation of these channels, with the goal of developing pharmacological strategies aimed at selective modulation of KCa channels in various disease states. Herein we give an overview of the molecular and functional properties of these channels and their therapeutic importance. We discuss the achievements made in designing pharmacological tools that control the function of KCa channels by modulating their gating properties. Moreover, this review discusses the recent advances in our understanding of KCa channel assembly and anterograde trafficking toward the plasma membrane, the micro-domains in which these channels are expressed within the cell, and finally the retrograde trafficking routes these channels take following endocytosis. As the regulation of intracellular trafficking by agonists as well as the protein-protein interactions that modify these events continue to be explored, we anticipate this will open new therapeutic avenues for the targeting of these channels based on the pharmacological modulation of KCa channel density at the plasma membrane.

Ion channels and transporters in lymphocyte function and immunity

Lymphocyte function is regulated by a network of ion channels and transporters in the plasma membrane of B and T cells. These proteins modulate the cytoplasmic concentrations of diverse cations, such as calcium, magnesium and zinc ions, which function as second messengers to regulate crucial lymphocyte effector functions, including cytokine production, differentiation and cytotoxicity. The repertoire of ion-conducting proteins includes calcium release-activated calcium (CRAC) channels, P2X receptors, transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, potassium channels, chloride channels and magnesium and zinc transporters. This Review discusses the roles of ion conduction pathways in lymphocyte function and immunity.

K(Ca)2 and k(ca)3 channels in learning and memory processes, and neurodegeneration

Calcium-activated potassium (K_Ca) channels are present throughout the central nervous system as well as many peripheral tissues. Activation of K_Ca channels contribute to maintenance of the neuronal membrane potential and was shown to underlie the afterhyperpolarization (AHP) that regulates action potential firing and limits the firing frequency of repetitive action potentials. Different subtypes of K_Ca channels were anticipated on the basis of their physiological and pharmacological profiles, and cloning revealed two well defined but phylogenetic distantly related groups of channels. The group subject of this review includes both the small conductance K_Ca2 channels (K_Ca2.1, K_Ca2.2, and K_Ca2.3) and the intermediate-conductance (K_Ca3.1) channel. These channels are activated by submicromolar intracellular Ca²⁺ concentrations and are voltage independent. Of all K_Ca channels only the K_Ca2 channels can be potently but differentially blocked by the bee-venom apamin. In the past few years modulation of K_Ca channel activation revealed new roles for K_Ca2 channels in controlling dendritic excitability, synaptic functioning, and synaptic plasticity. Furthermore, K_Ca2 channels appeared to be involved in neurodegeneration, and learning and memory processes. In this review, we focus on the role of K_Ca2 and K_Ca3 channels in these latter mechanisms with emphasis on learning and memory, Alzheimer’s disease and on the interplay between neuroinflammation and different neurotransmitters/neuromodulators, their signaling components and K_Ca channel activation.

Towards therapeutic applications of arthropod venom k(+)-channel blockers in CNS neurologic diseases involving memory acquisition and storage

Potassium channels are the most heterogeneous and widely distributed group of ion channels and play important functions in all cells, in both normal and pathological mechanisms, including learning and memory processes. Being fundamental for many diverse physiological processes, K⁺-channels are recognized as potential therapeutic targets in the treatment of several Central Nervous System (CNS) diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases, schizophrenia, HIV-1-associated dementia, and epilepsy. Blockers of these channels are therefore potential candidates for the symptomatic treatment of these neuropathies, through their neurological effects. Venomous animals have evolved a wide set of toxins for prey capture and defense. These compounds, mainly peptides, act on various pharmacological targets, making them an innumerable source of ligands for answering experimental paradigms, as well as for therapeutic application. This paper provides an overview of CNS K⁺-channels involved in memory acquisition and storage and aims at evaluating the use of highly selective K⁺-channel blockers derived from arthropod venoms as potential therapeutic agents for CNS diseases involving learning and memory mechanisms.

Endothelial calcium-activated potassium channels as therapeutic targets to enhance availability of nitric oxide

The vascular endothelium plays a critical role in vascular health by controlling arterial diameter, regulating local cell growth, and protecting blood vessels from the deleterious consequences of platelet aggregation and activation of inflammatory responses. Circulating chemical mediators and physical forces act directly on the endothelium to release diffusible relaxing factors, such as nitric oxide (NO), and to elicit hyperpolarization of the endothelial cell membrane potential, which can spread to the surrounding smooth muscle cells via gap junctions. Endothelial hyperpolarization, mediated by activation of calcium-activated potassium (K(Ca)) channels, has generally been regarded as a distinct pathway for smooth muscle relaxation. However, recent evidence supports a role for endothelial K(Ca) channels in production of endothelium-derived NO, and indicates that pharmacological activation of these channels can enhance NO-mediated responses. In this review we summarize the current data on the functional role of endothelial K(Ca) channels in regulating NO-mediated changes in arterial diameter and NO production, and explore the tempting possibility that these channels may represent a novel avenue for therapeutic intervention in conditions associated with reduced NO availability such as hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, smoking, and diabetes mellitus.

Inhibitors of mitochondrial Kv1.3 channels induce Bax/Bak-independent death of cancer cells

Overcoming the resistance of tumours to chemotherapy, often due to downregulation of Bax and Bak, represents a significant clinical challenge. It is therefore important to identify novel apoptosis inducers that bypass Bax and Bak. Potassium channels are emerging as oncological targets and a crucial role of mitochondrial Kv1.3 in apoptosis has been demonstrated. Here we report for the first time that Psora-4, PAP-1 and clofazimine, three distinct membrane-permeant inhibitors of Kv1.3, induce death by directly targeting the mitochondrial channel in multiple human and mouse cancer cell lines. Importantly, these drugs activated the intrinsic apoptotic pathway also in the absence of Bax and Bak, a result in agreement with the current mechanistic model for mitochondrial Kv1.3 action. Genetic deficiency or short interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated downregulation of Kv1.3 abrogated the effects of the drugs. Intraperitoneal injection of clofazimine reduced tumour size by 90% in an orthotopic melanoma B16F10 mouse model in vivo, while no adverse effects were observed in several healthy tissues. The study indicates that inhibition of mitochondrial Kv1.3 might be a novel therapeutic option for the induction of cancer cell death independent of Bax and Bak.

Detailed examination of Mg2+ and pH sensitivity of human TRPM7 channels

TRPM7 channel kinase is a protein highly expressed in cells of hematopoietic lineage, such as lymphocytes. Studies performed in native and heterologous expression systems have shown that TRPM7 forms nonselective cation channels functional in the plasma membrane and activated on depletion of cellular Mg(2+). In addition to internal Mg(2+), cytosolic pH and the phospholipid phosphatidylinositol-(4,5)-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P(2)] are potent physiological regulators of this channel: protons inhibit, while PI(4,5)P(2) is required for TRPM7 channel activity. These channels are also inhibited from inside by other metal cations and polyamines. While the regulation of TRPM7 channels by internal metal ions, acidic pH, and PI(4,5)P(2) is voltage independent, extracellular metal cations and polyamines block voltage dependently at micromolar concentrations and appear to occupy a distinct blocking site. In the present study we investigated intracellular Mg(2+) and pH dependence of native TRPM7 currents using whole cell patch-clamp electrophysiology in human Jurkat T lymphocytes and HEK293 cells. Our main findings are 1) Mg(2+) inhibition involves not one but two separate sites of high (∼10 μM) and low (∼165 μM) affinity; and 2) while sharing certain characteristics with Mg(2+) inhibition, protons most likely inhibit through one inhibitory site, corresponding to the low-affinity Mg(2+) site, with an estimated IC(50) of pH 6.3. Additionally, we present data on amplitude distribution of preactivated TRPM7 currents in Jurkat T lymphocytes in the absence of prior Mg(2+) or proton depletion.

Density of functional Ca2+ release-activated Ca2+ (CRAC) channels declines after T-cell activation

CRAC channel-mediated Ca(2+) entry plays a crucial role in T lymphocyte activation. Activated T cells display enhanced Ca(2+) signaling compared with resting T cells; this is partially attributed to activation-induced upregulation of CRAC channel expression. Orai and Stim family genes encode CRAC channel structural elements and regulatory proteins, respectively, but studies of their expression in T cells have led to controversial results. We re-examined Orai and Stim gene expression in resting, activated, and Jurkat T cells. Levels of Orai1 transcripts, encoding the human T cell CRAC channel subunit, were not significantly different between resting T and activated T cells. The total amount of all Orai transcripts was 2-fold higher in activated T cells than in resting T cells. Orai1 and total Orai transcript levels were significantly higher in Jurkat T cells than those in resting T cells. Stim expression did not vary significantly among cell types. Maximal whole-cell CRAC current amplitudes were 1.4-fold and 2.3-fold higher in activated and Jurkat T cells, respectively, than in resting T cells. Due to the small size of resting T cells, the surface CRAC channel density was 2.5-fold and 1.6-fold higher in resting T cells than in activated and Jurkat T cells, respectively. Predicted the rates of cytosolic Ca(2+) elevation calculated using the average values of CRAC channel currents and cell volumes showed that < 2-fold increase in the functional CRAC channel expression level cannot account for the enhanced rate of store-operated Ca(2+) entry in activated T cells compared with resting T cells.

Involvement of dominant-negative spliced variants of the intermediate conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channel, K(Ca)3.1, in immune function of lymphoid cells

The intermediate conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channel (IK(Ca) channel) encoded by K(Ca)3.1 is responsible for the control of proliferation and differentiation in various types of cells. We identified novel spliced variants of K(Ca)3.1 (human (h) K(Ca)3.1b) from the human thymus, which were lacking the N-terminal domains of the original hK(Ca)3.1a as a result of alternative splicing events. hK(Ca)3.1b was significantly expressed in human lymphoid tissues. Western blot analysis showed that hK(Ca)3.1a proteins were mainly expressed in the plasma membrane fraction, whereas hK(Ca)3.1b was in the cytoplasmic fraction. We also identified a similar N terminus lacking K(Ca)3.1 variants from mice and rat lymphoid tissues (mK(Ca)3.1b and rK(Ca)3.1b). In the HEK293 heterologous expression system, the cellular distribution of cyan fluorescent protein-tagged hK(Ca)3.1a and/or YFP-tagged hK(Ca)3.1b isoforms showed that hK(Ca)3.1b suppressed the localization of hK(Ca)3.1a to the plasma membrane. In the Xenopus oocyte translation system, co-expression of hK(Ca)3.1b with hK(Ca)3.1a suppressed IK(Ca) channel activity of hK(Ca)3.1a in a dominant-negative manner. In addition, this study indicated that up-regulation of mK(Ca)3.1b in mouse thymocytes differentiated CD4(+)CD8(+) phenotype thymocytes into CD4(-)CD8(-) ones and suppressed concanavalin-A-stimulated thymocyte growth by down-regulation of mIL-2 transcripts. Anti-proliferative effects and down-regulation of mIL-2 transcripts were also observed in mK(Ca)3.1b-overexpressing mouse thymocytes. These suggest that the N-terminal domain of K(Ca)3.1 is critical for channel trafficking to the plasma membrane and that the fine-tuning of IK(Ca) channel activity modulated through alternative splicing events may be related to the control in physiological and pathophysiological conditions in T-lymphocytes.

Ca2+-activated K+ channels: from protein complexes to function

Molecular research on ion channels has demonstrated that many of these integral membrane proteins associate with partner proteins, often versatile in their function, or even assemble into stable macromolecular complexes that ensure specificity and proper rate of the channel-mediated signal transduction. Calcium-activated potassium (K(Ca)) channels that link excitability and intracellular calcium concentration are responsible for a wide variety of cellular processes ranging from regulation of smooth muscle tone to modulation of neurotransmission and control of neuronal firing pattern. Most of these functions are brought about by interaction of the channels' pore-forming subunits with distinct partner proteins. In this review we summarize recent insights into protein complexes associated with K(Ca) channels as revealed by proteomic research and discuss the results available on structure and function of these complexes and on the underlying protein-protein interactions. Finally, the results are related to their significance for the function of K(Ca) channels under cellular conditions.

Maternal diabetes increases small conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (SK) currents that alter action potential properties and excitability of cardiac motoneurons in the nucleus ambiguus

Parasympathetic cardiac motoneurons (PCMNs) in the nucleus ambiguus (NA) play a key role in regulating cardiac functions. In this study, we examined the effects of maternal diabetes on excitability, action potential (AP) properties, and small conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (SK) currents of PCMNs. Neonatal mice from diabetic (OVE26 female, NMDM) and normal (FVB female, control) mothers that had been mated with nondiabetic fathers (FVB male) were used. Tracer XRITC was injected into the pericardial sac at P7-9 to retrogradely label PCMNs. Two days later, XRITC-labeled PCMNs were identified in brain stem slices. The responses of spike frequency, AP repolarization (half-width) and afterhyperpolarization (AHP) of PCMNs to current injections were studied using whole cell current clamp. Outward and afterhyperpolarization currents (I(AHP)) in response to voltage steps were measured using whole cell voltage clamp. In examining the effects of maternal diabetes on excitability and AP properties, we found that in NMDM spike frequency decreased, the half-width and AHP peak amplitude increased, and the peak amplitude of outward transient currents and I(AHP) increased compared with those measured in control. In examining the effects of maternal diabetes on SK channels, we found that after blockage of SK channels with a specific SK channel blocker apamin, maternal diabetes significantly increased apamin-sensitive outward transient currents and I(AHP), and suppressed AHP amplitude in NMDM more than those in control. Further, apamin application increased the firing rate to current injections and completely abolished the difference of the firing rate between control and NMDM. We suggest that the augmented SK-mediated currents may contribute to the increased AHP amplitude and the attenuated excitability of PCMNs in NMDM.

Cardiac small conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channel subunits form heteromultimers via the coiled-coil domains in the C termini of the channels

RATIONALE

Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channels are present in a wide variety of cells. We have previously reported the presence of small conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (SK or K(Ca)) channels in human and mouse cardiac myocytes that contribute functionally toward the shape and duration of cardiac action potentials. Three isoforms of SK channel subunits (SK1, SK2, and SK3) are found to be expressed. Moreover, there is differential expression with more abundant SK channels in the atria and pacemaking tissues compared with the ventricles. SK channels are proposed to be assembled as tetramers similar to other K(+) channels, but the molecular determinants driving their subunit interaction and assembly are not defined in cardiac tissues.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the heteromultimeric formation and the domain necessary for the assembly of 3 SK channel subunits (SK1, SK2, and SK3) into complexes in human and mouse hearts.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Here, we provide evidence to support the formation of heteromultimeric complexes among different SK channel subunits in native cardiac tissues. SK1, SK2, and SK3 subunits contain coiled-coil domains (CCDs) in the C termini. In vitro interaction assay supports the direct interaction between CCDs of the channel subunits. Moreover, specific inhibitory peptides derived from CCDs block the Ca(2+)-activated K(+) current in atrial myocytes, which is important for cardiac repolarization.

CONCLUSIONS

The data provide evidence for the formation of heteromultimeric complexes among different SK channel subunits in atrial myocytes. Because SK channels are predominantly expressed in atrial myocytes, specific ligands of the different isoforms of SK channel subunits may offer a unique therapeutic opportunity to directly modify atrial cells without interfering with ventricular myocytes.

Calcium-activated K(+) channel (K(Ca)3.1) activity during Ca(2+) store depletion and store-operated Ca(2+) entry in human macrophages

STIM1 'senses' decreases in endoplasmic reticular (ER) luminal Ca(2+) and induces store-operated Ca(2+) (SOC) entry through plasma membrane Orai channels. The Ca(2+)/calmodulin-activated K(+) channel K(Ca)3.1 (previously known as SK4) has been implicated as an 'amplifier' of the Ca(2+)-release activated Ca(2+) (CRAC) current, especially in T lymphocytes. We have previously shown that human macrophages express K(Ca)3.1, and here we used the whole-cell patch-clamp technique to investigate the activity of these channels during Ca(2+) store depletion and store-operated Ca(2+) influx. Using RT-PCR, we found that macrophages express the elementary CRAC channel components Orai1 and STIM1, as well as Orai2, Orai3 and STIM2, but not the putatively STIM1-activated channels TRPC1, TRPC3-7 or TRPV6. In whole-cell configuration, a robust Ca(2+)-induced outwardly rectifying K(+) current inhibited by clotrimazole and augmented by DC-EBIO could be detected, consistent with K(Ca)3.1 channel current (also known as intermediate-conductance IK1). Introduction of extracellular Ca(2+) following Ca(2+) store depletion via P2Y(2) receptors induced a robust charybdotoxin (CTX)- and 2-APB-sensitive outward K(+) current and hyperpolarization. We also found that SOC entry induced by thapsigargin treatment induced CTX-sensitive K(+) current in HEK293 cells transiently expressing K(Ca)3.1. Our data suggest that SOC and K(Ca)3.1 channels are tightly coupled, such that a small Ca(2+) influx current induces a much large K(Ca)3.1 channel current and hyperpolarization, providing the necessary electrochemical driving force for prolonged Ca(2+) signaling and store repletion.

Cloning and identification of tissue-specific expression of KCNN4 splice variants in rat colon

KCNN4 channels that provide the driving force for cAMP- and Ca(2+)-induced anion secretion are present in both apical and basolateral membranes of the mammalian colon. However, only a single KCNN4 has been cloned. This study was initiated to identify whether both apical and basolateral KCNN4 channels are encoded by the same or different isoforms. Reverse transcriptase-PCR (RT-PCR), real-time quantitative-PCR (RT-QPCR), and immunofluorescence studies were used to clone and identify tissue-specific expression of KCNN4 isoforms. Three distinct KCNN4 cDNAs that are designated as KCNN4a, KCNN4b, and KCNN4c encoding 425, 424, and 395 amino acid proteins, respectively, were isolated from the rat colon. KCNN4a differs from KCNN4b at both the nucleotide and the amino acid level with distinct 628 bp at the 3'-untranslated region and an additional glutamine at position 415, respectively. KCNN4c differs from KCNN4b by lacking the second exon that encodes a 29 amino acid motif. KCNN4a and KCNN4b/c are identified as smooth muscle- and epithelial cell-specific transcripts, respectively. KCNN4b and KCNN4c transcripts likely encode basolateral (40 kDa) and apical (37 kDa) membrane proteins in the distal colon, respectively. KCNN4c, which lacks the S2 transmembrane segment, requires coexpression of a large conductance K(+) channel beta-subunit for plasma membrane expression. The KCNN4 channel blocker TRAM-34 inhibits KCNN4b- and KCNN4c-mediated (86)Rb (K(+) surrogate) efflux with an apparent inhibitory constant of 0.6 +/- 0.1 and 7.8 +/- 0.4 muM, respectively. We conclude that apical and basolateral KCNN4 K(+) channels that regulate K(+) and anion secretion are encoded by distinct isoforms in colonic epithelial cells.

Orai1 regulates intracellular calcium, arrest, and shape polarization during neutrophil recruitment in shear flow

Orai1 was reported to function as a calcium channel subunit that facilitates store operated calcium entry (SOCE) in T cells and is necessary for formation of the immune synapse. We reasoned that SOCE via Orai1 might regulate PMNs activation during recruitment to inflamed endothelium. Orai1 function was assessed by real-time imaging of calcium transients as PMNs were stimulated to roll, arrest, and migrate on E-selectin and ICAM-1 in shear flow. Calcium entry was significantly reduced when Orai1 function was impaired by heterozygous knockout in a mouse model or by siRNA knockdown in HL-60 cells. Reduced Orai-1 expression correlated with the delayed onset of arrest and reduced ability to transition to a polarized migratory phenotype. Inhibition of SOCE by treatment with 2-APB, or blocking phospholipase C (PLC) mediated calcium store release with U73122, abrogated formyl peptide induced calcium elevation, and delayed subsequent cell arrest and polarization. These results suggest that calcium entry via Orai1 is the predominant SOCE that cooperates with cytoplasmic calcium store release in coordinating integrin-dependent PMN arrest and migration in the acute response to inflammation.

The functional network of ion channels in T lymphocytes

For more than 25 years, it has been widely appreciated that Ca2+ influx is essential to trigger T-lymphocyte activation. Patch clamp analysis, molecular identification, and functional studies using blockers and genetic manipulation have shown that a unique contingent of ion channels orchestrates the initiation, intensity, and duration of the Ca2+ signal. Five distinct types of ion channels--Kv1.3, KCa3.1, Orai1+ stromal interacting molecule 1 (STIM1) [Ca2+-release activating Ca2+ (CRAC) channel], TRPM7, and Cl(swell)--comprise a network that performs functions vital for ongoing cellular homeostasis and for T-cell activation, offering potential targets for immunomodulation. Most recently, the roles of STIM1 and Orai1 have been revealed in triggering and forming the CRAC channel following T-cell receptor engagement. Kv1.3, KCa3.1, STIM1, and Orai1 have been found to cluster at the immunological synapse following contact with an antigen-presenting cell; we discuss how channels at the synapse might function to modulate local signaling. Immuno-imaging approaches are beginning to shed light on ion channel function in vivo. Importantly, the expression pattern of Ca2+ and K+ channels and hence the functional network can adapt depending upon the state of differentiation and activation, and this allows for different stages of an immune response to be targeted specifically.

The K+ channels K(Ca)3.1 and K(v)1.3 as novel targets for asthma therapy

Asthma affects 10% of the UK population and is an important cause of morbidity and mortality at all ages. Current treatments are either ineffective or carry unacceptable side effects for a number of patients; in consequence, development of new approaches to therapy are important. Ion channels are emerging as attractive therapeutic targets in a variety of non-excitable cells. Ion channels conducting K(+) modulate the activity of several structural and inflammatory cells which play important roles in the pathophysiology of asthma. Two channels of particular interest are the voltage-gated K(+) channel K(v)1.3 and the intermediate conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channel K(Ca)3.1 (also known as IK(Ca)1 or SK4). K(v)1.3 is expressed in IFNgamma-producing T cells while K(Ca)3.1 is expressed in T cells, mast cells, macrophages, airway smooth muscle cells, fibroblasts and epithelial cells. Both channels play important roles in cell activation, migration, and proliferation through the regulation of membrane potential and calcium signalling. We hypothesize that K(Ca)3.1- and/or K(v)1.3-dependent cell processes are one of the common denominators in asthma pathophysiology. If true, these channels might serve as novel targets for the treatment of asthma. Emerging evidence lends support to this hypothesis. Further validation through the study of the role that these channels play in normal and asthmatic airway cell (patho)physiology and in vivo models will provide further justification for the assessment of small molecule blockers of K(v)1.3 and K(Ca)3.1 in the treatment of asthma.

The class II phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase C2beta is required for the activation of the K+ channel KCa3.1 and CD4 T-cells

The Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channel KCa3.1 is required for Ca(2+) influx and the subsequent activation of T-cells. We previously showed that nucleoside diphosphate kinase beta (NDPK-B), a mammalian histidine kinase, directly phosphorylates and activates KCa3.1 and is required for the activation of human CD4 T lymphocytes. We now show that the class II phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase C2beta (PI3K-C2beta) is activated by the T-cell receptor (TCR) and functions upstream of NDPK-B to activate KCa3.1 channel activity. Decreased expression of PI3K-C2beta by siRNA in human CD4 T-cells resulted in inhibition of KCa3.1 channel activity. The inhibition was due to decreased phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate [PI(3)P] because dialyzing PI3K-C2beta siRNA-treated T-cells with PI(3)P rescued KCa3.1 channel activity. Moreover, overexpression of PI3K-C2beta in KCa3.1-transfected Jurkat T-cells led to increased TCR-stimulated activation of KCa3.1 and Ca(2+) influx, whereas silencing of PI3K-C2beta inhibited both responses. Using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy and planar lipid bilayers, we found that PI3K-C2beta colocalized with Zap70 and the TCR in peripheral microclusters in the immunological synapse. This is the first demonstration that a class II PI3K plays a critical role in T-cell activation.

Functional consequences of Kv1.3 ion channel rearrangement into the immunological synapse

Formation of immunological synapse (IS), the interface between T cells and antigen presenting cells, is a crucial step in T cell activation. This conjugation formation results in the rearrangement and segregation of a set of membrane bound and cytosolic proteins, including that of the T cell receptor, into membrane domains. It was showed earlier that Kv1.3, the dominant voltage-gated potassium channel of T cells redistributes into the IS on interaction with its specific APC. In the present experiments we investigated the functional consequences of the translocation of Kv1.3 channels into the IS formed between mouse helper T (T(h)2) and B cells. Biophysical characteristics of whole-cell Kv1.3 current in standalone cells (c) or ones in IS (IS) were determined using voltage-clamp configuration of standard whole-cell patch-clamp technique. Patch-clamp recordings showed that the activation of Kv1.3 current slowed (tau(a,IS)=2.36+/-0.13 ms (n=7); tau(a,c)=1.36+/-0.06 ms (n=18)) whereas the inactivation rate increased (tau(i,IS)=263+/-29 ms (n=7); tau(i,c)=365+/-27 ms (n=17)) in cells being in IS compared to the standalone cells. The equilibrium distribution between the open and the closed states of Kv1.3 (voltage-dependence of steady-state activation) was shifted toward the depolarizing potentials in T cells engaged into IS (V(1/2,IS)=-20.9+/-2 mV (n=7), V(1/2,c)=-26.4+/-1.5 mV (n=12)). Thus, segregation of Kv1.3 channels into the IS modifies the gating properties of the channels. Application of protein kinase (PK) inhibitors (PKC: GF109203X, PKA: H89, p56Lck: damnacanthal) demonstrated that increase in the inactivation rate can be explained by the dephosphorylation of the channel protein. However, the slower activation kinetics of Kv1.3 in IS is likely to be the consequence of the redistribution of the channels into distinct membrane domains.

Glutathione depletion and disruption of intracellular ionic homeostasis regulate lymphoid cell apoptosis

Intracellular glutathione (GSH) depletion is an important hallmark of apoptosis. We have recently shown that GSH depletion by its extrusion regulates apoptosis independently of excessive reactive oxygen species accumulation. However, the mechanisms by which GSH depletion regulates apoptosis are still unclear. Because disruption of intracellular ionic homeostasis, associated with apoptotic volume decrease (AVD), is necessary for the progression of apoptotic cell death, we sought to evaluate the relationship between GSH transport and ionic homeostasis during Fas ligand (FasL)-induced apoptosis in Jurkat cells. GSH depletion in response to FasL was paralleled by distinct degrees of AVD identified by differences in cellular forward scatter and electronic impedance analysis. Inhibition of GSH efflux prevented AVD, K+ loss, and the activation of two distinct ionic conductances, mediated by Kv1.3 and outward rectifying Cl- channels. Reciprocally, stimulation of GSH loss accelerated the loss of K+, AVD, and consequently the progression of the execution phase of apoptosis. Although high extracellular K+ inhibited FasL-induced apoptosis, GSH depletion was largely independent of K+ loss. These results suggest that deregulation of GSH and ionic homeostasis converge in the regulation of apoptosis in lymphoid cells.

Clofazimine inhibits human Kv1.3 potassium channel by perturbing calcium oscillation in T lymphocytes

The Kv1.3 potassium channel plays an essential role in effector memory T cells and has been implicated in several important autoimmune diseases including multiple sclerosis, psoriasis and type 1 diabetes. A number of potent small molecule inhibitors of Kv1.3 channel have been reported, some of which were found to be effective in various animal models of autoimmune diseases. We report herein the identification of clofazimine, a known anti-mycobacterial drug, as a novel inhibitor of human Kv1.3. Clofazimine was initially identified as an inhibitor of intracellular T cell receptor-mediated signaling leading to the transcriptional activation of human interleukin-2 gene in T cells from a screen of the Johns Hopkins Drug Library. A systematic mechanistic deconvolution revealed that clofazimine selectively blocked the Kv1.3 channel activity, perturbing the oscillation frequency of the calcium-release activated calcium channel, which in turn led to the inhibition of the calcineurin-NFAT signaling pathway. These effects of clofazimine provide the first line of experimental evidence in support of a causal relationship between Kv1.3 and calcium oscillation in human T cells. Furthermore, clofazimine was found to be effective in blocking human T cell-mediated skin graft rejection in an animal model in vivo. Together, these results suggest that clofazimine is a promising immunomodulatory drug candidate for treating a variety of autoimmune disorders.

Molecular and cellular basis of small--and intermediate-conductance, calcium-activated potassium channel function in the brain

Small conductance calcium-activated potassium (SK or K_Ca2) channels link intracellular calcium transients to membrane potential changes. SK channel subtypes present different pharmacology and distribution in the nervous system. The selective blocker apamin, SK enhancers and mice lacking specific SK channel subunits have revealed multifaceted functions of these channels in neurons, glia and cerebral blood vessels. SK channels regulate neuronal firing by contributing to the afterhyperpolarization following action potentials and mediating I_AHP, and partake in a calcium-mediated feedback loop with NMDA receptors, controlling the threshold for induction of hippocampal long-term potentiation. The function of distinct SK channel subtypes in different neurons often results from their specific coupling to different calcium sources. The prominent role of SK channels in the modulation of excitability and synaptic function of limbic, dopaminergic and cerebellar neurons hints at their possible involvement in neuronal dysfunction, either as part of the causal mechanism or as potential therapeutic targets.

The intermediate-conductance calcium-activated potassium channel KCa3.1 contributes to atherogenesis in mice and humans

Atherosclerosis remains a major cause of death in the developed world despite the success of therapies that lower cholesterol and BP. The intermediate-conductance calcium-activated potassium channel KCa3.1 is expressed in multiple cell types implicated in atherogenesis, and pharmacological blockade of this channel inhibits VSMC and lymphocyte activation in rats and mice. We found that coronary vessels from patients with coronary artery disease expressed elevated levels of KCa3.1. In Apoe(-/-) mice, a genetic model of atherosclerosis, KCa3.1 expression was elevated in the VSMCs, macrophages, and T lymphocytes that infiltrated atherosclerotic lesions. Selective pharmacological blockade and gene silencing of KCa3.1 suppressed proliferation, migration, and oxidative stress of human VSMCs. Furthermore, VSMC proliferation and macrophage activation were reduced in KCa3.1(-/-) mice. In vivo therapy with 2 KCa3.1 blockers, TRAM-34 and clotrimazole, significantly reduced the development of atherosclerosis in aortas of Apoe(-/-) mice by suppressing VSMC proliferation and migration into plaques, decreasing infiltration of plaques by macrophages and T lymphocytes, and reducing oxidative stress. Therapeutic concentrations of TRAM-34 in mice caused no discernible toxicity after repeated dosing and did not compromise the immune response to influenza virus. These data suggest that KCa3.1 blockers represent a promising therapeutic strategy for atherosclerosis.

Imaging of effector memory T cells during a delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction and suppression by Kv1.3 channel block

Effector memory T (Tem) cells are essential mediators of autoimmune disease and delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH), a convenient model for two-photon imaging of Tem cell participation in an inflammatory response. Shortly (3 hr) after entry into antigen-primed ear tissue, Tem cells stably attached to antigen-bearing antigen-presenting cells (APCs). After 24 hr, enlarged Tem cells were highly motile along collagen fibers and continued to migrate rapidly for 18 hr. Tem cells rely on voltage-gated Kv1.3 potassium channels to regulate calcium signaling. ShK-186, a specific Kv1.3 blocker, inhibited DTH and suppressed Tem cell enlargement and motility in inflamed tissue but had no effect on homing to or motility in lymph nodes of naive and central memory T (Tcm) cells. ShK-186 effectively treated disease in a rat model of multiple sclerosis. These results demonstrate a requirement for Kv1.3 channels in Tem cells during an inflammatory immune response in peripheral tissues. Targeting Kv1.3 allows for effector memory responses to be suppressed while central memory responses remain intact.

Morphological changes of T cells following formation of the immunological synapse modulate intracellular calcium signals

Sustained Ca(2+) influx through plasma membrane Ca(2+) released-activated Ca(2+) (CRAC) channels is essential for T cell activation. Since inflowing Ca(2+) inactivates CRAC channels, T cell activation is only possible if Ca(2+)-dependent inactivation is prevented. We have previously reported that sustained Ca(2+) influx through CRAC channels requires both mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake and mitochondrial translocation towards the plasma membrane in order to prevent Ca(2+)-dependent channel inactivation. Here, we show that morphological changes following formation of the immunological synapse (IS) modulate Ca(2+) influx through CRAC channels. Cell shape changes were dependent on the actin cytoskeleton, and they sustained Ca(2+) entry by bringing mitochondria and the plasma membrane in closer proximity. The increased percentage of mitochondria beneath the plasma membrane following shape changes occurred in all 3 dimensions and correlated with an increase in the amplitude of Ca(2+) signals. The shape change-dependent mitochondrial localization close to the plasma membrane prevented CRAC channel inactivation even in T cells in which dynein motor protein-dependent mitochondria movements towards the plasma membrane were completely abolished, highlighting the importance of the shape change-dependent control of Ca(2+) influx. Our results suggest that morphological changes do not only facilitate an efficient contact with antigen presenting cells but also strongly modulate Ca(2+) dependent T cell activation.

TRESK-like potassium channels in leukemic T cells

In this study, we present patch-clamp characterization of the background potassium current in human lymphoma (Jurkat cells), generated by voltage-independent 16 pS channels with a high ( approximately 100-fold) K+/Na+ selectivity. Depending on the background K+ channels density, from few per cell up to approximately 1 open channel per microm2, resting membrane potential was in the range of -40 to -83 mV, approaching E (K) = -88 mV. The background K+ channels were insensitive to margotoxin (3 nM), apamine (3 nM), and clotrimazole (1 microM), high-affinity blockers of the lymphocyte Kv1.3, SKCa2, and IKCa1 channels. The current depended weakly on external pH. Arachidonic acid (20 microM) and Hg2+ (0.3-10 microM) suppressed background K+ current in Jurkat cells by 75-90%. Background K+ current was weakly sensitive to TEA+ (IC50 = 14 mM), and was efficiently suppressed by externally applied bupivacaine (IC50 = 5 microM), quinine (IC50 = 16 microM), and Ba2+ (2 mM). Our data, in particular strong inhibition by mercuric ions, suggest that background K+ currents expressed in Jurkat cells are mediated by TWIK-related spinal cord K+ (TRESK) channels belonging to the double-pore domain K+ channel family. The presence of human TRESK in the membrane protein fraction was confirmed by Western blot analysis.

Store-dependent and -independent modes regulating Ca2+ release-activated Ca2+ channel activity of human Orai1 and Orai3

We evaluated currents induced by expression of human homologs of Orai together with STIM1 in human embryonic kidney cells. When co-expressed with STIM1, Orai1 induced a large inwardly rectifying Ca(2+)-selective current with Ca(2+)-induced slow inactivation. A point mutation of Orai1 (E106D) altered the ion selectivity of the induced Ca(2+) release-activated Ca(2+) (CRAC)-like current while retaining an inwardly rectifying I-V characteristic. Expression of the C-terminal portion of STIM1 with Orai1 was sufficient to generate CRAC current without store depletion. 2-APB activated a large relatively nonselective current in STIM1 and Orai3 co-expressing cells. 2-APB also induced Ca(2+) influx in Orai3-expressing cells without store depletion or co-expression of STIM1. The Orai3 current induced by 2-APB exhibited outward rectification and an inward component representing a mixed calcium and monovalent current. A pore mutant of Orai3 inhibited store-operated Ca(2+) entry and did not carry significant current in response to either store depletion or addition of 2-APB. Analysis of a series of Orai1-3 chimeras revealed the structural determinant responsible for 2-APB-induced current within the sequence from the second to third transmembrane segment of Orai3. The Orai3 current induced by 2-APB may reflect a store-independent mode of CRAC channel activation that opens a relatively nonselective cation pore.

Arachidonic acid-induced activation of large-conductance potassium channels and membrane hyperpolarization in mouse B cells

Lymphocytes express voltage-gated (Kv) and Ca(2+)-activated (IKCa1) K(+) channels. Recently, we found that WEHI-231, an immature B cell line, expresses voltage-independent K(+) channels called large-conductance background K( + ) channels (LK(bg)). Arachidonic acid (AA) has attracted attention because of its potential regulatory roles in the apoptosis of immature B cells. To elucidate the functional targets of AA, we investigated the effects of AA on membrane currents, voltages, and cytoplasmic Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](c)) of WEHI-231 and Bal-17 cells that represent immature and mature mouse B cells, respectively. In whole-cell patch clamp, both Kv and IKCa1 were inhibited by AA. On the other hand, AA activated LK(bg) current and non-selective cationic (NSC) current in WEHI-231 while only NSC current in Bal-17. Inside-out patch clamp study showed that AA directly activates LK(bg). AA induced hyperpolarization of WEHI-231 and depolarization of Bal-17 cells, respectively. The selective functional expression of LK(bg) and their activation by AA were also confirmed in the immature B cells (B220(+)/AA4.1(+)) freshly isolated from mouse spleen. In fura-2 spectrofluorimetry, AA induced persistent increase in [Ca(2+)](c) of WEHI-231 cells, which was attenuated by KCl-induced depolarization. In Bal-17 cell, however, AA induced only a transient increase of [Ca(2+)](c). In summary, the novel type of background K(+) channels (LK(bg)) in immature B cells is strongly activated while the other K(+) channels (Kv and IKCa1) commonly expressed in lymphocytes are inhibited by AA. The hyperpolarization and augmentation of Ca(2+) influx by LK(bg) activation might play a role in the response of immature B cells to AA.

Altered dynamics of Kv1.3 channel compartmentalization in the immunological synapse in systemic lupus erythematosus

Aberrant T cell responses during T cell activation and immunological synapse (IS) formation have been described in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Kv1.3 potassium channels are expressed in T cells where they compartmentalize at the IS and play a key role in T cell activation by modulating Ca(2+) influx. Although Kv1.3 channels have such an important role in T cell function, their potential involvement in the etiology and progression of SLE remains unknown. This study compares the K channel phenotype and the dynamics of Kv1.3 compartmentalization in the IS of normal and SLE human T cells. IS formation was induced by 1-30 min exposure to either anti-CD3/CD28 Ab-coated beads or EBV-infected B cells. We found that although the level of Kv1.3 channel expression and their activity in SLE T cells is similar to normal resting T cells, the kinetics of Kv1.3 compartmentalization in the IS are markedly different. In healthy resting T cells, Kv1.3 channels are progressively recruited and maintained in the IS for at least 30 min from synapse formation. In contrast, SLE, but not rheumatoid arthritis, T cells show faster kinetics with maximum Kv1.3 recruitment at 1 min and movement out of the IS by 15 min after activation. These kinetics resemble preactivated healthy T cells, but the K channel phenotype of SLE T cells is identical to resting T cells, where Kv1.3 constitutes the dominant K conductance. The defective temporal and spatial Kv1.3 distribution that we observed may contribute to the abnormal functions of SLE T cells.

Molecular basis of the CRAC channel

Ca(2+) release-activated Ca(2+) (CRAC) channels, located in the plasma membrane, are opened upon release of Ca(2+) from intracellular stores, permitting Ca(2+) entry and sustained [Ca(2+)](i) signaling that replenishes the store in numerous cell types. This mechanism is particularly important in T lymphocytes of the immune system, providing the missing link in the signal transduction cascade that is initiated by T cell receptor engagement and leads to altered expression of genes that results ultimately in the production of cytokines and cell proliferation. In the past three years, RNA interference screens together with over-expression and site-directed mutagenesis have identified the triggering molecule (Stim) that links store depletion to CRAC channel-mediated Ca(2+) influx and the pore subunit (Orai) of the CRAC channel that allows highly selective entry of Ca(2+) ions into cells.

An intermediate-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K (+) channel mediates B lymphoma cell cycle progression induced by serum

We have previously reported that Kv1.3 channel is expressed in Daudi cells. However, the present study demonstrates that Daudi cell cycle progression is not affected by margatoxin, a Kv1.3 channel blocker, but can be suppressed by tetraethylammonium (TEA) and 1-[(2-chlorophenyl) diphenylmethyl]-1H-pyrazole (TRAM-34), a selective blocker of intermediate-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (IK) channels. Our patch-clamp data indicate that Daudi cells express an IK channel because it has a unit conductance of about 30 pS, is voltage-independent, and can be activated by submicromolar Ca(2+) and blocked by TRAM-34. Fetal bovine serum (FBS) elevated intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) and activated this IK channel. Conversely, Rituximab, a human-mouse chimeric monoclonal antibody of CD20, significantly decreased [Ca(2+)](i) and inhibited the channel. Furthermore, both FBS-induced IK channel expression and cell cycle progression were attenuated by the treatment with LY-294002, a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitor. These data together suggest that a growth factor(s) in FBS triggers cell cycle progression by elevating both IK channel activity via CD20 and IK channel expression on the cell surface via PI3K. Thus, elevated IK channel activity and expression may account, in part, for Daudi cell malignant growth and proliferation.

Nutrition and immune system: certain fatty acids differently modify membrane composition and consequently kinetics of KV1.3 channels of human peripheral lymphocytes

Potassium (K(+)) channels of human peripheral lymphocytes play a considerable role in the signalling processes required for immune responses. Modification of the fatty acid composition of the membrane influences the functions of various membrane enzymes and ion channels. We set out to establish how the incorporation of fatty acids with different carbon chain lengths and degrees of unsaturation into the cell membrane influences the function of K(V)1.3 channels of lymphocytes, thereby potentially modifying the immune responses of the cells. The incorporation of the fatty acids into the cell membrane was monitored by gas chromatography. Whole-cell patch-clamp experiments demonstrated that the polyunsaturated linoleic acid, arachidonic acid and docosahexaenoic acid all decreased the activation and inactivation time constants of the K(V)1.3 channels, but did not affect the voltage-dependence of steady-state activation and steady-state inactivation of the channels. Treatment with the saturated palmitic acid, stearic acid and the monounsaturated oleic acid did not result in significant changes in the biophysical parameters of K(V)1.3 gating studied. We conclude that the incorporation of fatty acids unsaturated to different degrees into the cell membrane of lymphocytes influenced the rate of gating transitions but not the equilibrium distribution of the channels between different states. This effect depended on the degree of unsaturation and the chain length of the fatty acids: no effects of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids (16:0, 18:0 and 18:1) were observed whereas treatment with polyunsaturated fatty acids (18:2, 20:4 and 22:6) resulted in significant changes in the channel kinetics.

Cell-Cycle-Dependent Regulation of Ca2+-Activated K+ Channel in Jurkat T-Lymphocyte

Small-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (SK2) channel plays an important role in the activation of Jurkat T-lymphocytes by maintaining electrical gradients for the sustained Ca2+ influx. Apamin-sensitive K+ current was significantly decreased with cell-cycle progression from G0/G1 into G2/M phases, and protein expression of SK2 channels showed parallel down-regulation, with its highest expression at early G0/G1 phase. In the G0/G1 phase, the apamin-sensitive component of thapsigargin-induced Ca2+ influx was significantly larger than that in the G2/M phase. These observations suggest that SK2-channel activation may largely contribute to the sustained Ca2+ influx in the G0/G1 phase in comparison of that in the G2/M phase in Jurkat T-lymphocytes.

Modulation of Ca2+ entry and plasma membrane potential by human TRPM4b

TRPM4b is a Ca(2+)-activated, voltage-dependent monovalent cation channel that has been shown to act as a negative regulator of Ca(2+) entry and to be involved in the generation of oscillations of Ca(2+) influx in Jurkat T-lymphocytes. Transient overexpression of TRPM4b as an enhanced green fluorescence fusion protein in human embryonic kidney (HEK) cells resulted in its localization in the plasma membrane, as demonstrated by confocal fluorescence microscopy. The functionality and plasma membrane localization of overexpressed TRPM4b was confirmed by induction of Ca(2+)-dependent inward and outward currents in whole cell patch clamp recordings. HEK-293 cells stably overexpressing TRPM4b showed higher ionomycin-activated Ca(2+) influx than wild-type cells. In addition, analysis of the membrane potential using the potentiometric dye bis-(1,3-dibutylbarbituric acid)-trimethine oxonol and by current clamp experiments in the perforated patch configuration revealed a faster initial depolarization after activation of Ca(2+) entry with ionomycin. Furthermore, TRPM4b expression facilitated repolarization and thereby enhanced sustained Ca(2+) influx. In conclusion, in cells with a small negative membrane potential, such as HEK-293 cells, TRPM4b acts as a positive regulator of Ca(2+) entry.

Phosphatidylinositol-3 phosphatase myotubularin-related protein 6 negatively regulates CD4 T cells

Intracellular Ca2+ levels rapidly rise following cross-linking of the T-cell receptor (TCR) and function as a critical intracellular second messenger in T-cell activation. It has been relatively under appreciated that K+ channels play an important role in Ca2+ influx into T lymphocytes by helping to maintain a negative membrane potential which provides an electrochemical gradient to drive Ca2+ influx. Here we show that the Ca2+-activated K+ channel, KCa3.1, which is critical for Ca2+ influx in reactivated naive T cells and central memory T cells, requires phosphatidylinositol-3 phosphatase [PI(3)P] for activation and is inhibited by the PI(3)P phosphatase myotubularin-related protein 6 (MTMR6). Moreover, by inhibiting KCa3.1, MTMR6 functions as a negative regulator of Ca2+ influx and proliferation of reactivated human CD4 T cells. These findings point to a new and unexpected role for PI(3)P and the PI(3)P phosphatase MTMR6 in the regulation of Ca2+ influx in activated CD4 T cells and suggest that MTMR6 plays a critical role in setting a minimum threshold for a stimulus to activate a T cell.

Anti-inflammatory effects of kinins via microglia in the central nervous system

Kinins are important biologically active peptides that are up-regulated after lesions in both the peripheral and central (CNS) nervous systems. Microglia are immune cells in the CNS and play an important role in the defense of the neuronal parenchyma. In cultured murine microglia, bradykinin (BK) induces mobilization of intracellular Ca2+, microglial migration, and increases the release of nitric oxide and prostaglandin E2. On the other hand, BK attenuates lipopolysaccharide-activated TNF-α and IL-1β release. These results suggest that BK functions as a signal in brain trauma and may have an anti-inflammatory role in the CNS.

Human T lymphocytes express N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors functionally active in controlling T cell activation

The aim of this study was to investigate the expression and the functional role of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors in human T cells. RT-PCR analysis showed that human resting peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL) and Jurkat T cells express genes encoding for both NR1 and NR2B subunits: phytohemagglutinin (PHA)-activated PBL also expresses both these genes and the NR2A and NR2D genes. Cytofluorimetric analysis showed that NR1 expression increases as a consequence of PHA (10 microg/ml) treatment. D-(-)-2-Amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid (D-AP5), and (+)-5-methyl-10,11-dihydro-5H-dibenzo[a,d]cyclohepten-5,10-imine [(+)-MK 801], competitive and non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonists, respectively, inhibited PHA-induced T cell proliferation, whereas they did not affect IL-2 (10 U/ml)-induced proliferation of PHA blasts. These effects were due to the prevention of T cell activation (inhibition of cell aggregate formation and CD25 expression), but not to cell cycle arrest or death. These results demonstrate that human T lymphocytes express NMDA receptors, which are functionally active in controlling cell activation.

STIM1 is a Ca2+ sensor that activates CRAC channels and migrates from the Ca2+ store to the plasma membrane

As the sole Ca2+ entry mechanism in a variety of non-excitable cells, store-operated calcium (SOC) influx is important in Ca2+ signalling and many other cellular processes. A calcium-release-activated calcium (CRAC) channel in T lymphocytes is the best-characterized SOC influx channel and is essential to the immune response, sustained activity of CRAC channels being required for gene expression and proliferation. The molecular identity and the gating mechanism of SOC and CRAC channels have remained elusive. Previously we identified Stim and the mammalian homologue STIM1 as essential components of CRAC channel activation in Drosophila S2 cells and human T lymphocytes. Here we show that the expression of EF-hand mutants of Stim or STIM1 activates CRAC channels constitutively without changing Ca2+ store content. By immunofluorescence, EM localization and surface biotinylation we show that STIM1 migrates from endoplasmic-reticulum-like sites to the plasma membrane upon depletion of the Ca2+ store. We propose that STIM1 functions as the missing link between Ca2+ store depletion and SOC influx, serving as a Ca2+ sensor that translocates upon store depletion to the plasma membrane to activate CRAC channels.

Phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate indirectly activates KCa3.1 via 14 amino acids in the carboxy terminus of KCa3.1

KCa3.1 is an intermediate conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channel that is expressed predominantly in hematopoietic cells, smooth muscle cells, and epithelia where it functions to regulate membrane potential, Ca2+ influx, cell volume, and chloride secretion. We recently found that the KCa3.1 channel also specifically requires phosphatidylinositol-3 phosphate [PI(3)P] for channel activity and is inhibited by myotubularin-related protein 6 (MTMR6), a PI(3)P phosphatase. We now show that PI(3)P indirectly activates KCa3.1. Unlike KCa3.1 channels, the related KCa2.1, KCa2.2, or KCa2.3 channels do not require PI(3)P for activity, suggesting that the KCa3.1 channel has evolved a unique means of regulation that is critical for its biological function. By making chimeric channels between KCa3.1 and KCa2.3, we identified a stretch of 14 amino acids in the carboxy-terminal calmodulin binding domain of KCa3.1 that is sufficient to confer regulation of KCa2.3 by PI(3)P. However, mutation of a single potential phosphorylation site in these 14 amino acids did not affect channel activity. These data together suggest that PI(3)P and these 14 amino acids regulate KCa3.1 channel activity by recruiting an as yet to be defined regulatory subunit that is required for Ca2+ gating of KCa3.1.

Integration of K+ and Cl- currents regulate steady-state and dynamic membrane potentials in cultured rat microglia

The role of ion channels and membrane potential (V(m)) in non-excitable cells has recently come under increased scrutiny. Microglia, the brain's resident immune cells, express voltage-gated Kv1.3 channels, a Kir2.1-like inward rectifier, a swelling-activated Cl(-) current and several other channels. We previously showed that Kv1.3 and Cl(-) currents are needed for microglial cell proliferation and that Kv1.3 is important for the respiratory burst. Although their mechanisms of action are unknown, one general role for these channels is to maintain a negative V(m). An impediment to measuring V(m) in non-excitable cells is that many have a very high electrical resistance, which makes them extremely susceptible to leak-induced depolarization. Using non-invasive V(m)-sensitive dyes, we show for the first time that the membrane resistance of microglial cells is several gigaohms; much higher than the seal resistance during patch-clamp recordings. Surprisingly, we observed that small current injections can evoke large V(m) oscillations in some microglial cells, and that injection of sinusoidal currents of varying frequency exposes a strong intrinsic electrical resonance in the 5- to 20-Hz frequency range in all microglial cells tested. Using a dynamic current clamp that we developed to actively compensate for the damage done by the patch-clamp electrode, we found that the V(m) oscillations and resonance were more prevalent and larger. Both types of electrical behaviour required Kv1.3 channels, as they were eliminated by the Kv1.3 blocker, agitoxin-2. To further determine how the ion currents integrate in these cells, voltage-clamp recordings from microglial cells displaying these behaviours were used to analyse the biophysical properties of the Kv1.3, Kir and Cl(-) currents. A mathematical model that incorporated only these three currents reproduced the observed V(m) oscillations and electrical resonance. Thus, the electrical behaviour of this 'non-excitable' cell type is much more complex than previously suspected, and might reflect a more common oversight in high resistance cells.