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Du J, Kirui A, Huang S, Wang L, Barnes WJ, Kiemle SN, Zheng Y, Rui Y, Ruan M, Qi S, Kim SH, Wang T, Cosgrove DJ, Anderson CT, Xiao C. Mutations in the Pectin Methyltransferase QUASIMODO2 Influence Cellulose Biosynthesis and Wall Integrity in Arabidopsis. THE PLANT CELL 2020; 32:3576-3597. [PMID: 32883711 PMCID: PMC7610292 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.20.00252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Revised: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Pectins are abundant in the cell walls of dicotyledonous plants, but how they interact with other wall polymers and influence wall integrity and cell growth has remained mysterious. Here, we verified that QUASIMODO2 (QUA2) is a pectin methyltransferase and determined that QUA2 is required for normal pectin biosynthesis. To gain further insight into how pectin affects wall assembly and integrity maintenance, we investigated cellulose biosynthesis, cellulose organization, cortical microtubules, and wall integrity signaling in two mutant alleles of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) QUA2, qua2 and tsd2 In both mutants, crystalline cellulose content is reduced, cellulose synthase particles move more slowly, and cellulose organization is aberrant. NMR analysis shows higher mobility of cellulose and matrix polysaccharides in the mutants. Microtubules in mutant hypocotyls have aberrant organization and depolymerize more readily upon treatment with oryzalin or external force. The expression of genes related to wall integrity, wall biosynthesis, and microtubule stability is dysregulated in both mutants. These data provide insights into how homogalacturonan is methylesterified upon its synthesis, the mechanisms by which pectin functionally interacts with cellulose, and how these interactions are translated into intracellular regulation to maintain the structural integrity of the cell wall during plant growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Du
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Resource and Eco-Environment of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, People's Republic of China
| | - Alex Kirui
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803
| | - Shixin Huang
- Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
| | - Lianglei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Resource and Eco-Environment of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, People's Republic of China
| | - William J Barnes
- Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
| | - Sarah N Kiemle
- Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
| | - Yunzhen Zheng
- Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
| | - Yue Rui
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
| | - Mei Ruan
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Resource and Eco-Environment of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, People's Republic of China
| | - Shiqian Qi
- Department of Urology, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University and National Collaborative Innovation Center, Chengdu 610041, People's Republic of China
| | - Seong H Kim
- Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
| | - Tuo Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803
| | - Daniel J Cosgrove
- Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
| | - Charles T Anderson
- Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
| | - Chaowen Xiao
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Resource and Eco-Environment of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, People's Republic of China
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Riglet L, Rozier F, Kodera C, Bovio S, Sechet J, Fobis-Loisy I, Gaude T. KATANIN-dependent mechanical properties of the stigmatic cell wall mediate the pollen tube path in Arabidopsis. eLife 2020; 9:57282. [PMID: 32867920 PMCID: PMC7462616 DOI: 10.7554/elife.57282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Successful fertilization in angiosperms depends on the proper trajectory of pollen tubes through the pistil tissues to reach the ovules. Pollen tubes first grow within the cell wall of the papilla cells, applying pressure to the cell. Mechanical forces are known to play a major role in plant cell shape by controlling the orientation of cortical microtubules (CMTs), which in turn mediate deposition of cellulose microfibrils (CMFs). Here, by combining imaging, genetic and chemical approaches, we show that isotropic reorientation of CMTs and CMFs in aged Col-0 and katanin1-5 (ktn1-5) papilla cells is accompanied by a tendency of pollen tubes to coil around the papillae. We show that this coiled phenotype is associated with specific mechanical properties of the cell walls that provide less resistance to pollen tube growth. Our results reveal an unexpected role for KTN1 in pollen tube guidance on the stigma by ensuring mechanical anisotropy of the papilla cell wall. Flowering plants produce small particles known as pollen that – with the help of the wind, bees and other animals – carry male sex cells (sperm) to female sex cells (eggs) contained within flowers. When a grain of pollen lands on the female organ of a flower, called the pistil, it gives rise to a tube that grows through the pistil towards the egg cells at the base. The surface of the pistil is covered in a layer of long cells named papillae. Like most plant cells, the papillae are surrounded by a rigid structure known as the cell wall, which is mainly composed of strands known as microfibrils. The pollen tube exerts pressure on a papilla to allow it to grow through the cell wall towards the base of the pistil. Previous studies have shown that the pistil produces signals that guide pollen tubes to the eggs. However, it remains unclear how pollen tubes orient themselves on the surface of papillae to grow in the right direction through the pistil. Riglet et al. combined microscopy, genetic and chemical approaches to study how pollen tubes grow through the surface of the pistils of a small weed known as Arabidopsis thaliana. The experiments showed that an enzyme called KATANIN conferred mechanical properties to the cell walls of papillae that allowed pollen tubes to grow towards the egg cells, and also altered the orientation of the microfibrils in these cell walls. In A. thaliana plants that were genetically modified to lack KATANIN the pollen tubes coiled around the papillae and sometimes grew in the opposite direction to where the eggs were. KATANIN is known to cut structural filaments inside the cells of plants, animals and most other living things. By revealing an additional role for KATANIN in regulating the mechanical properties of the papilla cell wall, these findings indicate this enzyme may also regulate the mechanical properties of cells involved in other biological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucie Riglet
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRAE, Allée d'Italie, France
| | - Frédérique Rozier
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRAE, Allée d'Italie, France
| | - Chie Kodera
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRAE, Allée d'Italie, France
| | - Simone Bovio
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRAE, Allée d'Italie, France
| | - Julien Sechet
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, Versailles, France
| | - Isabelle Fobis-Loisy
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRAE, Allée d'Italie, France
| | - Thierry Gaude
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRAE, Allée d'Italie, France
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53
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The synthesis of xyloglucan, an abundant plant cell wall polysaccharide, requires CSLC function. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:20316-20324. [PMID: 32737163 PMCID: PMC7443942 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2007245117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant cells have a polysaccharide-based wall that maintains their structural and functional integrity and determines their shape. Reorganization of wall components is required to allow growth and differentiation. One matrix polysaccharide that is postulated to play an important role in this reorganization is xyloglucan (XyG). While the structure of XyG is well understood, its biosynthesis is not. Through genetic studies with Arabidopsis CSLC genes, we demonstrate that they are responsible for the synthesis of the XyG glucan backbone. A quintuple cslc mutant is able to grow and develop normally but lacks detectable XyG. These results raise important questions regarding cell wall structure and its reorganization during growth. The series of cslc mutants will be valuable tools for investigating these questions. Xyloglucan (XyG) is an abundant component of the primary cell walls of most plants. While the structure of XyG has been well studied, much remains to be learned about its biosynthesis. Here we employed reverse genetics to investigate the role of Arabidopsis cellulose synthase like-C (CSLC) proteins in XyG biosynthesis. We found that single mutants containing a T-DNA in each of the five Arabidopsis CSLC genes had normal levels of XyG. However, higher-order cslc mutants had significantly reduced XyG levels, and a mutant with disruptions in all five CSLC genes had no detectable XyG. The higher-order mutants grew with mild tissue-specific phenotypes. Despite the apparent lack of XyG, the cslc quintuple mutant did not display significant alteration of gene expression at the whole-genome level, excluding transcriptional compensation. The quintuple mutant could be complemented by each of the five CSLC genes, supporting the conclusion that each of them encodes a XyG glucan synthase. Phylogenetic analyses indicated that the CSLC genes are widespread in the plant kingdom and evolved from an ancient family. These results establish the role of the CSLC genes in XyG biosynthesis, and the mutants described here provide valuable tools with which to study both the molecular details of XyG biosynthesis and the role of XyG in plant cell wall structure and function.
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54
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High-Resolution Imaging of Cellulose Organization in Cell Walls by Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy. Methods Mol Biol 2020. [PMID: 32617938 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-0621-6_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) is a powerful tool for analyzing surface structures of biological and nonbiological samples. However, when it is used to study fine structures of nanometer-sized microfibrils of epidermal cell walls, one often encounters tremendous challenges to acquire clear and undistorted images because of two major issues: (1) Preparation of samples suitable for high resolution imaging; due to the delicateness of some plant materials, such as onion epidermal cell walls, many things can happen during sample processing, which subsequently result in damaged samples or introduce artifacts. (2) Difficulties to acquire clear images of samples which are electron-beam sensitive and prone to charging artifacts at magnifications over 100,000×. In this chapter we described detailed procedures for sample preparation and conditions for high-resolution FESEM imaging of onion epidermal cell walls. The methods can be readily adapted for other wall materials.
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55
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Gigli-Bisceglia N, Engelsdorf T, Hamann T. Plant cell wall integrity maintenance in model plants and crop species-relevant cell wall components and underlying guiding principles. Cell Mol Life Sci 2020; 77:2049-2077. [PMID: 31781810 PMCID: PMC7256069 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-019-03388-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2019] [Revised: 10/28/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The walls surrounding the cells of all land-based plants provide mechanical support essential for growth and development as well as protection from adverse environmental conditions like biotic and abiotic stress. Composition and structure of plant cell walls can differ markedly between cell types, developmental stages and species. This implies that wall composition and structure are actively modified during biological processes and in response to specific functional requirements. Despite extensive research in the area, our understanding of the regulatory processes controlling active and adaptive modifications of cell wall composition and structure is still limited. One of these regulatory processes is the cell wall integrity maintenance mechanism, which monitors and maintains the functional integrity of the plant cell wall during development and interaction with environment. It is an important element in plant pathogen interaction and cell wall plasticity, which seems at least partially responsible for the limited success that targeted manipulation of cell wall metabolism has achieved so far. Here, we provide an overview of the cell wall polysaccharides forming the bulk of plant cell walls in both monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants and the effects their impairment can have. We summarize our current knowledge regarding the cell wall integrity maintenance mechanism and discuss that it could be responsible for several of the mutant phenotypes observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nora Gigli-Bisceglia
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, 6708 PB, The Netherlands
| | - Timo Engelsdorf
- Division of Plant Physiology, Department of Biology, Philipps University of Marburg, 35043, Marburg, Germany
| | - Thorsten Hamann
- Institute for Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 5 Høgskoleringen, 7491, Trondheim, Norway.
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56
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Xin X, Lei L, Zheng Y, Zhang T, Pingali SV, O’Neill H, Cosgrove DJ, Li S, Gu Y. Cellulose synthase interactive1- and microtubule-dependent cell wall architecture is required for acid growth in Arabidopsis hypocotyls. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2020; 71:2982-2994. [PMID: 32016356 PMCID: PMC7260726 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/eraa063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Accepted: 02/02/2020] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Auxin-induced cell elongation relies in part on the acidification of the cell wall, a process known as acid growth that presumably triggers expansin-mediated wall loosening via altered interactions between cellulose microfibrils. Cellulose microfibrils are a major determinant for anisotropic growth and they provide the scaffold for cell wall assembly. Little is known about how acid growth depends on cell wall architecture. To explore the relationship between acid growth-mediated cell elongation and plant cell wall architecture, two mutants (jia1-1 and csi1-3) that are defective in cellulose biosynthesis and cellulose microfibril organization were analyzed. The study revealed that cell elongation is dependent on CSI1-mediated cell wall architecture but not on the overall crystalline cellulose content. We observed a correlation between loss of crossed-polylamellate walls and loss of auxin- and fusicoccin-induced cell growth in csi1-3. Furthermore, induced loss of crossed-polylamellate walls via disruption of cortical microtubules mimics the effect of csi1 in acid growth. We hypothesize that CSI1- and microtubule-dependent crossed-polylamellate walls are required for acid growth in Arabidopsis hypocotyls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoran Xin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Lei Lei
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Yunzhen Zheng
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Tian Zhang
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | | | - Hugh O’Neill
- Biology and Soft Matter Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Shundai Li
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Ying Gu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
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57
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Dual functions of Expansin in cell wall extension and compression during cotton fiber development. Biologia (Bratisl) 2020. [DOI: 10.2478/s11756-020-00514-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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58
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Kuki H, Yokoyama R, Kuroha T, Nishitani K. Xyloglucan Is Not Essential for the Formation and Integrity of the Cellulose Network in the Primary Cell Wall Regenerated from Arabidopsis Protoplasts. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 9:E629. [PMID: 32423049 PMCID: PMC7285283 DOI: 10.3390/plants9050629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2020] [Revised: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The notion that xyloglucans (XG) play a pivotal role in tethering cellulose microfibrils in the primary cell wall of plants can be traced back to the first molecular model of the cell wall proposed in 1973, which was reinforced in the 1990s by the identification of Xyloglucan Endotransglucosylase/Hydrolase (XTH) enzymes that cleave and reconnect xyloglucan crosslinks in the cell wall. However, this tethered network model has been seriously challenged since 2008 by the identification of the Arabidopsis thaliana xyloglucan-deficient mutant (xxt1 xxt2), which exhibits functional cell walls. Thus, the molecular mechanism underlying the physical integration of cellulose microfibrils into the cell wall remains controversial. To resolve this dilemma, we investigated the cell wall regeneration process using mesophyll protoplasts derived from xxt1 xxt2 mutant leaves. Imaging analysis revealed only a slight difference in the structure of cellulose microfibril network between xxt1 xxt2 and wild-type (WT) protoplasts. Additionally, exogenous xyloglucan application did not alter the cellulose deposition patterns or mechanical stability of xxt1 xxt2 mutant protoplasts. These results indicate that xyloglucan is not essential for the initial assembly of the cellulose network, and the cellulose network formed in the absence of xyloglucan provides sufficient tensile strength to the primary cell wall regenerated from protoplasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroaki Kuki
- Department of Developmental Biology and Neurosciences, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8578, Japan; (H.K.); (R.Y.); (T.K.)
- Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-okubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
| | - Ryusuke Yokoyama
- Department of Developmental Biology and Neurosciences, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8578, Japan; (H.K.); (R.Y.); (T.K.)
| | - Takeshi Kuroha
- Department of Developmental Biology and Neurosciences, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8578, Japan; (H.K.); (R.Y.); (T.K.)
- Division of Applied Genetics, Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8604, Japan
| | - Kazuhiko Nishitani
- Department of Developmental Biology and Neurosciences, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8578, Japan; (H.K.); (R.Y.); (T.K.)
- Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, Kanagawa University, 2946 Tsuchiya, Hiratsuka, Kanagawa 259-1293, Japan
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59
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Abstract
Tissue folding allows for the development of complex three-dimensional morphologies necessary for various functions. A new study provides novel mechanistic insights linking plant cell wall and hormonal pathways involved in bending of plant tissue through regulation of differential growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Christopher Eng
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Muehlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Arun Sampathkumar
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Muehlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany.
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60
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Anderson CT, Kieber JJ. Dynamic Construction, Perception, and Remodeling of Plant Cell Walls. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2020; 71:39-69. [PMID: 32084323 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-081519-035846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Plant cell walls are dynamic structures that are synthesized by plants to provide durable coverings for the delicate cells they encase. They are made of polysaccharides, proteins, and other biomolecules and have evolved to withstand large amounts of physical force and to resist external attack by herbivores and pathogens but can in many cases expand, contract, and undergo controlled degradation and reconstruction to facilitate developmental transitions and regulate plant physiology and reproduction. Recent advances in genetics, microscopy, biochemistry, structural biology, and physical characterization methods have revealed a diverse set of mechanisms by which plant cells dynamically monitor and regulate the composition and architecture of their cell walls, but much remains to be discovered about how the nanoscale assembly of these remarkable structures underpins the majestic forms and vital ecological functions achieved by plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles T Anderson
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA;
| | - Joseph J Kieber
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA;
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61
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Kushwah S, Banasiak A, Nishikubo N, Derba-Maceluch M, Majda M, Endo S, Kumar V, Gomez L, Gorzsas A, McQueen-Mason S, Braam J, Sundberg B, Mellerowicz EJ. Arabidopsis XTH4 and XTH9 Contribute to Wood Cell Expansion and Secondary Wall Formation. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 182:1946-1965. [PMID: 32005783 PMCID: PMC7140944 DOI: 10.1104/pp.19.01529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Xyloglucan is the major hemicellulose of dicotyledon primary cell walls, affecting the load-bearing framework with the participation of xyloglucan endo-transglycosylase/hydrolases (XTHs). We used loss- and gain-of function approaches to study functions of XTH4 and XTH9 abundantly expressed in cambial regions during secondary growth of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). In secondarily thickened hypocotyls, these enzymes had positive effects on vessel element expansion and fiber intrusive growth. They also stimulated secondary wall thickening but reduced secondary xylem production. Cell wall analyses of inflorescence stems revealed changes in lignin, cellulose, and matrix sugar composition indicating an overall increase in secondary versus primary walls in mutants, indicative of higher xylem production compared with the wild type (since secondary walls were thinner). Intriguingly, the number of secondary cell wall layers compared with the wild type was increased in xth9 and reduced in xth4, whereas the double mutant xth4x9 displayed an intermediate number of layers. These changes correlated with specific Raman signals from the walls, indicating changes in lignin and cellulose. Secondary walls were affected also in the interfascicular fibers, where neither XTH4 nor XTH9 was expressed, indicating that these effects were indirect. Transcripts involved in secondary wall biosynthesis and cell wall integrity sensing, including THESEUS1 and WALL ASSOCIATED KINASE2, were highly induced in the mutants, indicating that deficiency in XTH4 and XTH9 triggers cell wall integrity signaling, which, we propose, stimulates xylem cell production and modulates secondary wall thickening. Prominent effects of XTH4 and XTH9 on secondary xylem support the hypothesis that altered xyloglucan affects wood properties both directly and via cell wall integrity sensing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunita Kushwah
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Center, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S901-83 Umea, Sweden
| | - Alicja Banasiak
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Center, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S901-83 Umea, Sweden
| | - Nobuyuki Nishikubo
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Center, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S901-83 Umea, Sweden
| | - Marta Derba-Maceluch
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Center, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S901-83 Umea, Sweden
| | - Mateusz Majda
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Center, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S901-83 Umea, Sweden
| | - Satoshi Endo
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Center, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S901-83 Umea, Sweden
| | - Vikash Kumar
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Center, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S901-83 Umea, Sweden
| | - Leonardo Gomez
- Center for Novel Agricultural Products, Department of Biology, University of York, York YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
| | - Andras Gorzsas
- Department of Chemistry, Umeå University, SE-90187 Umea, Sweden
| | - Simon McQueen-Mason
- Center for Novel Agricultural Products, Department of Biology, University of York, York YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
| | - Janet Braam
- Department of Bioscience, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005-1827
| | - Björn Sundberg
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Center, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S901-83 Umea, Sweden
| | - Ewa J Mellerowicz
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Center, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S901-83 Umea, Sweden
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62
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Interplay between Cell Wall and Auxin Mediates the Control of Differential Cell Elongation during Apical Hook Development. Curr Biol 2020; 30:1733-1739.e3. [PMID: 32197084 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2020.02.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Revised: 01/16/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Differential growth plays a crucial role during morphogenesis [1-3]. In plants, development occurs within mechanically connected tissues, and local differences in cell expansion lead to deformations at the organ level, such as buckling or bending [4, 5]. During early seedling development, bending of hypocotyl by differential cell elongation results in apical hook structure that protects the shoot apical meristem from being damaged during emergence from the soil [6, 7]. Plant hormones participate in apical hook development, but not how they mechanistically drive differential growth [8]. Here, we present evidence of interplay between hormonal signals and cell wall in auxin-mediated differential cell elongation using apical hook development as an experimental model. Using genetic and cell biological approaches, we show that xyloglucan (a major primary cell wall component) mediates asymmetric mechanical properties of epidermal cells required for hook development. The xxt1 xxt2 mutant, deficient in xyloglucan [9], displays severe defects in differential cell elongation and hook development. Analysis of xxt1 xxt2 mutant reveals a link between cell wall and transcriptional control of auxin transporters PINFORMEDs (PINs) and AUX1 crucial for establishing the auxin response maxima required for preferential repression of elongation of the cells on the inner side of the hook. Genetic evidence identifies auxin response factor ARF2 as a negative regulator acting downstream of xyloglucan-dependent control of hook development and transcriptional control of polar auxin transport. Our results reveal a crucial feedback process between the cell wall and transcriptional control of polar auxin transport, underlying auxin-dependent control of differential cell elongation in plants.
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63
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Rui Y, Dinneny JR. A wall with integrity: surveillance and maintenance of the plant cell wall under stress. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2020; 225:1428-1439. [PMID: 31486535 DOI: 10.1111/nph.16166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2019] [Accepted: 08/16/2019] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The structural and functional integrity of the cell wall needs to be constantly monitored and fine-tuned to allow for growth while preventing mechanical failure. Many studies have advanced our understanding of the pathways that contribute to cell wall biosynthesis and how these pathways are regulated by external and internal cues. Recent evidence also supports a model in which certain aspects of the wall itself may act as growth-regulating signals. Molecular components of the signaling pathways that sense and maintain cell wall integrity have begun to be revealed, including signals arising in the wall, sensors that detect changes at the cell surface, and downstream signal transduction modules. Abiotic and biotic stress conditions provide new contexts for the study of cell wall integrity, but the nature and consequences of wall disruptions due to various stressors require further investigation. A deeper understanding of cell wall signaling will provide insights into the growth regulatory mechanisms that allow plants to survive in changing environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Rui
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, 371 Serra Mall, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
- Department of Plant Biology, Carnegie Institution for Science, 260 Panama Street, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - José R Dinneny
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, 371 Serra Mall, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
- Department of Plant Biology, Carnegie Institution for Science, 260 Panama Street, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
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64
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Yilmaz N, Kodama Y, Numata K. Revealing the Architecture of the Cell Wall in Living Plant Cells by Bioimaging and Enzymatic Degradation. Biomacromolecules 2020; 21:95-103. [PMID: 31496226 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.9b00979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Plant cell walls consist mostly of crystalline cellulose fibrils embedded in a matrix of complex polysaccharides, but information on their morphological features has generally been limited to that obtained from nonliving plant specimens. Here, we characterized the primary cell wall of a living plant cell (from the tobacco BY-2 suspension culture) at nanometer resolution using high-speed atomic force microscopy and at micrometer resolution using confocal laser scanning microscopy. Our results showed aligned and disordered cellulose fibrils coexisting in the outermost layer of the cell wall. We investigated the orientation of the aligned cellulose fibrils in the outer lamellae of the cell wall of living plant cells after removing cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin by enzymatic degradation to make the cellulose fibrils more visible and, accordingly, to reveal the structure of the nanoachitecture formed by these fibrils within the cell wall. We observed that the cellulose fibrils in the outermost layer were usually oriented close to the direction of cell growth, whereas the orientation of the cellulose fibrils in the successive lamellae further inward changed randomly. Such organization should be crucial to render the plant cell wall both rigid and flexible. This finding provides insight not only into the structure of the functional plant cell wall but also into its growth mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neval Yilmaz
- Biomacromolecules Research Team , RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science , Wako , Saitama , Japan
| | - Yutaka Kodama
- Biomacromolecules Research Team , RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science , Wako , Saitama , Japan
- Center for Bioscience Research and Education , Utsunomiya University , Tochigi , Japan
| | - Keiji Numata
- Biomacromolecules Research Team , RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science , Wako , Saitama , Japan
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65
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Cheng J, Wen S, Bie Z. Overexpression of hexose transporter CsHT3 increases cellulose content in cucumber fruit peduncle. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2019; 145:107-113. [PMID: 31677541 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2019.10.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Revised: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 10/23/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Hexose transporters play many important roles in plant development. However, the role of hexose transporter in secondary cell wall growth has not been reported before. Here, we report that the hexose transporter gene CsHT3 is mainly expressed in cells with secondary cell walls in cucumber. Spatiotemporal expression analysis revealed that the transcript of CsHT3 mainly accumulates in the stem, petiole, tendril, and peduncle, all of which contain high cellulose levels. Immunolocalization results show that CsHT3 is localized at the sclereids in young peduncles, shifts to the phloem fiber cells during peduncle development, and then shifts again to the companion cells when the development of secondary cell walls is almost completed. Carboxyfluoresce unloading experiment indicated that carbohydrate unloading in the phloem follows an apoplastic pathway. Overexpression of CsHT3 in cucumber plant can improve the cellulose content and cell wall thickness of phloem fiber cells in the peduncle. The expression of cellulose synthase genes were increased in the CsHT3 overexpression plants. These results indicated that CsHT3 may play an important role in cellulose synthesis through promoting the expression of cellulose synthase genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jintao Cheng
- College of Horticulture and Forestry, Huazhong Agricultural University and Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology, Ministry of Education, Wuhan, 430070, PR China.
| | - Suying Wen
- College of Horticulture and Forestry, Huazhong Agricultural University and Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology, Ministry of Education, Wuhan, 430070, PR China.
| | - Zhilong Bie
- College of Horticulture and Forestry, Huazhong Agricultural University and Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology, Ministry of Education, Wuhan, 430070, PR China.
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66
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Grones P, Raggi S, Robert S. FORCE-ing the shape. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2019; 52:1-6. [PMID: 31234034 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2019.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2019] [Revised: 05/10/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2019] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The plant cell wall is a dynamic structure that mediates cell and organ morphogenesis and provides structural support to the whole plant body. The primary load bearing components of the cell wall are a cellulose-xyloglucan network embedded in a pectin matrix. Plant morphogenesis is regulated by a constant adjustment of the chemical structure and thus mechanical properties of the cell wall components. These modifications are modulated by a variety of different remodeling agents that precisely control cell wall mechanical properties. Here, we briefly review the major recent updates on cell wall mechanics during growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Grones
- Umeå Plant Science Centre (UPSC), Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), 90183 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Sara Raggi
- Umeå Plant Science Centre (UPSC), Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), 90183 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Stéphanie Robert
- Umeå Plant Science Centre (UPSC), Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), 90183 Umeå, Sweden.
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67
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Zhang T, Tang H, Vavylonis D, Cosgrove DJ. Disentangling loosening from softening: insights into primary cell wall structure. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2019; 100:1101-1117. [PMID: 31469935 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.14519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2019] [Revised: 08/08/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
How cell wall elasticity, plasticity, and time-dependent extension (creep) relate to one another, to plant cell wall structure and to cell growth remain unsettled topics. To examine these issues without the complexities of living tissues, we treated cell-free strips of onion epidermal walls with various enzymes and other agents to assess which polysaccharides bear mechanical forces in-plane and out-of-plane of the cell wall. This information is critical for integrating concepts of wall structure, wall material properties, tissue mechanics and mechanisms of cell growth. With atomic force microscopy we also monitored real-time changes in the wall surface during treatments. Driselase, a potent cocktail of wall-degrading enzymes, removed cellulose microfibrils in superficial lamellae sequentially, layer-by-layer, and softened the wall (reduced its mechanical stiffness), yet did not induce wall loosening (creep). In contrast Cel12A, a bifunctional xyloglucanase/cellulase, induced creep with only subtle changes in wall appearance. Both Driselase and Cel12A increased the tensile compliance, but differently for elastic and plastic components. Homogalacturonan solubilization by pectate lyase and calcium chelation greatly increased the indentation compliance without changing tensile compliances. Acidic buffer induced rapid cell wall creep via endogenous α-expansins, with negligible effects on wall compliances. We conclude that these various wall properties are not tightly coupled and therefore reflect distinctive aspects of wall structure. Cross-lamellate networks of cellulose microfibrils influenced creep and tensile stiffness whereas homogalacturonan influenced indentation mechanics. This information is crucial for constructing realistic molecular models that define how wall mechanics and growth depend on primary cell wall structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian Zhang
- Department of Biology and Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, 208 Mueller Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, State College, Pennsylvania, 16802, USA
| | - Haosu Tang
- Department of Physics, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 18015, USA
| | - Dimitrios Vavylonis
- Department of Physics, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 18015, USA
| | - Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology and Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, 208 Mueller Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, State College, Pennsylvania, 16802, USA
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68
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Chen D, Melton LD, McGillivray DJ, Ryan TM, Harris PJ. Changes in the orientations of cellulose microfibrils during the development of collenchyma cell walls of celery (Apium graveolens L.). PLANTA 2019; 250:1819-1832. [PMID: 31463558 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-019-03262-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2019] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
During development, cellulose microfibrils in collenchyma walls become increasingly longitudinal, as determined by small-angle X-ray scattering, despite the walls maintaining a fine structure indicative of a crossed-polylamellate structure. Collenchyma cells have thickened primary cell walls and provide mechanical support during plant growth. During their development, these cells elongate and their walls thicken considerably. We used microscopy and synchrotron small-angle X-ray scattering to study changes in the orientations of cellulose microfibrils that occur during development in the walls of collenchyma cells present in peripheral strands in celery (Apium graveolens) petioles. Transmission electron microscopy showed that the walls consisted of many lamellae (polylamellate), with lamellae containing longitudinally oriented cellulose microfibrils alternating with microfibrils oriented at higher angles. The lamellae containing longitudinally oriented microfibrils predominated at later stages of development. Nevertheless, transmission electron microscopy of specially stained, oblique sections provided evidence that the cellulose microfibrils were ordered throughout development as crossed-polylamellate structures. These results are consistent with our synchrotron small-angle X-ray scattering results that showed the cellulose microfibrils become oriented increasingly longitudinally during development. Some passive reorientation of cellulose microfibrils may occur during development, but extensive reorientation throughout the wall would destroy ordered structures. Atomic force microscopy and field emission scanning electron microscopy were used to determine the orientations of newly deposited cellulose microfibrils. These were found to vary widely among different cells, which could be consistent with the formation of crossed-polylamellate structures. These newly deposited cellulose microfibrils are deposited in a layer of pectic polysaccharides that lies immediately outside the plasma membrane. Overall, our results show that during development of collenchyma walls, the cellulose microfibrils become increasingly longitudinal in orientation, yet organized, crossed-polylamellate structures are maintained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da Chen
- School of Chemical Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland Mail Centre, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand
- Department of Food Science, Purdue University, 745 Agriculture Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - Laurence D Melton
- School of Chemical Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland Mail Centre, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand
| | - Duncan J McGillivray
- School of Chemical Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland Mail Centre, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand
- The MacDiarmid Institute, Victoria University of Wellington, PO Box 600, Wellington, 6140, New Zealand
| | - Timothy M Ryan
- The MacDiarmid Institute, Victoria University of Wellington, PO Box 600, Wellington, 6140, New Zealand
- The Australian Synchrotron, 800 Blackburn Rd, Clayton, VIC, 3168, Australia
| | - Philip J Harris
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland Mail Centre, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand.
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69
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Zhao F, Chen W, Sechet J, Martin M, Bovio S, Lionnet C, Long Y, Battu V, Mouille G, Monéger F, Traas J. Xyloglucans and Microtubules Synergistically Maintain Meristem Geometry and Phyllotaxis. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 181:1191-1206. [PMID: 31537749 PMCID: PMC6836833 DOI: 10.1104/pp.19.00608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 09/09/2019] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The shoot apical meristem (SAM) gives rise to all aerial plant organs. Cell walls are thought to play a central role in this process, translating molecular regulation into dynamic changes in growth rate and direction, although their precise role in morphogenesis during organ formation is poorly understood. Here, we investigated the role of xyloglucans (XyGs), a major, yet functionally poorly characterized, wall component in the SAM of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Using immunolabeling, biochemical analysis, genetic approaches, microindentation, laser ablation, and live imaging, we showed that XyGs are important for meristem shape and phyllotaxis. No difference in the Young's modulus (i.e. an indicator of wall stiffness) of the cell walls was observed when XyGs were perturbed. Mutations in enzymes required for XyG synthesis also affect other cell wall components such as cellulose content and pectin methylation status. Interestingly, control of cortical microtubule dynamics by the severing enzyme KATANIN became vital when XyGs were perturbed or absent. This suggests that the cytoskeleton plays an active role in compensating for altered cell wall composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Zhao
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRA, CNRS, 69364 Lyon cedex 07, France
| | - Wenqian Chen
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRA, CNRS, 69364 Lyon cedex 07, France
| | - Julien Sechet
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, UMR1318 INRA-AgroParisTech, ERL3559 CNRS Bâtiment 1, INRA Centre de Versailles-Grignon, 78026 Versailles cedex, France
| | - Marjolaine Martin
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRA, CNRS, 69364 Lyon cedex 07, France
| | - Simone Bovio
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRA, CNRS, 69364 Lyon cedex 07, France
| | - Claire Lionnet
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRA, CNRS, 69364 Lyon cedex 07, France
| | - Yuchen Long
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRA, CNRS, 69364 Lyon cedex 07, France
| | - Virginie Battu
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRA, CNRS, 69364 Lyon cedex 07, France
| | - Grégory Mouille
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, UMR1318 INRA-AgroParisTech, ERL3559 CNRS Bâtiment 1, INRA Centre de Versailles-Grignon, 78026 Versailles cedex, France
| | - Françoise Monéger
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRA, CNRS, 69364 Lyon cedex 07, France
| | - Jan Traas
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRA, CNRS, 69364 Lyon cedex 07, France
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70
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Yan J, Huang Y, He H, Han T, Di P, Sechet J, Fang L, Liang Y, Scheller HV, Mortimer JC, Ni L, Jiang M, Hou X, Zhang A. Xyloglucan endotransglucosylase-hydrolase30 negatively affects salt tolerance in Arabidopsis. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2019; 70:5495-5506. [PMID: 31257449 PMCID: PMC6793456 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erz311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Plants have evolved various strategies to sense and respond to saline environments, which severely reduce plant growth and limit agricultural productivity. Alteration to the cell wall is one strategy that helps plants adapt to salt stress. However, the physiological mechanism of how the cell wall components respond to salt stress is not fully understood. Here, we show that expression of XTH30, encoding xyloglucan endotransglucosylase-hydrolase30, is strongly up-regulated in response to salt stress in Arabidopsis. Loss-of-function of XTH30 leads to increased salt tolerance and overexpression of XTH30 results in salt hypersensitivity. XTH30 is located in the plasma membrane and is highly expressed in the root, flower, stem, and etiolated hypocotyl. The NaCl-induced increase in xyloglucan (XyG)-derived oligosaccharide (XLFG) of the wild type is partly blocked in xth30 mutants. Loss-of-function of XTH30 slows down the decrease of crystalline cellulose content and the depolymerization of microtubules caused by salt stress. Moreover, lower Na+ accumulation in shoot and lower H2O2 content are found in xth30 mutants in response to salt stress. Taken together, these results indicate that XTH30 modulates XyG side chains, altered abundance of XLFG, cellulose synthesis, and cortical microtubule stability, and negatively affecting salt tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingwei Yan
- College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yun Huang
- College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Huan He
- College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Tong Han
- College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Pengcheng Di
- College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Julien Sechet
- Joint Bioenergy Institute and Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Lin Fang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yan Liang
- Joint Bioenergy Institute and Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Henrik Vibe Scheller
- Joint Bioenergy Institute and Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Jenny C Mortimer
- Joint Bioenergy Institute and Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Lan Ni
- College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Mingyi Jiang
- College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xilin Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Germplasm Enhancement of Horticultural Crops in East China, Ministry of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Aying Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
- Correspondence:
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71
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Liu X, Pomorski TG, Liesche J. Non-invasive Quantification of Cell Wall Porosity by Fluorescence Quenching Microscopy. Bio Protoc 2019; 9:e3344. [PMID: 33654847 DOI: 10.21769/bioprotoc.3344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Revised: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 07/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
All bacteria, fungi and plant cells are surrounded by a cell wall. This complex network of polysaccharides and glycoproteins provides mechanical support, defines cell shape, controls cell growth and influences the exchange of substances between the cell and its surroundings. Despite its name, the cell wall is a flexible, dynamic structure. However, due to the lack of non-invasive methods to probe the structure, relatively little is known about the synthesis and dynamic remodeling of cell walls. Here, we describe a non-invasive method that quantifies a key physiological parameter of cell walls, the porosity, i.e., the size of spaces between cell wall components. This method measures the porosity-dependent decrease of the plasma membrane-localized fluorescent dye FM4-64 in the presence of the extracellular quencher Trypan blue. This method is applied to bacteria, fungi and plant cell walls to detect dynamic changes of porosity in response to environmental cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohui Liu
- College of Life Science, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China.,Biomass Energy Center for Arid Lands, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Thomas Günther Pomorski
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark.,Department of Molecular Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Johannes Liesche
- College of Life Science, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China.,Biomass Energy Center for Arid Lands, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
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72
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Rubianes D, Valdivia ER, Revilla G, Zarra I, Sampedro J. Xyloglucan exoglycosidases in the monocot model Brachypodium distachyon and the conservation of xyloglucan disassembly in angiosperms. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2019; 100:495-509. [PMID: 31028613 DOI: 10.1007/s11103-019-00875-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Brachypodium distachyon has a full set of exoglycosidases active on xyloglucan, including α-xylosidase, β-galactosidase, soluble and membrane-bound β-glucosidases and two α-fucosidases. However, unlike in Arabidopsis, both fucosidases are likely cytosolic. Xyloglucan is present in primary walls of all angiosperms. While in most groups it regulates cell wall extension, in Poaceae its role is still unclear. Five exoglycosidases participate in xyloglucan hydrolysis in Arabidopsis: α-xylosidase, β-galactosidase, α-fucosidase, soluble β-glucosidase and GPI-anchored β-glucosidase. Mutants in the corresponding genes show alterations in xyloglucan composition. In this work putative orthologs in the model grass Brachypodium distachyon were tested for their ability to complement Arabidopsis mutants. Xylosidase and galactosidase mutants were complemented, respectively, by BdXYL1 (Bd2g02070) and BdBGAL1 (Bd2g56607). BdBGAL1, unlike other xyloglucan β-galactosidases, is able to remove both galactoses from XLLG oligosaccharides. In addition, soluble β-glucosidase BdBGLC1 (Bd1g08550) complemented a glucosidase mutant. Closely related BdBGLC2 (Bd2g51280), which has a putative GPI-anchor sequence, was found associated with the plasma membrane and only a truncated version without GPI-anchor complemented the mutant, proving that Brachypodium also has soluble and membrane-bound xyloglucan glucosidases. Both BdXFUC1 (Bd3g25226) and BdXFUC2 (Bd1g28366) can hydrolyze fucose from xyloglucan oligosaccharides but were unable to complement a fucosidase mutant. Fluorescent protein fusions of BdXFUC1 localized to the cytosol and both proteins lack a signal peptide. Signal peptides appear to have evolved only in some eudicot lineages of this family, like the one leading to Arabidopsis. These results could be explained if cytosolic xyloglucan α-fucosidases are the ancestral state in angiosperms, with fucosylated oligosaccharides transported across the plasma membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego Rubianes
- Dpto. Biología Funcional, Facultad de Biología, Universidade de Santiago, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Elene R Valdivia
- Dpto. Biología Funcional, Facultad de Biología, Universidade de Santiago, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Gloria Revilla
- Dpto. Biología Funcional, Facultad de Biología, Universidade de Santiago, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Ignacio Zarra
- Dpto. Biología Funcional, Facultad de Biología, Universidade de Santiago, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Javier Sampedro
- Dpto. Biología Funcional, Facultad de Biología, Universidade de Santiago, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
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73
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Zhang L, Gao C, Mentink-Vigier F, Tang L, Zhang D, Wang S, Cao S, Xu Z, Liu X, Wang T, Zhou Y, Zhang B. Arabinosyl Deacetylase Modulates the Arabinoxylan Acetylation Profile and Secondary Wall Formation. THE PLANT CELL 2019; 31:1113-1126. [PMID: 30886126 PMCID: PMC6533017 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.18.00894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Revised: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Acetylation, a prevalent modification of cell-wall polymers, is a tightly controlled regulatory process that orchestrates plant growth and environmental adaptation. However, due to limited characterization of the enzymes involved, it is unclear how plants establish and dynamically regulate the acetylation pattern in response to growth requirements. In this study, we identified a rice (Oryza sativa) GDSL esterase that deacetylates the side chain of the major rice hemicellulose, arabinoxylan. Acetyl esterases involved in arabinoxylan modification were screened using enzymatic assays combined with mass spectrometry analysis. One candidate, DEACETYLASE ON ARABINOSYL SIDECHAIN OF XYLAN1 (DARX1), is specific for arabinosyl residues. Disruption of DARX1 via Tos17 insertion and CRISPR/Cas9 approaches resulted in the accumulation of acetates on the xylan arabinosyl side chains. Recombinant DARX1 abolished the excess acetyl groups on arabinoxylan-derived oligosaccharides of the darx1 mutants in vitro. Moreover, DARX1 is localized to the Golgi apparatus. Two-dimensional 13C-13C correlation spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy further revealed that the abnormal acetylation pattern observed in darx1 interrupts arabinoxylan conformation and cellulose microfibril orientation, resulting in compromised secondary wall patterning and reduced mechanical strength. This study provides insight into the mechanism controlling the acetylation pattern on arabinoxylan side chains and suggests a strategy to breed robust elite crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lanjun Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Chengxu Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | | | - Lu Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Dongmei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Shaogan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Shaoxue Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Zuopeng Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Xiangling Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Tuo Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803
| | - Yihua Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Baocai Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
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74
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Rongpipi S, Ye D, Gomez ED, Gomez EW. Progress and Opportunities in the Characterization of Cellulose - An Important Regulator of Cell Wall Growth and Mechanics. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 9:1894. [PMID: 30881371 PMCID: PMC6405478 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.01894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 12/06/2018] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The plant cell wall is a dynamic network of several biopolymers and structural proteins including cellulose, pectin, hemicellulose and lignin. Cellulose is one of the main load bearing components of this complex, heterogeneous structure, and in this way, is an important regulator of cell wall growth and mechanics. Glucan chains of cellulose aggregate via hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces to form long thread-like crystalline structures called cellulose microfibrils. The shape, size, and crystallinity of these microfibrils are important structural parameters that influence mechanical properties of the cell wall and these parameters are likely important determinants of cell wall digestibility for biofuel conversion. Cellulose-cellulose and cellulose-matrix interactions also contribute to the regulation of the mechanics and growth of the cell wall. As a consequence, much emphasis has been placed on extracting valuable structural details about cell wall components from several techniques, either individually or in combination, including diffraction/scattering, microscopy, and spectroscopy. In this review, we describe efforts to characterize the organization of cellulose in plant cell walls. X-ray scattering reveals the size and orientation of microfibrils; diffraction reveals unit lattice parameters and crystallinity. The presence of different cell wall components, their physical and chemical states, and their alignment and orientation have been identified by Infrared, Raman, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, and Sum Frequency Generation spectroscopy. Direct visualization of cell wall components, their network-like structure, and interactions between different components has also been made possible through a host of microscopic imaging techniques including scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and atomic force microscopy. This review highlights advantages and limitations of different analytical techniques for characterizing cellulose structure and its interaction with other wall polymers. We also delineate emerging opportunities for future developments of structural characterization tools and multi-modal analyses of cellulose and plant cell walls. Ultimately, elucidation of the structure of plant cell walls across multiple length scales will be imperative for establishing structure-property relationships to link cell wall structure to control of growth and mechanics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sintu Rongpipi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Dan Ye
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Enrique D. Gomez
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
- Materials Research Institute, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Esther W. Gomez
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
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75
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Liu X, Li J, Zhao H, Liu B, Günther-Pomorski T, Chen S, Liesche J. Novel tool to quantify cell wall porosity relates wall structure to cell growth and drug uptake. J Cell Biol 2019; 218:1408-1421. [PMID: 30782779 PMCID: PMC6446840 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201810121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2018] [Revised: 01/08/2019] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Even though cell walls have essential functions for bacteria, fungi, and plants, tools to investigate their dynamic structure in living cells have been missing. Here, it is shown that changes in the intensity of the plasma membrane dye FM4-64 in response to extracellular quenchers depend on the nano-scale porosity of cell walls. The correlation of quenching efficiency and cell wall porosity is supported by tests on various cell types, application of differently sized quenchers, and comparison of results with confocal, electron, and atomic force microscopy images. The quenching assay was used to investigate how changes in cell wall porosity affect the capability for extension growth in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana Results suggest that increased porosity is not a precondition but a result of cell extension, thereby providing new insight on the mechanism plant organ growth. Furthermore, it was shown that higher cell wall porosity can facilitate the action of antifungal drugs in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, presumably by facilitating uptake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohui Liu
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China.,Biomass Energy Center for Arid Lands, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Jiazhou Li
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China.,Biomass Energy Center for Arid Lands, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Heyu Zhao
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China.,Biomass Energy Center for Arid Lands, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Boyang Liu
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China.,Biomass Energy Center for Arid Lands, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Thomas Günther-Pomorski
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark.,Department of Molecular Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Shaolin Chen
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China.,Biomass Energy Center for Arid Lands, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Johannes Liesche
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China .,Biomass Energy Center for Arid Lands, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
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76
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Polko JK, Kieber JJ. The Regulation of Cellulose Biosynthesis in Plants. THE PLANT CELL 2019; 31:282-296. [PMID: 30647077 PMCID: PMC6447023 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.18.00760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Revised: 11/26/2018] [Accepted: 01/09/2019] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Cell walls define the shape of plant cells, controlling the extent and orientation of cell elongation, and hence organ growth. The main load-bearing component of plant cell walls is cellulose, and how plants regulate its biosynthesis during development and in response to various environmental perturbations is a central question in plant biology. Cellulose is synthesized by cellulose synthase (CESA) complexes (CSCs) that are assembled in the Golgi apparatus and then delivered to the plasma membrane (PM), where they actively synthesize cellulose. CSCs travel along cortical microtubule paths that define the orientation of synthesis of the cellulose microfibrils. CSCs recycle between the PM and various intracellular compartments, and this trafficking plays an important role in determining the level of cellulose synthesized. In this review, we summarize recent findings in CESA complex organization, CESA posttranslational modifications and trafficking, and other components that interact with CESAs. We also discuss cell wall integrity maintenance, with a focus on how this impacts cellulose biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna K Polko
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Joseph J Kieber
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
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77
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Durand TC, Cueff G, Godin B, Valot B, Clément G, Gaude T, Rajjou L. Combined Proteomic and Metabolomic Profiling of the Arabidopsis thaliana vps29 Mutant Reveals Pleiotropic Functions of the Retromer in Seed Development. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E362. [PMID: 30654520 PMCID: PMC6359594 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20020362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Revised: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The retromer is a multiprotein complex conserved from yeast to humans, which is involved in intracellular protein trafficking and protein recycling. Selection of cargo proteins transported by the retromer depends on the core retromer subunit composed of the three vacuolar protein sorting (VPS) proteins, namely VPS26, VPS29, and VPS35. To gain a better knowledge of the importance of the plant retromer in protein sorting, we carried out a comparative proteomic and metabolomic analysis of Arabidopsis thaliana seeds from the wild-type and the null-retromer mutant vps29. Here, we report that the retromer mutant displays major alterations in the maturation of seed storage proteins and synthesis of lipid reserves, which are accompanied by severely impaired seed vigor and longevity. We also show that the lack of retromer components is counterbalanced by an increase in proteins involved in intracellular trafficking, notably members of the Ras-related proteins in brain (RAB) family proteins. Our study suggests that loss of the retromer stimulates energy metabolism, affects many metabolic pathways, including that of cell wall biogenesis, and triggers an osmotic stress response, underlining the importance of retromer function in seed biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas C Durand
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon I, CNRS, INRA, 69342 Lyon, France.
| | - Gwendal Cueff
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRA, AgroParisTech, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 78000 Versailles cedex, France.
| | - Béatrice Godin
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRA, AgroParisTech, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 78000 Versailles cedex, France.
| | - Benoît Valot
- GQE - Le Moulon, INRA, Univ. Paris-Sud, CNRS, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 91190 Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
| | - Gilles Clément
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRA, AgroParisTech, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 78000 Versailles cedex, France.
| | - Thierry Gaude
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon I, CNRS, INRA, 69342 Lyon, France.
| | - Loïc Rajjou
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRA, AgroParisTech, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 78000 Versailles cedex, France.
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78
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Tryfona T, Sorieul M, Feijao C, Stott K, Rubtsov DV, Anders N, Dupree P. Development of an oligosaccharide library to characterise the structural variation in glucuronoarabinoxylan in the cell walls of vegetative tissues in grasses. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2019; 12:109. [PMID: 31080516 PMCID: PMC6501314 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-019-1451-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2019] [Accepted: 04/25/2019] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Grass glucuronoarabinoxylan (GAX) substitutions can inhibit enzymatic degradation and are involved in the interaction of xylan with cell wall cellulose and lignin, factors which contribute to the recalcitrance of biomass to saccharification. Therefore, identification of xylan characteristics central to biomass biorefining improvement is essential. However, the task of assessing biomass quality is complicated and is often hindered by the lack of a reference for a given crop. RESULTS In this study, we created a reference library, expressed in glucose units, of Miscanthus sinensis GAX stem and leaf oligosaccharides, using DNA sequencer-Assisted Saccharide analysis in high throughput (DASH), supported by liquid chromatography (LC), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and mass spectrometry (MS). Our analysis of a number of grass species highlighted variations in substitution type and frequency of stem and leaf GAX. In miscanthus, for example, the β-Xylp-(1 → 2)-α-Araf-(1 → 3) side chain is more abundant in leaf than stem. CONCLUSIONS The reference library allows fast identification and comparison of GAX structures from different plants and tissues. Ultimately, this reference library can be used in directing biomass selection and improving biorefining.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodora Tryfona
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Hopkins Building, The Downing Site, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QW UK
| | - Mathias Sorieul
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Hopkins Building, The Downing Site, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QW UK
- Present Address: Scion, 49 Sala Street, Private Bag 3020, Rotorua, 3046 New Zealand
| | - Carolina Feijao
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Hopkins Building, The Downing Site, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QW UK
- Present Address: Frontiers, WeWork, 1 Fore St, London, EC2Y 5EJ UK
| | - Katherine Stott
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Sanger Building, 80 Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1GA UK
| | - Denis V. Rubtsov
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Hopkins Building, The Downing Site, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QW UK
- Present Address: ideaSpace South, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Bay 13 Hills Road, Cambridge, CB2 0SP UK
| | - Nadine Anders
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Hopkins Building, The Downing Site, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QW UK
| | - Paul Dupree
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Hopkins Building, The Downing Site, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QW UK
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79
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Cosgrove DJ. Nanoscale structure, mechanics and growth of epidermal cell walls. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2018; 46:77-86. [PMID: 30142487 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2018.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2018] [Revised: 07/19/2018] [Accepted: 07/25/2018] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
This article briefly reviews recent advances in nano-scale and micro-scale assessments of primary cell wall structure, mechanical behaviors and expansive growth. Cellulose microfibrils have hydrophobic and hydrophilic faces which may selectively bind different matrix polysaccharides and adjacent microfibrils. These distinctive binding interactions may guide partially aligned cellulose microfibrils in primary cell walls to form a planar, load-bearing network within each lamella of polylamellate walls. Consideration of expansive growth of cross-lamellate walls leads to a surprising inference: side-by-side sliding of microfibrils may be a key rate-limiting physical step, potentially targeted by specific wall loosening agents. Atomic force microscopy shows different patterns of microfibril movement during force-driven extension versus enzymatic loosening. Consequently, simulations of cell growth as elastic deformation of isotropic cell walls may need to be augmented to incorporate the distinctive behavior of growing cell walls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16803, USA.
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80
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Anderson CT. Finding order in a bustling construction zone: quantitative imaging and analysis of cell wall assembly in plants. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2018; 46:62-67. [PMID: 30107305 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2018.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2018] [Revised: 07/16/2018] [Accepted: 07/25/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Assembly of polysaccharide-based walls by plant cells involves the rapid synthesis, trafficking, and deposition of complex biopolymers, but how these events are controlled and coordinated to achieve a strong, resilient extracellular matrix has remained obscure for decades. Recent quantitative analyses of fluorescence microscopy data have revealed details of the trafficking and synthetic activity of cellulose synthases, and new methods for labeling matrix polymers have unveiled aspects of their regulated deposition in the wall. Detailed studies of the identity, architecture, activity, and trafficking of the proteins and protein complexes that synthesize wall polymers, combined with advances in image acquisition and analysis, will aid future efforts to dissect wall assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles T Anderson
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA; Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
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81
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Hitting the Wall-Sensing and Signaling Pathways Involved in Plant Cell Wall Remodeling in Response to Abiotic Stress. PLANTS 2018; 7:plants7040089. [PMID: 30360552 PMCID: PMC6313904 DOI: 10.3390/plants7040089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2018] [Revised: 10/16/2018] [Accepted: 10/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Plant cells are surrounded by highly dynamic cell walls that play important roles regulating aspects of plant development. Recent advances in visualization and measurement of cell wall properties have enabled accumulation of new data about wall architecture and biomechanics. This has resulted in greater understanding of the dynamics of cell wall deposition and remodeling. The cell wall is the first line of defense against different adverse abiotic and biotic environmental influences. Different abiotic stress conditions such as salinity, drought, and frost trigger production of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) which act as important signaling molecules in stress activated cellular responses. Detection of ROS by still-elusive receptors triggers numerous signaling events that result in production of different protective compounds or even cell death, but most notably in stress-induced cell wall remodeling. This is mediated by different plant hormones, of which the most studied are jasmonic acid and brassinosteroids. In this review we highlight key factors involved in sensing, signal transduction, and response(s) to abiotic stress and how these mechanisms are related to cell wall-associated stress acclimatization. ROS, plant hormones, cell wall remodeling enzymes and different wall mechanosensors act coordinately during abiotic stress, resulting in abiotic stress wall acclimatization, enabling plants to survive adverse environmental conditions.
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82
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Zhao F, Chen W, Traas J. Mechanical signaling in plant morphogenesis. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2018; 51:26-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2018.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2018] [Revised: 04/02/2018] [Accepted: 04/04/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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83
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Luo X, Cao D, Zhang J, Chen L, Xia X, Li H, Zhao D, Zhang F, Xue H, Chen L, Li Y, Cao S. Integrated microRNA and mRNA expression profiling reveals a complex network regulating pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) seed hardness. Sci Rep 2018; 8:9292. [PMID: 29915181 PMCID: PMC6006261 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-27664-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2018] [Accepted: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The breeding of new soft-seeded pomegranate cultivars provides new products for the market and increases farmers' incomes, yet the genetic architecture mediating seed hardness is largely unknown. Here, the seed hardness and hundred-seed weights of 26 cultivars were determined in 2 successive years. We conducted miRNA and mRNA sequencing to analyse the seeds of two varieties of Punica granatum: soft-seeded Tunisia and hard-seeded Sanbai, at 60 and 120 d after flowering. Seed hardness was strongly positively correlated with hundred-seed weight. We detected 25 and 12 differentially expressed miRNA-mRNA pairs with negative regulatory relationships between the two genotypes at 60 and 120 d after flowering, respectively. These miRNA-mRNA pairs mainly regulated seed hardness by altering cell wall structure. Transcription factors including NAC1, WRKY and MYC, which are involved in seed hardness, were targeted by differentially expressed mdm-miR164e and mdm-miR172b. Thus, seed hardness is the result of a complex biological process regulated by a miRNA-mRNA network in pomegranate. These results will help us understand the complexity of seed hardness and help to elucidate the miRNA-mediated molecular mechanisms that contribute to seed hardness in pomegranate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Luo
- Zhengzhou Fruit Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou, 450009, P.R. China
| | - Da Cao
- Zhengzhou Fruit Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou, 450009, P.R. China
| | - Jianfeng Zhang
- Zhengzhou Tobacco Research Institute of CNTC, Zhengzhou, 450001, P.R. China
| | - Li Chen
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, National Center of Rapeseed Improvement in Wuhan, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, P.R. China
| | - Xiaocong Xia
- Zhengzhou Fruit Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou, 450009, P.R. China
| | - Haoxian Li
- Zhengzhou Fruit Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou, 450009, P.R. China
| | - Diguang Zhao
- Zhengzhou Fruit Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou, 450009, P.R. China
| | - Fuhong Zhang
- Zhengzhou Fruit Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou, 450009, P.R. China
| | - Hui Xue
- Zhengzhou Fruit Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou, 450009, P.R. China
| | - Lina Chen
- Zhengzhou Fruit Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou, 450009, P.R. China
| | - Yongzhou Li
- College of Horticultural Science, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450002, P.R. China
| | - Shangyin Cao
- Zhengzhou Fruit Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou, 450009, P.R. China.
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84
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Barnes WJ, Anderson CT. Cytosolic invertases contribute to cellulose biosynthesis and influence carbon partitioning in seedlings of Arabidopsis thaliana. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2018; 94:956-974. [PMID: 29569779 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.13909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2017] [Revised: 02/15/2018] [Accepted: 03/08/2018] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
In plants, UDP-glucose is the direct precursor for cellulose biosynthesis, and can be converted into other NDP-sugars required for the biosynthesis of wall matrix polysaccharides. UDP-glucose is generated from sucrose by two distinct metabolic pathways. The first pathway is the direct conversion of sucrose to UDP-glucose and fructose by sucrose synthase. The second pathway involves sucrose hydrolysis by cytosolic invertase (CINV), conversion of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate and glucose-1-phosphate, and UDP-glucose generation by UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (UGP). Previously, Barratt et al. (Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA, 106, 2009 and 13124) have found that an Arabidopsis double mutant lacking CINV1 and CINV2 displayed drastically reduced growth. Whether this reduced growth is due to deficient cell wall production caused by limited UDP-glucose supply, pleiotropic effects, or both, remained unresolved. Here, we present results indicating that the CINV/UGP pathway contributes to anisotropic growth and cellulose biosynthesis in Arabidopsis. Biochemical and imaging data demonstrate that cinv1 cinv2 seedlings are deficient in UDP-glucose production, exhibit abnormal cellulose biosynthesis and microtubule properties, and have altered cellulose organization without substantial changes to matrix polysaccharide composition, suggesting that the CINV/UGP pathway is a key metabolic route to UDP-glucose synthesis in Arabidopsis. Furthermore, differential responses of cinv1 cinv2 seedlings to exogenous sugar supplementation support a function of CINVs in influencing carbon partitioning in Arabidopsis. From these data and those of previous studies, we conclude that CINVs serve central roles in cellulose biosynthesis and carbon allocation in Arabidopsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J Barnes
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
- Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Charles T Anderson
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
- Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
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85
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Huang S, Makarem M, Kiemle SN, Hamedi H, Sau M, Cosgrove DJ, Kim SH. Inhomogeneity of Cellulose Microfibril Assembly in Plant Cell Walls Revealed with Sum Frequency Generation Microscopy. J Phys Chem B 2018; 122:5006-5019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.8b01537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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86
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Majda M, Robert S. The Role of Auxin in Cell Wall Expansion. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19040951. [PMID: 29565829 PMCID: PMC5979272 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19040951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2018] [Revised: 03/19/2018] [Accepted: 03/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant cells are surrounded by cell walls, which are dynamic structures displaying a strictly regulated balance between rigidity and flexibility. Walls are fairly rigid to provide support and protection, but also extensible, to allow cell growth, which is triggered by a high intracellular turgor pressure. Wall properties regulate the differential growth of the cell, resulting in a diversity of cell sizes and shapes. The plant hormone auxin is well known to stimulate cell elongation via increasing wall extensibility. Auxin participates in the regulation of cell wall properties by inducing wall loosening. Here, we review what is known on cell wall property regulation by auxin. We focus particularly on the auxin role during cell expansion linked directly to cell wall modifications. We also analyze downstream targets of transcriptional auxin signaling, which are related to the cell wall and could be linked to acid growth and the action of wall-loosening proteins. All together, this update elucidates the connection between hormonal signaling and cell wall synthesis and deposition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mateusz Majda
- Umeå Plant Science Centre (UPSC), Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 901 83 Umeå, Sweden.
| | - Stéphanie Robert
- Umeå Plant Science Centre (UPSC), Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 901 83 Umeå, Sweden.
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87
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Hill JL, Josephs C, Barnes WJ, Anderson CT, Tien M. Longevity in vivo of primary cell wall cellulose synthases. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2018; 96:279-289. [PMID: 29388029 DOI: 10.1007/s11103-017-0695-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2017] [Accepted: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Our work focuses on understanding the lifetime and thus stability of the three main cellulose synthase (CESA) proteins involved in primary cell wall synthesis of Arabidopsis. It had long been thought that a major means of CESA regulation was via their rapid degradation. However, our studies here have uncovered that AtCESA proteins are not rapidly degraded. Rather, they persist for an extended time in the plant cell. Plant cellulose is synthesized by membrane-embedded cellulose synthase complexes (CSCs). The CSC is composed of cellulose synthases (CESAs), of which three distinct isozymes form the primary cell wall CSC and another set of three isozymes form the secondary cell wall CSC. We determined the stability over time of primary cell wall (PCW) CESAs in Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings, using immunoblotting after inhibiting protein synthesis with cycloheximide treatment. Our work reveals very slow turnover for the Arabidopsis PCW CESAs in vivo. Additionally, we show that the stability of all three CESAs within the PCW CSC is altered by mutations in individual CESAs, elevated temperature, and light conditions. Together, these results suggest that CESA proteins are very stable in vivo, but that their lifetimes can be modulated by intrinsic and environmental cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Lee Hill
- The Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, USA
- Department of Horticulture, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Cooper Josephs
- The Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, USA
| | - William J Barnes
- The Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, USA
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Charles T Anderson
- The Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, USA
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Ming Tien
- The Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, USA.
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, USA.
- , 305 S. Frear, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
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88
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Verbančič J, Lunn JE, Stitt M, Persson S. Carbon Supply and the Regulation of Cell Wall Synthesis. MOLECULAR PLANT 2018; 11:75-94. [PMID: 29054565 DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2017.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2017] [Revised: 10/04/2017] [Accepted: 10/05/2017] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
All plant cells are surrounded by a cell wall that determines the directionality of cell growth and protects the cell against its environment. Plant cell walls are comprised primarily of polysaccharides and represent the largest sink for photosynthetically fixed carbon, both for individual plants and in the terrestrial biosphere as a whole. Cell wall synthesis is a highly sophisticated process, involving multiple enzymes and metabolic intermediates, intracellular trafficking of proteins and cell wall precursors, assembly of cell wall polymers into the extracellular matrix, remodeling of polymers and their interactions, and recycling of cell wall sugars. In this review we discuss how newly fixed carbon, in the form of UDP-glucose and other nucleotide sugars, contributes to the synthesis of cell wall polysaccharides, and how cell wall synthesis is influenced by the carbon status of the plant, with a focus on the model species Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Verbančič
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany; School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - John Edward Lunn
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany.
| | - Mark Stitt
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Staffan Persson
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia.
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89
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Armezzani A, Abad U, Ali O, Robin AA, Vachez L, Larrieu A, Mellerowicz EJ, Taconnat L, Battu V, Stanislas T, Liu M, Vernoux T, Traas J, Sassi M. Transcriptional induction of cell wall remodelling genes is coupled to microtubule-driven growth isotropy at the shoot apex in Arabidopsis. Development 2018; 145:dev.162255. [DOI: 10.1242/dev.162255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2017] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The shoot apical meristem of higher plants continuously generates new tissues and organs through complex changes in growth rates and directions of its individual cells. Cell growth, driven by turgor pressure, largely depends on the cell walls, which allow cell expansion through synthesis and structural changes. A previous study revealed a major contribution of wall isotropy in organ emergence, through the disorganization of cortical microtubules. We show here that this disorganization is coupled with the transcriptional control of genes involved in wall remodelling. Some of these genes are induced when microtubules are disorganized and cells shift to isotropic growth. Mechanical modelling shows that this coupling has the potential to compensate for reduced cell expansion rates induced by the shift to isotropic growth. Reciprocally, cell wall loosening induced by different treatments or altered cell wall composition promotes a disruption of microtubule alignment. Our data thus indicate the existence of a regulatory module activated during organ outgrowth, linking microtubule arrangements to cell wall remodelling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Armezzani
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Universite de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRA, CNRS, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Ursula Abad
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Universite de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRA, CNRS, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Olivier Ali
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Universite de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRA, CNRS, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
- INRIA team MOSAIC, Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, INRA, CNRS, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Amélie Andres Robin
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Universite de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRA, CNRS, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Laetitia Vachez
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Universite de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRA, CNRS, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Antoine Larrieu
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Universite de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRA, CNRS, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Ewa J. Mellerowicz
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet) S901-83 Umea, Sweden
| | - Ludivine Taconnat
- Institute of Plant Sciences Paris Saclay IPS2, CNRS, INRA, Université Paris-Sud, Université Evry, Université Paris-Saclay, Bâtiment 630, 91405 Orsay, France
- Institute of Plant Sciences Paris-Saclay IPS2, Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris-Cité, Bâtiment 630, 91405, Orsay, France
| | - Virginie Battu
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Universite de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRA, CNRS, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Thomas Stanislas
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Universite de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRA, CNRS, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Mengying Liu
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Universite de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRA, CNRS, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Teva Vernoux
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Universite de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRA, CNRS, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Jan Traas
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Universite de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRA, CNRS, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Massimiliano Sassi
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Universite de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRA, CNRS, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
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90
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Zheng Y, Wang X, Chen Y, Wagner E, Cosgrove DJ. Xyloglucan in the primary cell wall: assessment by FESEM, selective enzyme digestions and nanogold affinity tags. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2018; 93:211-226. [PMID: 29160933 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.13778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2017] [Revised: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 11/06/2017] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Xyloglucan has been hypothesized to bind extensively to cellulose microfibril surfaces and to tether microfibrils into a load-bearing network, thereby playing a central role in wall mechanics and growth, but this view is challenged by newer results. Here we combined high-resolution imaging by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) with nanogold affinity tags and selective endoglucanase treatments to assess the spatial location and conformation of xyloglucan in onion cell walls. FESEM imaging of xyloglucanase-digested cell walls revealed an altered microfibril organization but did not yield clear evidence of xyloglucan conformations. Backscattered electron detection provided excellent detection of nanogold affinity tags in the context of wall fibrillar organization. Labelling with xyloglucan-specific CBM76 conjugated with nanogold showed that xyloglucans were associated with fibril surfaces in both extended and coiled conformations, but tethered configurations were not observed. Labelling with nanogold-conjugated CBM3, which binds the hydrophobic surface of crystalline cellulose, was infrequent until the wall was predigested with xyloglucanase, whereupon microfibril labelling was extensive. When tamarind xyloglucan was allowed to bind to xyloglucan-depleted onion walls, CBM76 labelling gave positive evidence for xyloglucans in both extended and coiled conformations, yet xyloglucan chains were not directly visible by FESEM. These results indicate that an appreciable, but still small, surface of cellulose microfibrils in the onion wall is tightly bound with extended xyloglucan chains and that some of the xyloglucan has a coiled conformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunzhen Zheng
- Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, Penn State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Xuan Wang
- Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, Penn State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Yuning Chen
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Edward Wagner
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Daniel J Cosgrove
- Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, Penn State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
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91
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Yi H, Rui Y, Kandemir B, Wang JZ, Anderson CT, Puri VM. Mechanical Effects of Cellulose, Xyloglucan, and Pectins on Stomatal Guard Cells of Arabidopsis thaliana. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 9:1566. [PMID: 30455709 PMCID: PMC6230562 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.01566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Stomata function as osmotically tunable pores that facilitate gas exchange at the surface of plants. Stomatal opening and closure are regulated by turgor changes in guard cells that result in mechanically regulated deformations of guard cell walls. However, how the molecular, architectural, and mechanical heterogeneities that exist in guard cell walls affect stomatal dynamics is unclear. In this work, stomata of wild type Arabidopsis thaliana plants or of mutants lacking normal cellulose, hemicellulose, or pectins were experimentally induced to close or open. Three-dimensional images of these stomatal complexes were collected using confocal microscopy, images were landmarked, and three-dimensional finite element models (FEMs) were constructed for each complex. Stomatal opening was simulated with a 5 MPa turgor increase. By comparing experimentally measured and computationally modeled changes in stomatal geometry across genotypes, anisotropic mechanical properties of guard cell walls were determined and mapped to cell wall components. Deficiencies in cellulose or hemicellulose were both predicted to stiffen guard cell walls, but differentially affected stomatal pore area and the degree of stomatal opening. Additionally, reducing pectin molecular mass altered the anisotropy of calculated shear moduli in guard cell walls and enhanced stomatal opening. Based on the unique architecture of guard cell walls and our modeled changes in their mechanical properties in cell wall mutants, we discuss how each polysaccharide class contributes to wall architecture and mechanics in guard cells. This study provides new insights into how the walls of guard cells are constructed to meet the mechanical requirements of stomatal dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hojae Yi
- Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
- *Correspondence: Hojae Yi
| | - Yue Rui
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
- Intercollege Graduate Degree Program in Plant Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Baris Kandemir
- College of Information Sciences and Technology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - James Z. Wang
- College of Information Sciences and Technology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Charles T. Anderson
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
- Intercollege Graduate Degree Program in Plant Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
- Charles T. Anderson
| | - Virendra M. Puri
- Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
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92
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Cosgrove DJ. Diffuse Growth of Plant Cell Walls. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2018; 176:16-27. [PMID: 29138349 PMCID: PMC5761826 DOI: 10.1104/pp.17.01541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 200] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2017] [Accepted: 11/13/2017] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Structural and functional roles of cellulose, xyloglucan, and pectins in cell wall enlargement are reappraised with insights from mechanics, atomic force microscopy, and other methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
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93
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Elliott A, Shaw SL. Update: Plant Cortical Microtubule Arrays. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2018; 176:94-105. [PMID: 29184029 PMCID: PMC5761819 DOI: 10.1104/pp.17.01329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 11/20/2017] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Cortical microtubules play a critical role in plant morphogenesis by creating array patterns that template the deposition of cellulose microfibrils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Elliott
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405
| | - Sidney L Shaw
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405
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94
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Zhang T, Cosgrove DJ. Preparation of Onion Epidermal Cell Walls for Imaging by Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). Bio Protoc 2017; 7:e2647. [PMID: 34595310 PMCID: PMC8438486 DOI: 10.21769/bioprotoc.2647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Revised: 11/18/2017] [Accepted: 11/21/2017] [Indexed: 09/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The growing plant cell wall is comprised of long, thin cellulose microfibrils embedded in a hydrated matrix of polysaccharides and glycoproteins. These components are typically constructed in layers (lamellae) on the inner surface of the cell wall, i.e., between the existing wall and the plasma membrane. The organization of these components is an important feature for plant cell growth and mechanics. To directly visualize the nano-scale structure of the newly-deposited surface of primary plant cell walls without dehydration or chemical extraction, a protocol of cell wall preparation for AFM imaging the most recently-synthesized cell wall surface in aqueous solutions was developed. Although the method was developed for onion scale epidermal peels, it can also be adapted to other organs, such as Arabidopsis hypocotyls, as well as ground samples of cell walls from the leaf petioles or hypocotyls of Arabidopsis and cucumber, maize coleoptiles and onion parenchyma. Potential artifacts of AFM imaging of plant cell walls are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian Zhang
- Department of Biology and Center for LignoCellulose Structure and Formation, 208 Mueller Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Daniel J. Cosgrove
- Department of Biology and Center for LignoCellulose Structure and Formation, 208 Mueller Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
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95
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Kuki H, Higaki T, Yokoyama R, Kuroha T, Shinohara N, Hasezawa S, Nishitani K. Quantitative confocal imaging method for analyzing cellulose dynamics during cell wall regeneration in Arabidopsis mesophyll protoplasts. PLANT DIRECT 2017; 1:e00021. [PMID: 31245675 PMCID: PMC6508514 DOI: 10.1002/pld3.21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2017] [Revised: 09/06/2017] [Accepted: 09/22/2017] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The network structure of cellulose fibrils provides mechanical properties to the primary cell wall, thereby determining the shapes and growth patterns of plant cells. Despite intensive studies, the construction process of the network structure in muro remains largely unknown, mainly due to the lack of a robust, straightforward technique to evaluate network configuration. Here, we developed a quantitative confocal imaging method for general use in the study of cell wall dynamics in protoplasts derived from Arabidopsis leaf mesophyll cells. Confocal imaging of regenerating cell walls in protoplasts stained with Calcofluor allowed us to visualize the cellulose network, comprising strings of bundled cellulosic fibrils. Using image analysis techniques, we measured several metrics including total length, which is a measure of the spread of the cellulose network. The total length increased during cell wall regeneration. In a proof-of-concept experiment using microtubule-modifying agents, oryzalin, an inhibitor of microtubule polymerization, inhibited the increase in total length and caused abnormal orientation of the network, as shown by the decrease in the average angle of the cellulose with respect to the cell long axis. Taxol, a microtubule stabilizer, stimulated the bundling of cellulose fibrils, as shown by the increase in skewness in the fluorescence intensity distribution of Calcofluor, and inhibited the increase in total length. These results demonstrate the validity of this method for quantitative imaging of the cellulose network, providing an opportunity to gain insight into the dynamic aspects of cell wall regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroaki Kuki
- Graduate School of Life SciencesTohoku UniversitySendaiJapan
| | - Takumi Higaki
- International Research Organization for Advanced Science and TechnologyKumamoto UniversityKumamotoJapan
| | | | - Takeshi Kuroha
- Graduate School of Life SciencesTohoku UniversitySendaiJapan
| | - Naoki Shinohara
- Graduate School of Life SciencesTohoku UniversitySendaiJapan
| | - Seiichiro Hasezawa
- Department of Integrated BiosciencesGraduate School of Frontier SciencesThe University of TokyoKashiwanoha KashiwaChibaJapan
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96
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Imaging cellulose synthase motility during primary cell wall synthesis in the grass Brachypodium distachyon. Sci Rep 2017; 7:15111. [PMID: 29118446 PMCID: PMC5678151 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-14988-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2017] [Accepted: 10/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanism of cellulose synthesis has been studied by characterizing the motility of cellulose synthase complexes tagged with a fluorescent protein; however, this approach has been used exclusively on the hypocotyl of Arabidopsis thaliana. Here we characterize cellulose synthase motility in the model grass, Brachypodium distachyon. We generated lines in which mEGFP is fused N-terminal to BdCESA3 or BdCESA6 and which grew indistinguishably from the wild type (Bd21-3) and had dense fluorescent puncta at or near the plasma membrane. Measured with a particle tracking algorithm, the average speed of GFP-BdCESA3 particles in the mesocotyl was 164 ± 78 nm min−1 (error gives standard deviation [SD], n = 1451 particles). Mean speed in the root appeared similar. For comparison, average speed in the A. thaliana hypocotyl expressing GFP-AtCESA6 was 184 ± 86 nm min−1 (n = 2755). For B. distachyon, we quantified root diameter and elongation rate in response to inhibitors of cellulose (dichlorobenylnitrile; DCB), microtubules (oryzalin), or actin (latrunculin B). Neither oryzalin nor latrunculin affected the speed of CESA complexes; whereas, DCB reduced average speed by about 50% in B. distachyon and by about 35% in A. thaliana. Evidently, between these species, CESA motility is well conserved.
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97
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Zheng Y, Cosgrove DJ, Ning G. High-Resolution Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) Imaging of Cellulose Microfibril Organization in Plant Primary Cell Walls. MICROSCOPY AND MICROANALYSIS : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY SOCIETY OF AMERICA, MICROBEAM ANALYSIS SOCIETY, MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 2017; 23:1048-1054. [PMID: 28835298 DOI: 10.1017/s143192761701251x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
We have used field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) to study the high-resolution organization of cellulose microfibrils in onion epidermal cell walls. We frequently found that conventional "rule of thumb" conditions for imaging of biological samples did not yield high-resolution images of cellulose organization and often resulted in artifacts or distortions of cell wall structure. Here we detail our method of one-step fixation and dehydration with 100% ethanol, followed by critical point drying, ultrathin iridium (Ir) sputter coating (3 s), and FESEM imaging at a moderate accelerating voltage (10 kV) with an In-lens detector. We compare results obtained with our improved protocol with images obtained with samples processed by conventional aldehyde fixation, graded dehydration, sputter coating with Au, Au/Pd, or carbon, and low-voltage FESEM imaging. The results demonstrated that our protocol is simpler, causes little artifact, and is more suitable for high-resolution imaging of cell wall cellulose microfibrils whereas such imaging is very challenging by conventional methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunzhen Zheng
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Gang Ning
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
- Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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98
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Johnson KL, Gidley MJ, Bacic A, Doblin MS. Cell wall biomechanics: a tractable challenge in manipulating plant cell walls 'fit for purpose'! Curr Opin Biotechnol 2017; 49:163-171. [PMID: 28915438 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2017.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2017] [Revised: 07/26/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The complexity and recalcitrance of plant cell walls has contributed to the success of plants colonising land. Conversely, these attributes have also impeded progress in understanding the roles of walls in controlling and directing developmental processes during plant growth and also in unlocking their potential for biotechnological innovation. Recent technological advances have enabled the probing of how primary wall structures and molecular interactions of polysaccharides define their biomechanical (and hence functional) properties. The outputs have led to a new paradigm that places greater emphasis on understanding how the wall, as a biomechanical construct and cell surface sensor, modulates both plant growth and material properties. Armed with this knowledge, we are gaining the capacity to design walls 'fit for (biotechnological) purpose'!
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim L Johnson
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010, VIC, Australia
| | - Michael J Gidley
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, Centre for Nutrition and Food Sciences, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, St Lucia 4072, QLD, Australia
| | - Antony Bacic
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010, VIC, Australia.
| | - Monika S Doblin
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010, VIC, Australia.
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99
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Naoumkina M, Hinchliffe DJ, Fang DD, Florane CB, Thyssen GN. Role of xyloglucan in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) fiber elongation of the short fiber mutant Ligon lintless-2 (Li 2). Gene 2017; 626:227-233. [PMID: 28546126 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2017.05.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2016] [Revised: 05/08/2017] [Accepted: 05/21/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Xyloglucan is a matrix polysaccharide found in the cell walls of all land plants. In growing cells, xyloglucan is thought to connect cellulose microfibrils and regulate their separation during wall extension. Ligon lintless-2 (Li2) is a monogenic dominant cotton fiber mutation that causes extreme reduction in lint fiber length with no pleiotropic effects on vegetative growth. Li2 represents an excellent model system to study fiber elongation. To understand the role of xyloglucan in cotton fiber elongation we used the short fiber mutant Li2 and its near isogenic wild type for analysis of xyloglucan content and expression of xyloglucan-related genes in developing fibers. Accumulation of xyloglucan was significantly higher in Li2 developing fibers than in wild type. Genes encoding enzymes for nine family members of xyloglucan biosynthesis were identified in the draft Gossypium hirsutum genome. RNAseq analysis revealed that most differentially expressed xyloglucan-related genes were down-regulated in Li2 fiber cells. RT-qPCR analysis revealed that the peak of expression for the majority of xyloglucan-related genes in wild type developing fibers was 5-16days post anthesis (DPA) compared to 1-3 DPA in Li2 fibers. Thus, our results suggest that early activation of xyloglucan-related genes and down regulation of xyloglucan degradation genes during the elongation phase lead to elevated accumulation of xyloglucan that restricts elongation of fiber cells in Li2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Naoumkina
- Cotton Fiber Bioscience Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Southern Regional Research Center (SRRC), 1100 Robert E. Lee Blvd, New Orleans, LA 70124, USA.
| | - Doug J Hinchliffe
- Cotton Chemistry and Utilization Research Unit, USDA-ARS-SRRC, 1100 Robert E. Lee Blvd, New Orleans, LA 70124, USA
| | - David D Fang
- Cotton Fiber Bioscience Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Southern Regional Research Center (SRRC), 1100 Robert E. Lee Blvd, New Orleans, LA 70124, USA
| | - Christopher B Florane
- Cotton Fiber Bioscience Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Southern Regional Research Center (SRRC), 1100 Robert E. Lee Blvd, New Orleans, LA 70124, USA
| | - Gregory N Thyssen
- Cotton Fiber Bioscience Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Southern Regional Research Center (SRRC), 1100 Robert E. Lee Blvd, New Orleans, LA 70124, USA; Cotton Chemistry and Utilization Research Unit, USDA-ARS-SRRC, 1100 Robert E. Lee Blvd, New Orleans, LA 70124, USA
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100
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Phyo P, Wang T, Xiao C, Anderson CT, Hong M. Effects of Pectin Molecular Weight Changes on the Structure, Dynamics, and Polysaccharide Interactions of Primary Cell Walls of Arabidopsis thaliana: Insights from Solid-State NMR. Biomacromolecules 2017; 18:2937-2950. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.7b00888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pyae Phyo
- Department
of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 170 Albany
Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Tuo Wang
- Department
of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 170 Albany
Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Chaowen Xiao
- Department
of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Charles T. Anderson
- Department
of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Mei Hong
- Department
of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 170 Albany
Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| |
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