The individual experience of unemployment

Self-Criticism in In-Work Poverty: The Mediating Role of Social Support in the Era of Flexibility

In-work poverty reflects situations of income below the poverty threshold among employed people, involving a deterioration of wellbeing. The International Labour Organization prioritises this situation, which in countries such as Spain, Germany or Italy reaches rates of 11.8%, 10.6% and 11.8%, respectively. Within a context of flexibility, the occupational situation tends to be understood as an individual responsibility, which is why this study analyses the increase in self-criticism in these situations, and the role of social support in this relationship. The mediation of social support in the manifestation of self-criticism among people experiencing in-work poverty is analysed. The participants were 1430 employed people, grouped into those in a situation of poverty and those who are not. The results show that people in a situation of in-work poverty present a higher score in self-criticism and lower in social support. Social support is a mediating variable that prevents the manifestation of self-criticism. Lastly, a gender analysis shows that women experience this relationship more intensely. These findings enable a critical assessment of the activation policies that only take an individual approach. As an alternative, we propose strengthening interventions that foster social support, particularly among women.

How to Optimize the Job Search Process: Development and Validation of the Job Search Quality Scale

Job search quality is important for unemployed individuals pursuing reemployment. To comprehensively measure job search quality, we develop and test a 20-item Job Search Quality Scale (JSQS), using four samples of unemployed individuals (pilot sample, N=218; exploration sample, N=3372; confirmation sample, N=3372; and replication sample, N=434). Results show a four-dimensional structure, composed of (a) goal establishment and planning, (b) preparation and alignment, (c) emotion regulation and persistence, and (d) learning and improvement. Substantial evidence was found for its reliability, convergent and discriminant validity. Building job search quality’s nomological net, conscientiousness, learning goal orientation, self-efficacy, employment commitment, autonomous job search motivation, and social support emerged as positive correlates. Supporting its criterion-related validity, the JSQS predicted key job search and employment outcomes. Moreover, usefulness analyses supported its incremental validity beyond extant job search measures. Our findings have important implications for studying and measuring job search quality in future research and career counseling practice.

Long-term effects of job loss on male health: BMI and health behaviors

Employment is one of the most critical determinants of health and health behaviors for adults. This study focuses on Ukraine and measures how an involuntary job loss - defined as job loss due to business closures, reorganizations, bankruptcies, or privatization - affects BMI, being overweight or obese, smoking, alcohol consumption, and physical activity. There are three reasons to study Ukraine in the aftermath of an enormous economic transition that resulted in employment contraction as high as 40 % compared to 1990. First, nearly all published studies on the relationship between job loss and health and health behaviors have been on developed countries, meaning that our study fills the gap in the literature on transition economies. Second, the job losses that we study are plausibly exogenous and affected a significant share of the population. Third, the longitudinal survey follows individuals for up to 10 years starting from 2003, allowing us to capture the long-term effects of past job loss on outcomes at a specific point in time and their trajectories across the life cycle. Applying growth-curve models, we show that past involuntary job loss significantly alters the age trajectories of all considered outcomes at both extensive and intensive margins.

Negative Cognitions and Emotional Distress Following Job Loss: Development and Validation of the Beliefs About Loss of Work (BLOW) Scale

Negative cognitions following job loss can contribute to emotional distress by motivating individuals to adopt coping styles that reduce stress in the short run while obstructing adjustment in the long run. It is unclear which specific cognitions are related to symptoms of complicated grief, depression, and anxiety following job loss. To fill this gap, this study introduces the Beliefs about Loss of Work (BLOW) scale and examines its psychometric properties. We recruited 222 Dutch workers who had lost their job, including 70 men and 152 women, with an average age of 52.5 years. Confirmatory factor analyses revealed that a second-order eight-factor model had the best fit to the data. The BLOW scale is a reliable instrument with a good convergent and divergent validity. This instrument may stimulate research on mechanisms involved in job loss-related distress and could inform the development of interventions to reduce this distress.

Understanding Subpopulations on Mechanical Turk

Abstract. We draw on the drift hypothesis and latent deprivation model to guide comparisons between such workers on Amazon's crowdsourcing platform Mechanical Turk, known as Turkers, who report no employment other than crowdsourced work (i.e., otherwise unemployed) and Turkers who report being part-time and full-time employed outside of crowdsourced work. Findings show otherwise unemployed Turkers and part-time employed Turkers report a greater percentage of time in their work histories being unemployed and greater neuroticism than full-time employed Turkers do. Findings also show an inverse relationship between employment status and time spent completing crowdsourced work, with otherwise unemployed Turkers spending the most time completing crowdsourced work. Finally, findings show otherwise unemployed and part-time employed Turkers each differ, in unique ways, from full-time employed Turkers on theorized employment status antecedents and consequences.

Public Health Impacts of Underemployment and Unemployment in the United States: Exploring Perceptions, Gaps and Opportunities

BACKGROUND

Unemployment, underemployment, and the quality of work are national occupational health risk factors that drive critical national problems; however, to date, there have been no systematic efforts to document the public health impact of this situation.

METHODS

An environmental scan was conducted to explore the root causes and health impacts of underemployment and unemployment and highlight multilevel perspectives and factors in the landscape of underemployment and unemployment.

METHODS

included a review of gray literature and research literature, followed by key informant interviews with nine organizational representatives in employment research and policy, workforce development, and industry to assess perceived needs and gaps in practice.

RESULTS

Evidence highlights the complex nature of underemployment and unemployment, with multiple macro-level underlying drivers, including the changing nature of work, a dynamic labor market, inadequate enforcement of labor protection standards, declining unions, wage depression, and weak political will interacting with multiple social determinants of health. Empirical literature on unemployment and physical, mental, and psychological well-being, substance abuse, depression in young adults, and suicides is quite extensive; however, there are limited data on the impacts of underemployment on worker health and well-being. Additionally, organizations do not routinely consider health outcomes as they relate to their work in workforce or policy development.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Several gaps in data and research will need to be addressed in order to assess the full magnitude of the public health burden of underemployment and unemployment. Public health needs to champion a research and practice agenda in partnership with multisector stakeholders to illuminate the role of employment quality and status in closing the gap on health inequities, and to integrate workforce health and well-being into labor and economic development agendas across government agencies and industry.

Investigating the Impact of Job Loss and Decreased Work Hours on Physical and Mental Health Outcomes Among US Adults During the COVID-19 Pandemic

OBJECTIVE

To investigate associations between adverse changes in employment status and physical and mental health among US adults (aged 18 years or older) during the COVID-19 pandemic.

METHODS

Data from participants (N = 2565) of a national Internet panel (June 2020) were assessed using path analyses to test associations between changes in self-reported employment status and hours worked and physical and mental health outcomes.

RESULTS

Respondents who lost a job after March 1, 2020 (vs those who did not) reported more than twice the number of mentally unhealthy days. Females and those lacking social support had significantly worse physical and mental health outcomes. Participants in the lowest, pre-pandemic household income groups reported experiencing worse mental health.

CONCLUSIONS

Results demonstrate the importance of providing economic and social support services to US adults experiencing poor mental and physical health during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Does unemployment lead to greater levels of loneliness? A systematic review

There is evidence that loneliness and unemployment each have a negative impact on public health. Both are experienced across the life course and are of increasing concern in light of the COVID-19 pandemic. This review seeks to examine the strength and direction of the relationship between loneliness and unemployment in working age individuals, and in particular the potential for a self-reinforcing cycle with combined healthcare outcomes. A systematic search was undertaken in Medline, PubMed, PsycINFO, Embase and EconLit from inception to December 2020. PRISMA reporting guidelines were followed throughout this review, study quality was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute checklist and results were summarised in a narrative synthesis. English language studies evaluating the relationship between loneliness and unemployment in higher income western countries were included. Thirty-seven studies were identified; 30 cross-sectional and 7 longitudinal. Loneliness was measured by a direct question or loneliness scale while unemployment was self-reported or retrieved from a national register. A positive association between unemployment and increased loneliness was observed across all studies. Thus, across the life-course a clear yet complex relationship exists between unemployment and greater experience of loneliness. The magnitude of this relationship increases with the severity of loneliness and appears to peak at age 30–34 and 50–59. Logistic regression provided the greatest consistency at statistical significance revealing at least a 40% increase in the likelihood of reporting loneliness when unemployed. Recent longitudinal studies identified in this review found higher levels of loneliness following job loss, but also that loneliness was predictive of unemployment suggesting potential bi-directionality in the relationship. This bi-directionality may create a multiplier effect between loneliness and unemployment to form a self-reinforcing relationship and greater health concerns for those most at risk. Thus, review findings suggest the need for cross-sector awareness and intervention to tackle both loneliness and unemployment.

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Unemployment is related to feeling lonely.

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Stronger association of unemployment with severe experience of loneliness.

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Greatest connection between loneliness and unemployment at age 30–34 and 50-59.

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Potential for a bi-directional relationship between loneliness and unemployment.

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Greater understanding is needed in the face of COVID-19 recovery.

How Youth May Find Jobs: The Role of Positivity, Perceived Employability, and Support from Employment Agencies

Youth unemployment is a relevant issue among most European countries; therefore, it is important to understand its individual and situational determinants. This study aimed to investigate a conceptual model that explains the associations among positivity (POS), perceived support from employment agencies, perceived employability (PE), and employment status in a sample of 317 unemployed Italian youth involved in the Youth Guarantee program. In particular, this study investigated the relationships between POS and PE and between PE and employment. Moreover, we analyzed whether the relationship between POS and employment status was mediated by PE and whether the relationship between POS and PE was moderated by perceived support from employment agencies. Results showed that PE totally mediated the relationship between POS and employment status. Furthermore, the moderating role of perceived support from agencies was confirmed; when high, it boosted the relationship between POS and PE. In sum, this study contributes to understanding the key impact of POS on PE, as well as the role played by employment agencies as a “catalyst” of this relationship, allowing, with their support, unemployed youth to maximize their opportunity to find a job. Implications for both research and practice are discussed.

Trends in Food Preferences and Sustainable Behavior during the COVID-19 Lockdown: Evidence from Spanish Consumers

The COVID-19 pandemic poses a threat to global food security, and it changes consumers' food buying and consumption behavior. This research not only investigates trends in Spanish consumers' general food shopping and consumption habits during the lockdown, but also investigates these trends from the perspective of sustainable purchasing. Specifically, total food consumption (C), food expenditure (E), and purchase of food with sustainable attributes (S) were measured. Data were collected from a semi-structured questionnaire which was distributed online among 1203 participants. The logit models showed that gender, age, employment status, and consumers' experiences were associated with total food consumption and expenditure during the lockdown. In addition, consumers' risk perceptions, shopping places, trust level in information sources, and risk preference were highly essential factors influencing consumers' preferences and sustainable behavior. Consumers' objective knowledge regarding COVID-19 was related to expenditure. Furthermore, family structure only affected expenditure, while income and place of residence influenced food consumption. Mood was associated with expenditure and the purchase of sustainable food. Household size affected purchasing behavior towards food with sustainable attributes. This research provides references for stakeholders that help them to adapt to the new COVID-19 situation.

Nationwide evidence that education disrupts the intergenerational transmission of disadvantage

We leveraged a three-generation approach in 2.1 million Danes to measure the transmission and disruption of multiple health and social disadvantages: poor physical health, poor mental health, social welfare dependency, criminal offending, and protective services involvement. Health and social disadvantages clustered within a small segment of families: Adults who relied disproportionately on multiple, different health and social services tended to have parents who relied disproportionately on multiple, different health and social services and tended to have children who appeared in protective services records. Education disrupted these statistical associations between and within generations and between and within families. If associations are causal, investing in young people’s education potential could interrupt the multigenerational cycle of disadvantage and reduce health and social inequalities.

Despite overall improvements in health and living standards in the Western world, health and social disadvantages persist across generations. Using nationwide administrative databases linked for 2.1 million Danish citizens, we leveraged a three-generation approach to test whether multiple, different health and social disadvantages—poor physical health, poor mental health, social welfare dependency, criminal offending, and Child Protective Services involvement—were transmitted within families and whether education disrupted these statistical associations. Health and social disadvantages concentrated, aggregated, and accumulated within a small, high-need segment of families: Adults who relied disproportionately on multiple, different health and social services tended to have parents who relied disproportionately on multiple, different health and social services and tended to have children who evidenced risk for disadvantage at an early age, through appearance in protective services records. Intra- and intergenerational comparisons were consistent with the possibility that education disrupted this transmission. Within families, siblings who obtained more education were at a reduced risk for later-life disadvantage compared with their cosiblings who obtained less education, despite shared family background. Supporting the education potential of the most vulnerable citizens might mitigate the multigenerational transmission of multiple disadvantages and reduce health and social disparities.

Am I Gonna Get a Job? Graduating Students’ Psychological Capital, Coping Styles, and Employment Anxiety

Thoughts about life after school can be frightening for college students. The uncertainty about employment expectancies can engender crippling anxiety, especially in a time of a major pandemic—COVID-19, and urgent attention is needed. This study, drawing on the self-determination theory, demonstrates preliminary protective effect of positive psychological capital (PsyCap) on employment anxiety among a relatively understudied group—graduating college students (Chinese sample = 546). It further illustrates the mediating mechanism of coping styles in this relation. Thus, the motivational impetus of PsyCap facilitates positive coping style (PCS) while diminishing negative coping style (NCS) which, in turn, hinders students’ employment anxiety. Furthermore, the results revealed that students’ internship experience strengthens the influence of graduating students’ PsyCap on their PCS, but that with NCS and anxiety was nonsignificant. This research proffers valuable insights on college students’ from-school-to-work transition for higher education institutions and career counselors, particularly in this turbulent labor market.

The Impact of Employment on Immigrant Mental Health: Results from a National Survey

Mental illness and unemployment are both well documented in the literature as potentially having harmful and even detrimental impacts on individuals' lives. However, less is known about the intersections of mental illness and unemployment in the U.S. immigrant population. This study examined whether unemployment is a predictor of mental illness in a sample of immigrants in the United States (N = 3,732). Data were from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions, a three-wave, nationally representative dataset. Multivariate logistical regression analysis examined whether the main effects of a negative employment status were associated with a mental health diagnosis at Wave 2. Negative employment status was a significant predictor of all mental health diagnoses in the multivariate logistic regression models. The results from this study indicate that unemployment is associated with mental health problems among immigrants. This article presents discussion and implications for social work practice, policy, and research.

When things go wrong with you, it hurts me too: The effects of partner's employment status on health in comparative perspective

The effects of changes in employment status on health within couples have attracted increasing attention. This paper contributes to this emerging research by investigating whether the impact of a partner's employment status on individual self-rated health varies systematically across countries with varying decommodification levels. We use longitudinal data from the European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) and hybrid models. We find that a change in an individual's employment status may affect the health not just of the person who experiences this transition, but that of his or her partner. The likelihood that such a spillover will occur varies across countries with different decommodification levels. The negative effects of a partner's employment status on self-rated health are observed when the generosity of welfare state support is limited. The moderating effects of financial support from the state are not very strong, though. They are not robust across all our models and do not extend to all the dimensions of the generosity of welfare state support.

Reducing Compliance Demands in Government Benefit Programs Improves the Psychological Well-Being of Target Group Members

State actions impact the lives of citizens in general and government benefit recipients in particular. However, little is known about whether experiences of psychological costs among benefit recipients can be relieved by reducing compliance demands in interactions with the state. Across three studies, we provide evidence that reducing demands causes relief. In a survey experiment, we show that psychological costs experienced by Danish unemployment insurance recipients change in response to information about actual reduced compliance demands. In two field studies, we exploit survey data collected around a sudden, exogenous shock (the COVID-19 lockdown of Danish society in March 2020), which led to immediate reductions in compliance demands in Denmark’s active labor market policies. We test whether two groups of benefit recipients experienced reduced psychological costs in response to these sudden reductions in compliance demands imposed by the state. Across all studies, we find that the reduction of compliance demands is associated with an increased sense of autonomy, and in two of the three studies it is associated with reduced stress. Overall, our findings suggest that psychological costs experienced by benefit recipients are indeed affected by state actions in the form of compliance demands.

Understanding Persons With Disabilities’ Reasons for Not Seeking Employment

Unemployment is common for persons with disabilities but little is known about the different reasons why people with disabilities may not be seeking employment. This study identified the reasons that people living with disabilities report for not seeking employment, from the 2015 Kessler Foundation National Employment and Disability Survey (KFNEDS) and variation of reasons by demographic, socioeconomic, and disability characteristics. We conducted a content analysis of responses to an open-ended question on the KFNEDS. The analytic sample ( n = 1,254) included adults (ages 18–64) living with disabilities, who self-identified as either unemployed or not seeking employment. Team coding used a hybrid inductive/deductive approach to identify nine meaningful reasons why people with disabilities may not seek employment. Overall, medical conditions, functional limitations, or their disability were more likely to be reported as reasons for not seeking work, rather than situational reasons associated with workplace engagement, such as “lack of job opportunities.” Bivariate comparisons of codes across demographic, socioeconomic, and disability characteristics noted variability in reasons reported by respondents by sex, race/ethnicity, age, household income, and disability. These findings provide an understanding of diverse reasons for not seeking employment, which can inform programs and policies that promote labor force participation of people with disabilities.

Is the "Brainwork Intervention" effective in reducing sick leave for non-permanent workers with psychological problems? Results of a controlled clinical trial

Background

Both the presence of psychological problems and the absence of an employment contract are related to long-term sickness absence, prolonged work disability and unemployment. Studies researching the effectiveness of return-to-work interventions on these non-permanent workers, including unemployed and temporary agency workers and workers with an expired fixed-term contract, are lagging behind. Therefore, a return-to-work intervention called “Brainwork” was developed. The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of the ‘Brainwork Intervention’ in reducing the duration of sick leave compared to usual care over a 12-month follow-up.

Methods

In a multicenter controlled clinical trial, using a quasi-randomization procedure, we compared the Brainwork Intervention (n = 164) to usual care (n = 156). The primary outcome was the duration of sick leave. Secondary outcomes were the duration of sick leave starting from Social Security Agency transfer; the proportion of workers returned to work; the number of hours of paid employment during the follow-up period; the degree of worker participation; the level of psychological complaints; and the self-efficacy for return to work. Protocol adherence (Brainwork Intervention) was considered sufficient when at least three of the five protocol steps were followed. Cox regressions, linear and ordinal regression, and Mixed Model analyses were performed.

Results

All 320 participants were analyzed. The Brainwork Intervention resulted in a non-significant reduction of the duration of sick leave compared to usual care (269 days versus 296 days; HR = 1.29; 95% CI 0.94–1.76; p = 0.11). For those working (46%) during the 12-month follow-up, the mean number of hours of paid employment was non-significantly higher in the usual care group (682 h versus 493 h; p = 0.053). No significant differences were found for other secondary outcomes. Protocol adherence was 10%.

Conclusions

The Brainwork Intervention as performed with a low protocol adherence did not result in a significant reduction of the duration of sick leave compared to usual care. It remains unclear what the results would have been if the Brainwork Intervention had been executed according to protocol.

Trial registration

The Netherlands Trial Register (NTR); NTR3976 (old registration number NTR4190). Registered September 27th 2013.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-021-10704-0.

Evaluating a job search strategy model of fit perceptions: a construct validation amongst unemployed job seekers

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to examine the (1) psychometric properties of Crossley and Highhouse's job search strategy scale and (2) the predictive utility of the scale on fit perceptions.

Design/methodology/approach

Data were collected from unemployed job seekers in Ghana (nT1 = 720; nT2 = 418). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to examine the data.

Findings

Exploratory factor analysis on the first random sub-sample (n = 362) supported a three-factor model. Confirmatory factor analysis on the second random sub-sample (n = 358) confirmed the three-factor structure and was invariant across job search contexts and genders. Moreover, structural path results showed that the use of focussed and exploratory job search strategies facilitated positive fit perceptions and the use of haphazard job search resulted in poor job fit perceptions.

Originality/value

This study is the first to examine the dimensionality of job search strategies based on different job search context by linking it to fit perceptions. Moreover, the authors provide evidence that the job search strategy scale has a valid psychometric property and a promising instrument to assess job search behaviour across job search contexts and genders in an understudied population.

Association Between Socioeconomic Status and In Utero Fetal Brain Development

IMPORTANCE

Children raised in settings with lower parental socioeconomic status are at increased risk for neuropsychological disorders. However, to date, the association between socioeconomic status and fetal brain development remains poorly understood.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the association between parental socioeconomic status and in vivo fetal brain growth and cerebral cortical development using advanced, 3-dimensional fetal magnetic resonance imaging.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This cohort study of fetal brain development enrolled 144 healthy pregnant women from 2 low-risk community obstetrical hospitals from 2012 through 2019 in the District of Columbia. Included women had a prenatal history without complications that included recommended screening laboratory and ultrasound studies. Exclusion criteria were multiple gestation pregnancy, known or suspected congenital infection, dysmorphic features of the fetus, and documented chromosomal abnormalities. T2-weighted fetal brain magnetic resonance images were acquired. Each pregnant woman was scanned at up to 2 points in the fetal period. Data were analyzed from June through November 2020.

EXPOSURES

Parental education level and occupation status were documented.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Regional fetal brain tissue volume (for cortical gray matter, white matter, cerebellum, deep gray matter, and brainstem) and cerebral cortical features (ie, lobe volume, local gyrification index, and sulcal depth) in the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes were calculated.

RESULTS

Fetal brain magnetic resonance imaging studies were performed among 144 pregnant women (median [interquartile range] age, 32.5 [27.0-36.1] years) with gestational age from 24.0 to 39.4 weeks; 75 fetuses (52.1%) were male, and 69 fetuses (47.9%) were female. Higher parental education level was associated with significantly increased volume in the fetal white matter (mothers: β, 2.86; 95% CI, 1.26 to 4.45; P = .001; fathers: β, 2.39; 95% CI, 0.97 to 3.81; P = .001), deep gray matter (mothers: β, 0.16; 95% CI, 0.002 to 0.32; P = .048; fathers: β, 0.16; 95% CI, 0.02 to 0.31; P = .02), and brainstem (mothers: β, 0.06; 95% CI, 0.02 to 0.10; P = .01; fathers: β, 0.04; 95% CI, 0.004 to 0.08; P = .03). Higher maternal occupation status was associated with significantly increased volume in the fetal white matter (β, 2.07; 95% CI, 0.88 to 3.26; P = .001), cerebellum (β, 0.17; 95% CI, 0.04 to 0.29; P = .01), and brainstem (β, 0.03; 95% CI, 0.001 to 0.07; P = .04), and higher paternal occupation status was associated with significantly increased white matter volume (β, 1.98; 95% CI, 0.71 to 3.25; P < .01). However, higher socioeconomic status was associated with significantly decreased fetal cortical gray matter volume (mothers: β, -0.11; 95% CI, -0.18 to -0.03; P = .01; fathers: β, -0.10; 95% CI, -0.18 to -0.03; P = .01). Higher parental socioeconomic status was associated with increased volumes of 3 brain lobes of white matter: frontal lobe (mothers: β, 0.07; 95% CI, 0.02 to 0.13; P = .01; fathers: β, 0.06; 95% CI, 0.01 to 0.11; P = .03), parietal lobe (mothers: β, 0.07; 95% CI, 0.03 to 0.11; P < .001; fathers: β, 0.06; 95% CI, 0.03 to 0.10; P = .001), and temporal lobe (mothers: β, 0.04; 95% CI, 0.02 to 0.07; P < .001; fathers: β, 0.04; 95% CI, 0.02 to 0.07; P < .001), and maternal SES score was associated with significantly decreased volume in the occipital lobe (β, 0.02; 95% CI, 0.002 to 0.04; P = .03). Higher parental socioeconomic status was associated with decreased cortical local gyrification index (for example, for the frontal lobe, mothers: β, -1.1; 95% CI, -1.9 to -0.3; P = .01; fathers: β, -0.8; 95% CI, -1.6 to -0.1; P = .03) and sulcal depth, except for the frontal lobe (for example, for the parietal lobe, mothers: β, -9.5; 95% CI, -13.8 to -5.3; P < .001; fathers: β, -8.7; 95% CI, -13.0 to -4.4; P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

This cohort study found an association between parental socioeconomic status and altered in vivo fetal neurodevelopment. While being born and raised in a lower socioeconomic status setting is associated with poorer neuropsychological, educational, and socioeconomic outcomes in children, these findings suggest that altered prenatal programming may be associated with these outcomes and that future targeted prenatal interventions may be needed.

Piloting the 'Youth Early-intervention Study' ('YES'): Preliminary functional outcomes of a randomized controlled trial targeting social participation and physical well-being in young people with emerging mental disorders

INTRODUCTION

Young people with mental disorders present with diverse social, vocational, physical, and developmental needs. However, multifaceted interventions are rare. We examine the effectiveness of a clinical trial targeting social participation and physical well-being in young people accessing clinical services.

METHODS

The 'Youth Early-intervention Study' ('YES') was an unblinded, two-phase, pilot randomized controlled trial offered as an adjunct to standard clinical care, consisting of group activities. Mixed effects models were used to examine functional outcomes over time measured by the 'Social and Occupational Functioning Assessment Scale', 'Functioning Assessment Short Test', and 'Brief Disability Questionnaire' (items 7 and 8).

RESULTS

133 participants aged 14-25 were recruited. 87 participants completed both arms and 83 participants completed a 12-month post-trial assessment. Functioning improved across all outcomes. While diagnoses differed in functioning at baseline (lower functioning in psychotic and bipolar disorders compared to depression), they did not differ in the rate of improvement across any measure. Randomization groups did not differ in baseline functioning or the rate of improvement, suggesting a non-specific impact of the intervention. Engagement with education increased from 11% at baseline to 51% at 12-months post-trial and full-time employment increased from 8% at baseline to 20% at 12-months post-trial.

LIMITATIONS

Small sample, no control group, and unmeasured potential moderators (e.g. neurocognitive impairment).

CONCLUSIONS

'YES' was effective and preliminary positive outcomes were observed across all functional outcomes. Future studies should compare the 'YES' intervention to a treatment-as-usual control condition and conduct a multi-centre trial across early intervention service sites.

Individualised placement and support programme for people unemployed because of chronic pain: a feasibility study and the InSTEP pilot RCT

BACKGROUND

Chronic pain is a common cause of health-related incapacity for work among people in the UK. Individualised placement and support is a systematic approach to rehabilitation, with emphasis on early supported work placement. It is effective in helping people with severe mental illness to gain employment, but has not been tested for chronic pain.

OBJECTIVE

To inform the design of a definitive randomised controlled trial to assess the clinical effectiveness of individualised placement and support for people unemployed because of chronic pain.

METHODS

A mixed-methods feasibility study comprising qualitative interviews and focus groups with key stakeholders, alongside a pilot trial.

STUDY PARTICIPANTS

Primary care-based health-care professionals, employment support workers, employers, clients who participated in an individualised placement and support programme, and individuals aged 18-64 years with chronic pain who were unemployed for at least 3 months.

INTERVENTION

An individualised placement and support programme integrated with a personalised, responsive pain management plan, backed up by communication with a general practitioner and rapid access to community-based pain services.

OUTCOMES

Outcomes included stakeholder views about a trial and methods of recruitment; the feasibility and acceptability of the individualised placement and support intervention; study processes (including methods to recruit participants from primary care, training and support needs of the employment support workers to integrate with pain services, acceptability of randomisation and the treatment-as-usual comparator); and scoping of outcome measures for a definitive trial.

RESULTS

All stakeholders viewed a trial as feasible and important, and saw the relevance of employment interventions in this group. Using all suggested methods, recruitment was feasible through primary care, but it was slow and resource intensive. Recruitment through pain services was more efficient. Fifty people with chronic pain were recruited (37 from primary care and 13 from pain services). Randomisation was acceptable, and 22 participants were allocated to individualised placement and support, and 28 participants were allocated to treatment as usual. Treatment as usual was found acceptable. Retention of treatment-as-usual participants was acceptable throughout the 12 months. However, follow-up of individualised placement and support recipients using postal questionnaires proved challenging, especially when the participant started paid work, and new approaches would be needed for a trial. Clients, employment support workers, primary care-based health-care professionals and employers contributed to manualisation of the intervention. No adverse events were reported.

CONCLUSION

Unless accurate and up-to-date employment status information can be collected in primary care health records, or linkage can be established with employment records, research such as this relating to employment will be impracticable in primary care. The trial may be possible through pain services; however, clients may differ. Retention of participants proved challenging and methods for achieving this would need to be developed. The intervention has been manualised.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN30094062.

FUNDING

This project was funded by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Health Technology Assessment programme and will be published in full in Health Technology Assessment; Vol. 25, No. 5. See the NIHR Journals Library website for further project information.

Understanding Unemployment Normalization: Individual Differences in an Alternative Experience With Unemployment

Unemployment is a major concern of societies and people around the world. In addressing this phenomenon, the literature has suggested a change in unemployed people’s perceptions of this transition period. In this paper, we apply a differential approach to explore the concept of unemployment normalization, an individual emotional regulation process. The results show how the global socioeconomic context and some individual and psychological variables influence the normalization of unemployment. Thus, the age of the person but also work involvement, coping strategies, locus of control, and level of self-esteem have indirect differential effects, mediated by unemployment normalization dimensions, on unemployed people’s perceived health. Only neuroticism has a direct link to subjective well-being. These results offer a new understanding of the perception of unemployment and are also discussed in the area of career and vocational counseling.

What factors contribute to the meaning of work? A validation of Morin's Meaning of Work Questionnaire

Background

Considering the recent and current evolution of work and the work context, the meaning of work is becoming an increasingly relevant topic in research in the social sciences and humanities, particularly in psychology. In order to understand and measure what contributes to the meaning of work, Morin constructed a 30-item questionnaire that has become predominant and has repeatedly been used in research in occupational psychology and by practitioners in the field. Nevertheless, it has been validated only in part.

Method

Meaning of work questionnaire was conducted in French with 366 people (51.3% of women; age: (M = 39.11, SD = 11.25); 99.2% of whom were employed with the remainder retired). Three sets of statistical analyses were run on the data. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis were conducted on independent samples.

Results

The questionnaire described a five-factor structure. These dimensions (Success and Recognition at work and of work, α = .90; Usefulness, α = .88; Respect for work, α = .88; Value from and through work, α = .83; Remuneration, α = .85) are all attached to a general second-order latent meaning of work factor (α = .96).

Conclusions

Validation of the scale, and implications for health in the workplace and career counseling practices, are discussed.

Profiling the unemployed from selected communities in South Africa based on their experiences, commitment to employment, and job search behaviour

Unemployment has negative consequences for individuals’ psychological well-being. Consequently, interventions should be designed and implemented to alleviate the psychological burden of unemployment. The design of these interventions should, however, be approached with care, as ‘the unemployed’ may not be a homogeneous group. The aim of the study was to determine whether the four already identified (the optimists, the desperate, the discouraged, and the adapted) South African unemployment profiles could be replicated in other unemployed communities in South Africa. The study also aimed to examine the associations between these profiles and negative emotions and basic psychological need frustration. To establish the replicability of the types, a multiphased sampling design was followed to recruit 867 unemployed people residing in Boipatong and Orange Farm in the Gauteng Province in South Africa. Through latent profile analysis, the study replicated the four profiles: the optimists, the desperate, the discouraged, and the adapted. The profiles were differentially associated with negative emotions and psychological need frustration, further attesting to the validity of the profiles. The results of the study can be applied towards creating tailored interventions for the different types of unemployed people from South African communities to enhance the efficacy of these interventions.

Deployment experiences and mental health problems as predictors of post-deployment unemployment length: a prospective, register-based study among Danish soldiers

OBJECTIVES

To test responses of formerly deployed soldiers (FDS) to a questionnaire on deployment experiences in combination with screening levels of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression approximately 6 months after homecoming as predictors of the subsequent probability of gaining employment when unemployed within 5 years post-deployment.

DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

Danish FDS responders (n=3935) and non-responders (n=3046) to a 6-month post-deployment screening questionnaire after returning from a first-ever deployment to Kosovo, Iraq or Afghanistan (2002 to 2012) were included in the study and followed in public registers from 6 months to 5 years post-deployment.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

We tested Cox regression models including deployment experiences (1a), screening levels of PTSD and depressive symptoms (1b), and their combination (2) for FDS responders. For all FDS, a secondary model included a measure on whether they responded to the questionnaire (3).

RESULTS

Neither the deployment experiences (1a) of exposure to danger and combat (HR=1.00, 95% CI=0.97 to 1.03) and witnessing consequences of war (HR=1.01, 95% CI=0.96 to 1.06), or the screening levels (1b) of PTSD (HR=1.06, 95% CI=0.84 to 1.33) and depressive symptoms (HR=0.82, 95% CI=0.64 to 1.06) were significant predictors of transitioning from unemployment to employment. Similar results were found for the combined model (2). A tendency among non-respondents (3) to have a lower probability of transitioning from unemployment to employment was found (HR=0.90, 95% CI=0.81 to 1.00).

CONCLUSION

Deployment experiences, PTSD and depressive symptoms, as measured at 6-month screening questionnaire, did not predict differences in the probability of gaining employment when unemployed within 5 years post-deployment. However, the findings suggest that those with the least probability of transitioning from unemployment to employment can be found among the non-responders to the post-deployment screening questionnaire.

Beyond Predicting the Number of Infections: Predicting Who is Likely to Be COVID Negative or Positive

BACKGROUND

This study aims to identify individuals' likelihood of being COVID negative or positive, enabling more targeted infectious disease prevention and control when there is a shortage of COVID-19 testing kits.

METHODS

We conducted a primary survey of 521 adults on April 1-10, 2020 in Iran, where 3% reported being COVID-19 positive and 15% were unsure whether they were infected. This relatively high positive rate enabled us to conduct the analysis at the 5% significance level.

RESULTS

Adults who exercised more were more likely to be COVID-19 negative. Each additional hour of exercise per day predicted a 78% increase in the likelihood of being COVID-19 negative. Adults with chronic health issues were 48% more likely to be COVID-19 negative. Those working from home were the most likely to be COVID-19 negative, and those who had stopped working due to the pandemic were the most likely to be COVID-19 positive. Adults employed in larger organizations were less likely to be COVID-19 positive.

CONCLUSION

This study enables more targeted infectious disease prevention and control by identifying the risk factors of COVID-19 infections from a set of readily accessible information. We hope this research opens a new research avenue to predict the individual likelihood of COVID-19 infection by risk factors.

Effects of meaning in life and of work on health in unemployment

In line with the meaning making theory, people experience a discrepancy when their appraised meaning of a situation is in conflict with their general meaning framework. We wanted to replicate this result in the context of unemployment. Heren the meaning of work and meaning in life influenced the perception of unemployment and consequently had an impact on mental health. This study points to new ways of thinking about unemployment and career transitions. Whereas the COVID-19-induced economic crisis will see millions of people losing their jobs, these results could assist counselors in helping unemployed people better understand the experiences they are going through.

Emotion Regulation and Employability: The Mediational Role of Ambition and a Protean Career among Unemployed People

Literature on job searching suggests that emotion regulation has an impact on employability, but this relationship is far from being explained; furthermore, most of the studies have been conducted among students or workers. The aim of the current study was to investigate the relationship between emotion regulation and employability among unemployed people, analyzing the role of ambition and protean career orientation as possible factors in such a relationship. Participants were 228 unemployed subjects who had requested individual counselling for job searching; data were collected by means of a self-report questionnaire. Results confirmed that emotion regulation is related to employability, both through a direct relationship and through an indirect effect of ambition and protean career orientation.

Anxiety and Depression Among People Under the Nationwide Partial Lockdown in Vietnam

This study aimed to evaluate the psychological effects of the partial lockdown on the people in Vietnam during the COVID-19 pandemic. An online questionnaire regarding attitudes toward COVID-19 along with psychological parameters, including the Impact of Event Scale-Revised (IES-R) Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21) was conducted. From a total of 1,382 questionnaires, the respondents reported low prevalence of depression (4.9%), anxiety (7.0%), and stress (3.4%). The mean DASS-21 scores recorded were also markedly lower compared to similar studies conducted in China, Italy, and Iran. Respondents who reported severe PTSD had significantly higher depression, anxiety, and stress levels. Factors that were associated with an increased level of depression, stress, and anxiety were being single, separated, or widowed, a higher education level, a larger family size, loss of jobs and being in contact with potential COVID-19 patients. Contrary to expectations, the level of depression, stress, and anxiety observed has been low. Our findings can aid in future research on the impact of a partial lockdown and guide mental health professionals in Vietnam and other countries in the preparation of better care for populations under such circumstances.

The Structural Relationship among Career-Related Mentoring, Ambiguity Tolerance, and Job Search Effort and Behavior of Korean College Students

Although a substantial body of mentoring research has been conducted on students attending four-year colleges, the interplay of career-related mentoring, ambiguity tolerance, and job search effort and behavior has not been seriously investigated. Therefore, we examined the relationship between career-related mentoring and ambiguity tolerance, as well as job search effort and behavior, for the purpose of understanding how to better assist undergraduate college students achieve preliminary job search success. Data were collected via pencil surveys administered to 300 undergraduate students selected by purposive sampling from four colleges in Seoul, Korea. Correlation analysis and covariance structure analysis were conducted to examine the relationships between variables. A Sobel test was also conducted to check the mediation effect of the model. Results were consistent with our hypotheses and showed that there was a significant, indirect, positive effect of career-related mentoring on job search effort and behavior, mediated through ambiguity tolerance. Our study contributes to career-related mentoring and job search research by providing empirical evidence supporting the results. It has implications for universities, mentoring program design, and career guidance professionals.

Comparing eating behaviours, and symptoms of depression and anxiety between Spain and Greece during the COVID-19 outbreak: Cross-sectional analysis of two different confinement strategies

OBJECTIVE

We compared eating behaviours, and depressive and anxiety symptoms in two countries with different confinement strictness strategies and different levels of COVID-19 pandemic.

METHOD

A web-based cross-sectional survey was administered during and shortly after the COVID-19 related lockdown in Spain and Greece. Multivariable linear regression analyses were performed to identify country differences associated with eating behaviour, and symptoms of depression and anxiety.

RESULTS

This study included 1,002 responders in Spain and 839 in Greece. The mean ± SD of restraint, emotional and external eating was 2.5 ± 0.79, 2.1 ± 0.81 and 2.6 ± 0.65 in Spain, whereas 2.7 ± 0.85, 2.3 ± 0.99 and 2.9 ± 0.74 in Greece. Spanish participants had lower average scores of restraint and external eating compared to Greek participants (p < .001), but no difference was seen for emotional eating. In Spain, 13.6%, and 12.3% of the survey respondents reported moderate to severe depressive and anxiety symptoms, respectively, whereas in Greece the respective values were 18.8 and 13.2%. After adjusting for several risk factors, a higher prevalence of anxiety symptoms was observed in Spain compared to Greece (p = .001), but no difference was seen for depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated high scores of inappropriate eating behaviours and a high frequency of depressive and anxiety symptoms in two Mediterranean countries during the COVID-19 outbreak. Our findings revealed that compared to Greek participants, Spanish participants, that faced more severe COVID-19 pandemic and stricter lockdown measures, were associated with lower restraint and external eating and increased anxiety symptoms, but not with depressive symptoms or emotional eating.

Elite stigmatization of the unemployed: The association between framing and public attitudes

This paper uses a multi-methods approach to explore the social psychological construction of stigma towards the unemployed. Study 1a uses thematic analysis to explore frames used by political elites in speeches at U.K. national party conferences between 1996 and 2016 (n = 43); in study 1b, we track the usage of these frames in six national newspapers (n = 167,723 articles) over the same period showing an increase in the use of negative frames. Study 1c shows that these are associated with national attitudes towards welfare recipients using the British Social Attitude Survey. We find the 'Othering' frame is correlated with negative attitudes towards the unemployed, even when controlling for the unemployment rate. This finding supports the claim that social attitudes are related to frames produced in the political and media spheres. We provide theoretical integration between social representations theory and framing which affords development in both domains.

Chronic diseases and multimorbidity among unemployed and employed persons in the Netherlands: a register-based cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVES

The first objective of this study was to describe the age-specific prevalence of chronic diseases and multimorbidity among unemployed and employed persons. The second objective was to examine associations of employment status and sociodemographic characteristics with chronic diseases and multimorbidity.

DESIGN

Data linkage of cross-sectional nationwide registries on employment status, medication use and sociodemographic characteristics in 2016 was applied.

SETTING

Register-based data covering residents in the Netherlands.

PARTICIPANTS

5 074 227 persons aged 18-65 years were selected with information on employment status, medication use and sociodemographic characteristics.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Multiple logistic regression analysis and descriptive statistics were performed to examine associations of employment and sociodemographic characteristics with the prevalence of chronic diseases and multimorbidity. The age-specific prevalence of six common chronic diseases was described, and Venn diagrams were applied for multimorbidity among unemployed and employed persons.

RESULTS

Unemployed persons had a higher prevalence of psychological disorders (18.3% vs 5.4%), cardiovascular diseases (20.1% vs 8.9%), inflammatory diseases (24.5% vs 15.8%) and respiratory diseases (11.7% vs 6.5%) than employed persons. Unemployed persons were more likely to have one (OR 1.30 (1.29-1.31)), two (OR 1.74 (1.73-1.76)) and at least three chronic diseases (OR 2.59 (2.56-2.61)) than employed persons. Among unemployed persons, psychological disorders and inflammatory conditions increased with age but declined from middle age onwards, whereas a slight increase was observed among employed persons. Older persons, women, lower educated persons and migrants were more likely to have chronic diseases.

CONCLUSION

Large differences exist in the prevalence of chronic diseases and multimorbidity among unemployed and employed persons. The age-specific prevalence follows a different pattern among employed and unemployed persons, with a relatively high prevalence of psychological disorders and inflammatory conditions among middle-aged unemployed persons. Policy measures should focus more on promoting employment among unemployed persons with chronic diseases.

Comparison of the physical and mental health problems of unemployed with employees in South Korea

This study compared the physical and mental health problems of adults with standard and nonstandard employment with those who were unemployed. We used data from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey to compare adult males and females with standard and nonstandard employment with those who were unemployed. Relative to adults with standard employment, higher proportions of unemployed individuals were women, older, had low monthly incomes, and had mental health problems. Compared to men and women with standard employment, unemployed men and women had greater risk of reporting depressive feelings (OR = 1.683, 95% CI = 1.298-2.183; OR = 1.419, 95% CI = 1.179-1.709) and suicidal ideation (OR = 2.218, 95% CI = 1.682-2.928; OR = 1.250, 95% CI = 1.020-1.530). Among workers with nonstandard employment, there were gender differences in the risk for arthritis. Unemployed individuals also had a higher risk of mental health problems than nonstandard workers. In conclusion, the unemployed were more vulnerable to mental health problems.

Complicated grief following job loss: Risk factors for its development and maintenance

Increasing evidence shows that job loss can lead to symptoms of complicated grief (CG). However, little is known about which factors relate to the development and maintenance of CG symptoms following job loss. This study aimed to examine risk factors for the development and maintenance of job loss-related CG symptoms. For this study 485 Dutch workers who had lost their job were recruited (239 men and 246 women), with an average age of 50.2 years. A subsample of 128 participants also completed questionnaires at a six-month follow-up. We conducted correlational and multiple regression analyses (MRA) to examine the influence of the former work situation, coping strategies, and negative cognitions on job loss-related CG symptoms. MRA results showed that belief in an unjust world was related to job loss-related CG symptoms, cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Further, there was a significant relationship between CG symptoms following job loss and a preference for maladaptive coping over adaptive coping styles and a low level of self-esteem. This effect remained stable over time. These findings can inform the development of interventions for and early detection of job loss-related CG symptoms.

Using social media during job search: The case of 16–24 year olds in Scotland

Social media are powerful networking platforms that provide users with significant information opportunities. Despite this, little is known about their impact on job search behaviour. Here, interview (participants = 7), focus group (participants = 6) and survey ( n = 558) data supplied by young jobseekers in Scotland were analysed to investigate the role of social media in job search. The findings show that Facebook, Twitter and LinkedIn are the most popular platforms for this purpose, and that the type of job sought influences the direction of user behaviour. Frequent social media use for job search is linked with interview invitations. The study also reveals that although most jobseekers use social media for job search sparingly, they are much more likely to do so if advised by a professional. Combined, the findings represent a crucial base of knowledge which can inform careers policy and be used as a platform for further research.

Taking control amidst the chaos: Emotion regulation during the COVID-19 pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic represents a major global health crisis that continues to threaten public health and safety. Although the pandemic is still unfolding, measures to reduce the spread of the virus have spawned significant challenges to people's current work as well as their careers more generally. In this commentary, we discuss the implications of COVID-19 for maintaining one's psychological well-being and employment security, and also managing family and work responsibilities. We also bring forth evidence from the emotion regulation literature to help mitigate the downstream negative consequences of COVID-19 on people's work lives. Finally, we offer several suggestions for future scholarly investigation into how this pandemic impacts vocational behavior.

Unemployment in the time of COVID-19: A research agenda

This essay represents the collective vision of a group of scholars in vocational psychology who have sought to develop a research agenda in response to the massive global unemployment crisis that has been evoked by the COVID-19 pandemic. The research agenda includes exploring how this unemployment crisis may differ from previous unemployment periods; examining the nature of the grief evoked by the parallel loss of work and loss of life; recognizing and addressing the privilege of scholars; examining the inequality that underlies the disproportionate impact of the crisis on poor and working class communities; developing a framework for evidence-based interventions for unemployed individuals; and examining the work-family interface and unemployment among youth.