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Bartlett ES, Trasande L. Economic impacts of environmentally attributable childhood health outcomes in the European Union. Eur J Public Health 2013; 24:21-6. [PMID: 23748596 DOI: 10.1093/eurpub/ckt063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is increasing evidence of the role that exposure to industrial chemicals plays in the development of childhood disease. The USA and the European Union (EU) have taken divergent policy approaches to managing this issue, and economic estimates of disease costs attributable to environmental exposures in children are available in the USA but not the EU. We undertook the first economic evaluation of the impacts of childhood environmental chemical exposures in the EU. METHODS We used a cost-of-illness approach to estimate health care system costs, and used environmentally attributable fraction modelling to estimate the proportion of childhood disease due to environmental exposures. We analysed data on exposures, disease prevalence and costs at a country level, and then aggregated costs across EU member states to estimate overall economic impacts within the EU. RESULTS We found the combined environmentally attributable costs of lead exposure, methylmercury exposure, developmental disabilities, asthma and cancer to be $70.9 billion in 2008 (range: $58.9-$90.6 billion). These costs amounted to ~0.480% of the gross domestic product of the EU in 2008. CONCLUSIONS Childhood chemical exposures present a significant economic burden to the EU. Our study offers an important baseline of disease costs before the implementation of Registration, Evaluation and Authorization of Chemicals, which is important for studying the impacts of this policy regime.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily S Bartlett
- 1 School of Geography and the Environment, Oxford University, Oxford, UK
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Campbell C, Gracely E, Pan S, Cummings C, Palermo P, Gould G. Public health and law collaboration: the Philadelphia Lead Court study. Am J Public Health 2013; 103:1271-7. [PMID: 23678927 DOI: 10.2105/ajph.2012.301076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We determined whether Philadelphia Lead Court is effective in enforcing lead hazard remediation in the homes of children with elevated blood lead levels. METHODS We created a deidentified data set for properties with an initial failed home inspection (IFHI) for lead hazards from January 1, 1998, through December 31, 2008, and compared compliance rates within the first year and time to compliance for lead hazard remediation between 1998 and 2002 (precourt period) and between 2003 and 2008 (court period). We evaluated predictors of time to compliance. RESULTS Within 1 year of the IFHI, 6.6% of the precourt and 76.8% of the court cases achieved compliance (P < .001) for the 3764 homes with data. Four years after the IFHI, 18% had attained compliance in the precourt period compared with 83.1% for the court period (P < .001). A proportional hazard analysis found that compliance was 8 times more likely in the court than the precourt period (P < .001). CONCLUSIONS Lead court was more effective than precourt enforcement strategies. Most properties were remediated within 1 year of the IFHI, and time to compliance was significantly reduced. This model court could be replicated in other cities with similar enforcement problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Campbell
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Drexel University School of Public Health, Philadelphia, PA 19102-1192, USA.
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Declining blood lead and zinc protoporphyrin levels in Ecuadorian Andean children. Clin Biochem 2013; 46:1233-8. [PMID: 23684775 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2013.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2013] [Revised: 04/25/2013] [Accepted: 05/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To investigate current lead (Pb) exposure in children living in Andean Ecuadorian communities. Blood Pb (PbB) and zinc protoporphyrin (ZPP) levels were used respectively as biomarkers of acute and chronic Pb poisoning. The current PbB-ZPP levels were compared with previous pediatric PbB-ZPP levels recorded over years in the study area. DESIGN AND METHODS Samples of whole blood were collected from 22 Andean children of Quechua and Mestizo backgrounds and measured for PbB concentrations by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy. ZPP/heme ratio and ZPP whole blood (ZPP WB) levels were measured with a hematofluorometer. RESULTS The mean PbB level for children in the current study group was 14.5 μg/dL, which was significantly lower than the mean PbB level of 41.1 μg/dL found in the same study area in the 1996-2000 test period, and lower than the 22.2 μg/dL mean level found in the 2003-2007 period. The current mean ZPP/heme ratio was 102.1 μmol/mol, and the mean ZPP WB level was 46.3 μg/dL, both lower than values previously found in children in the study area. CONCLUSION While the current pediatric PbB-ZPP levels in the study area remain elevated in some children, the overall levels indicate a decline relative to levels observed in the same Pb-contaminated area in the period between 1996 and 2007. The elevated ZPP levels suggest a history of chronic Pb exposure, and potential iron deficiency in some children. The overall reduction in PbB-ZPP levels suggests a positive outcome of a Pb-exposure education and prevention program, and the therapeutic intervention of succimer chelation therapy.
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Zahran S, Laidlaw MAS, McElmurry SP, Filippelli GM, Taylor M. Linking source and effect: resuspended soil lead, air lead, and children's blood lead levels in Detroit, Michigan. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2013; 47:2839-45. [PMID: 23428083 DOI: 10.1021/es303854c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
This study evaluates atmospheric concentrations of soil and Pb aerosols, and blood lead levels (BLLs) in 367839 children (ages 0-10) in Detroit, Michigan from 2001 to 2009 to test a hypothesized soil → air dust → child pathway of contemporary Pb risk. Atmospheric soil and Pb show near-identical seasonal properties that match seasonal variation in children's BLLs. Resuspended soil appears to be a significant underlying source of atmospheric Pb. A 1% increase in the amount of resuspended soil results in a 0.39% increase in the concentration of Pb in the atmosphere (95% CI, 0.28 to 0.50%). In turn, atmospheric Pb significantly explains age-dependent variation in child BLLs. Other things held equal, a change of 0.0069 μg/m(3) in atmospheric Pb increases BLL of a child 1 year of age by 10%, while approximately 3 times the concentration of Pb in air (0.023 μg/m(3)) is required to induce the same increase in BLL of a child 7 years of age. Similarly, a 0.0069 μg/m(3) change in air Pb increases the odds of a child <1 year of age having a BLL ≥ 5 μg/dL by a multiplicative factor of 1.32 (95% CI, 1.26 to 1.37). Overall, the resuspension of Pb contaminated soil explains observed seasonal variation in child BLLs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sammy Zahran
- Department of Economics, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA
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Sudama G, Zhang J, Isbister J, Willett JD. Metabolic profiling in Caenorhabditis elegans provides an unbiased approach to investigations of dosage dependent lead toxicity. Metabolomics 2013; 9:189-201. [PMID: 23335868 PMCID: PMC3548106 DOI: 10.1007/s11306-012-0438-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2012] [Accepted: 05/18/2012] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans (CE), serves as a model system in which to explore the impact of particularly low-levels of lead [250, 500, 1000 and 2000 parts per million (ppm) (1.4 × 10(-6) M to 1.1 × 10(-5) M/nematode)] on specific metabolic pathways and processes. Chromatographic profiles of redox active metabolites are captured through application of high performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrochemical detection (Coularray/HPLC). Principal Component Analysis (PCA: unbiased cluster analysis) and the application of a slicing program, located significant areas of difference occurring within the 2.8-4.58 min section of the chromatograms. It is within this region of the data profiles that known components of the purine pathway reside. Two analytes of unknown structure were detected at 3.5 and 4 min respectively. Alterations in levels of the purine, tryptophan and tyrosine pathway intermediates measured in response to differing concentrations of lead acetate indicate that the effect of lead on these pathways is not linear, yet the ratio of the pathway precursors, tryptophan and tyrosine remains relatively constant. The application of the above combined analytical approaches enhances the value of data generated. Exposure of CE to very low levels of lead produced significant alterations in profiles of electrochemically active compounds. ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s11306-012-0438-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gita Sudama
- School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, 312A Occoquan Building, PW, MSN: 5B3, 10900 University Boulevard, Manassas, VA 20110 USA
| | - John Zhang
- Systems Analytics Inc., Needham, MA 02492 USA
| | - Jenefir Isbister
- School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, 312A Occoquan Building, PW, MSN: 5B3, 10900 University Boulevard, Manassas, VA 20110 USA
| | - James D. Willett
- School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, 312A Occoquan Building, PW, MSN: 5B3, 10900 University Boulevard, Manassas, VA 20110 USA
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Wu J, Liu D, Xie Q, Wang J. Biological fractionation of lead isotopes in Sprague-Dawley rats lead poisoned via the respiratory tract. PLoS One 2012; 7:e52462. [PMID: 23300678 PMCID: PMC3530463 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0052462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2012] [Accepted: 11/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives It was considered that lead isotope ratios did not change during physical, chemical, or biological processes. Thus, lead isotope ratios have been used as fingerprints to identify possible lead sources. However, recent evidence has shown that the lead isotope ratios among different biological samples in human are not always identical from its lead origins in vitro. An animal experiment was conducted to explore the biological fractionation of lead isotopes in biological systems. Methods 24 male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were divided into groups that received acute lead exposure (0, 0.02, 0.2, or 2 mg/kg body weight of lead acetate) via the respiratory route every day for 5 days. Biological samples (i.e., blood, urine, and feces) were collected for comparison with the lead acetate (test substance) and the low-lead animal feed (diet) administered to the rats. The lead isotope ratios were determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Results There are significant differences (p<0.05) in lead isotope ratios between blood, urine, and feces. Moreover, a nonlinear relationship between the blood lead concentration and the blood lead isotope ratios was observed. There is also a threshold effect to the fractionation function. Only the blood isotope ratio of 204Pb/206Pb matches the test substance well. As for feces, when 204Pb/206Pb ratio is considered, there is no significant difference between feces-test substance pairs in medium and high dose group. Conclusions The biological fractionation of lead isotopes in SD rats was observed. Moreover, there might be a threshold for the biological fractionation of lead isotopes which is depending on whole blood lead level. It is considered to be more reliable that we compared the isotope ratios of potential lead hazards with both blood and feces lead fingerprints especially for 204Pb/206Pb ratio under high-dose exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Wu
- School of Public Health, Peking University, Haidian District, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin, People’s Republic of China
| | - Duojian Liu
- School of Public Health, Peking University, Haidian District, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Qing Xie
- School of Public Health, Peking University, Haidian District, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- Center of Medical & Health Analysis, Peking University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jingyu Wang
- School of Public Health, Peking University, Haidian District, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- Center of Medical & Health Analysis, Peking University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- * E-mail:
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Abstract
Lead, the 82nd element in our periodic table, has accompanied humankind throughout the millennia of our history and development. As a ubiquitous heavy metal, lead is used in multiple applications and nine billion tons continue to be extracted globally every year. Although the United States has succeeded in limiting lead exposure among its own citizens by banning the use of lead in gasoline and household paint, while instituting improved working conditions for those who are exposed to lead in the workplace, the battle against lead is not won. In addition, it continues to plague the rest of the world today; the United States has played an increasing role in the world's exposure to lead and plans to stop are currently stalled. The year 2011 marked the centennial celebration of the life's work of Dr. Alice Hamilton in exposing lead poisoning among industrial workers in Chicago, Illinois. Her legacy provides us with the opportunity to look back and reevaluate our leaded history in the US. It also reminds us that there is more to be done to mitigate lead poisoning both domestically and in the developing world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinodinee Dissanayake
- University of Illinois at Chicago/Cook County Hospital (Stroger), Toxikon Consortium, Chicago, IL 60612, USA.
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Luo W, Ruan D, Yan C, Yin S, Chen J. Effects of chronic lead exposure on functions of nervous system in Chinese children and developmental rats. Neurotoxicology 2012; 33:862-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2012.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2011] [Revised: 03/09/2012] [Accepted: 03/20/2012] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Road dust lead (Pb) in two neighborhoods of urban Atlanta, (GA, USA). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2012; 9:2020-30. [PMID: 22829787 PMCID: PMC3397361 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph9062020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2012] [Revised: 04/25/2012] [Accepted: 05/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Road dust continues to be a major potential reservoir of Pb in the urban environment, and an important potential component of child Pb exposure. This study presents ICP-AES analyses of metals in 72 samples of road dust (<250 µm) collected in the urban core of Atlanta, Georgia. In the Downtown area, median Pb concentrations are ~63 mg/kg Pb, with high values of 278 mg/kg. For comparison, median Pb values in a nearby residential neighborhood (also in the urban core) were ~93 mg/kg, with a high of 972 mg/kg. Geospatial variability is high, with significant variation observed over tens to hundreds of meters. Spearman Rank Correlation tests suggest that Pb and other metals (Cu, Ni, V, Zn) are associated with iron and manganese oxide phases in the residential area, as reported in other cities. However, Pb in the Downtown area is not correlated with the others, suggesting a difference in source or transport history. Given these complexities and the expected differences between road dust and soil Pb, future efforts to assess exposure risk should therefore be based on spatially distributed sampling at very high spatial resolution.
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Mitchell T, Jentes E, Ortega L, Scalia Sucosky M, Jefferies T, Bajcevic P, Parr V, Jones W, Brown MJ, Painter J. Lead poisoning in United States-bound refugee children: Thailand-Burma border, 2009. Pediatrics 2012; 129:e392-9. [PMID: 22250021 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2011-1218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Elevated blood lead levels lead to permanent neurocognitive sequelae in children. Resettled refugee children in the United States are considered at high risk for elevated blood lead levels, but the prevalence of and risk factors for elevated blood lead levels before resettlement have not been described. METHODS Blood samples from children aged 6 months to 14 years from refugee camps in Thailand were tested for lead and hemoglobin. Sixty-seven children with elevated blood lead levels (venous ≥10 µg/dL) or undetectable (capillary <3.3 µg/dL) blood lead levels participated in a case-control study. RESULTS Of 642 children, 33 (5.1%) had elevated blood lead levels. Children aged <2 years had the highest prevalence (14.5%). Among children aged <2 years included in a case-control study, elevated blood lead levels risk factors included hemoglobin <10 g/dL, exposure to car batteries, and taking traditional medicines. CONCLUSIONS The prevalence of elevated blood lead levels among tested US-bound Burmese refugee children was higher than the current US prevalence, and was especially high among children <2 years old. Refugee children may arrive in the United States with elevated blood lead levels. A population-specific understanding of preexisting lead exposures can enhance postarrival lead-poisoning prevention efforts, based on Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommendations for resettled refugee children, and can lead to remediation efforts overseas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarissa Mitchell
- Division of Global Migration, Immigrant, Refugee, and Migrant Health Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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Rossi E, McLaughlin V, Joseph J, Bulsara M, Coleman K, Douglas C, Robertson A. Community blood lead survey with emphasis on preschool children following lead dust pollution in Esperance, Western Australia. Aust N Z J Public Health 2012; 36:171-5. [PMID: 22487353 DOI: 10.1111/j.1753-6405.2011.00814.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess the impact of airborne lead dust on blood lead levels in residents of Esperance, a regional Western Australian town, with particular reference to preschool children. METHODS Following identification of significant airborne lead contamination, residents were notified that a blood lead clinic was available to all, with testing of preschool children encouraged. About 40% (333 children) of the preschool group and about 20% of the remaining population were tested. The main measures were blood lead levels, prevalence of elevated results and comparisons to other Western Australian surveys. RESULTS In preschoolers, 2.1% (seven children) had blood lead levels exceeding the current 10 μg/dL level of concern. This was not significantly different to two previous community-based surveys elsewhere in Western Australia. However, at a lower cut-off of 5 μg/dL, the prevalence of elevated lead levels was 24.6%, significantly higher than children tested in a previous Western Australian survey. The prevalence of blood lead levels of 10 μg/dL or greater in adults was 1.3% (26 adults), not significantly different from a previous Western Australian survey. CONCLUSIONS The prevalence of preschool children with blood lead levels exceeding the current level of concern was not significantly increased. However, the increased prevalence of children with lead levels at or above 5 μg/dL demonstrates exposure to lead dust pollution. IMPLICATIONS This episode of lead dust contamination highlights the need for strict adherence to environmental controls and effective monitoring processes to ensure the prevention of future events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Rossi
- Pathwest Laboratory Medicine, QE II Medical Centre, Nedlands, Western Australia 6009.
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Barton HJ. Advantages of the use of deciduous teeth, hair, and blood analysis for lead and cadmium bio-monitoring in children. A study of 6-year-old children from Krakow (Poland). Biol Trace Elem Res 2011; 143:637-58. [PMID: 21086189 PMCID: PMC3187856 DOI: 10.1007/s12011-010-8896-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2010] [Accepted: 11/01/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The population of about 300 6-year-old preschool children was studied for lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) in deciduous teeth, scalp hair, and capillary blood. Zinc (Zn) content in hair was also measured due to its possible interferences with the elements studied. The Pb and Cd contents were measured by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry with Zeeman background correction, and Zn, by flame method. Metal levels found were comparable to those in European countries. Positive correlations between Pb and Cd in the same and different tissues were widespread (r=0.23-0.68). A positive correlation was found between Pb in teeth and blood (r=0.65, p<0.001). Pb blood threshold 100 μg L(-1) referred to 2.6 μg g(-1) Pb in teeth. Predictability of this Pb teeth limit was 14% vs. 5% for Pb blood. Strong negative correlation was found between hair Pb and Zn (r=-0.68, p<0.001). Enhanced Cd and Zn levels in hair were associated with the household drinking water hardness. The associations with some other environmental and behavioral factors were also presented and discussed. The results proved the advantage of analysis of primary teeth for Pb exposure screening of preschool children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henryk J Barton
- Department of Food Chemistry and Nutrition, Medical College, Jagiellonian University, Medyczna 9, PL-30-688, Cracow, Poland.
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Mamtani R, Stern P, Dawood I, Cheema S. Metals and disease: a global primary health care perspective. J Toxicol 2011; 2011:319136. [PMID: 22007209 PMCID: PMC3189586 DOI: 10.1155/2011/319136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2011] [Accepted: 07/12/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Metals are an important and essential part of our daily lives. Their ubiquitous presence and use has not been without significant consequences. Both industrial and nonindustrial exposures to metals are characterized by a variety of acute and chronic ailments. Underreporting of illnesses related to occupational and environmental exposures to chemicals including metals is of concern and presents a serious challenge. Many primary care workers rarely consider occupational and environmental exposures to chemicals in their clinical evaluation. Their knowledge and training in the evaluation of health problems related to such exposures is inadequate. This paper presents documented research findings from various studies that have examined the relationship between metal exposures and their adverse health effects both in developing and developed countries. Further, it provides some guidance on essential elements of a basic occupational and environmental evaluation to health care workers in primary care situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravinder Mamtani
- Global and Public Health, Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar, P.O. Box 24144, Doha, Qatar
| | - Penny Stern
- Preventive Medicine, Department of Population Health, North Shore University Hospital, 175 Community Drive, 2nd Fl. Great Neck, NY 11021, USA
| | - Ismail Dawood
- Occupational Health and Safety Unit, Ethekwini Municipality, P.O. Box 5892, Durban 4000, South Africa
| | - Sohaila Cheema
- Global and Public Health, Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar, P.O. Box 24144, Doha, Qatar
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El-Moneim A, Afify MR, El-Beltagi HS. Discharge of lead contamination by natural compounds pectin and chitin: biochemical analysis of DNA, RNA, DNase, RNase and GOT in albino rat as an early bio-marker of lead-toxicity. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/s2221-1691(11)60160-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022] Open
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Kar-Purkayastha I, Balasegaram S, Sen D, Rehman AJ, Dargan PI, Johnston D, Raynal A, Wood DM, Abrahams A, Kamanyire R, Murray V, Cordery R. Lead: ongoing public and occupational health issues in vulnerable populations: a case study. J Public Health (Oxf) 2011; 34:176-82. [PMID: 21954302 DOI: 10.1093/pubmed/fdr077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lead has been recognized increasingly as a public health risk, although with the introduction of wide-ranging occupational and public health measures, levels of blood lead in the general population of the UK and other developed nations have been in decline in recent years. Nonetheless, cases of lead poisoning still occur. METHODS We report on a large cluster of exposed lead workers and their families, including several children. The focus of the occupational and public health investigations was to identify the different groups at risk and the pathways by which potential exposures were taking place. RESULTS Lead in the workplace was found to account for the raised blood lead levels amongst the workers with exposure occurring as a result of insufficient demarcation between 'clean' and 'dirty' areas, and from contamination of personal belongings with lead. Furthermore, there was evidence of para-occupational exposure of family members. CONCLUSIONS The successful control of lead in this case required multidisciplinary working. Efforts included extensive workplace controls, along with the education and care of workers and their families, though complicated by lack of familiarity with the UK health service amongst the affected groups, language barriers, underlying low levels of literacy and high mobility.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Kar-Purkayastha
- Centre for Radiation, Chemicals and Environmental Hazards London , Health Protection Agency, London SW1W 9SZ, UK.
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Dyal B. Are Lead Risk Questionnaires Adequate Predictors of Blood Lead Levels in Children? Public Health Nurs 2011; 29:3-10. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1525-1446.2011.00961.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Campbell C, Tran M, Gracely E, Starkey N, Kersten H, Palermo P, Rothman N, Line L, Hansen-Turton T. Primary prevention of lead exposure: the Philadelphia lead safe homes study. Public Health Rep 2011; 126 Suppl 1:76-88. [PMID: 21563715 DOI: 10.1177/00333549111260s111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Lead exposure in children can lead to neuropsychological impairment. This study tested whether primary prevention interventions in the newborn period prevent elevated blood lead levels (BLLs). METHODS The Philadelphia Lead Safe Homes (LSH) Study offered parental education, home evaluation, and lead remediation to the families of urban newborns. Households were randomized to a standard lead education group or maintenance education group. We conducted home visits at baseline, six months, and 12 months. To compare BLLs, we identified a matched comparison group. RESULTS We enrolled and randomized 314 newborns in the intervention component; 110 completed the study. There were few significant differences between the randomized groups. In the combined intervention groups, positive results on visual inspection declined from baseline to 12 months (97.0% to 90.6%, p = 0.007). At baseline, 36.9% of homes were above the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's lead dust standard, compared with 26.9% at 12 months (p = 0.032), mainly due to a drop in windowsill dust levels. Both groups showed a significant increase in parental scores on a lead education test. Children in the intervention and matched control groups had similar geometric mean initial BLLs (2.6 vs. 2.7, p = 0.477), but a significantly higher percentage of children in the intervention group had an initial blood lead screening compared with those in the matched group (88.9% vs. 84.4%, p = 0.032). CONCLUSIONS A study of primary prevention of lead exposure showed a higher blood lead screening rate for the combined intervention groups and mean BLLs at one year of age not statistically different from the comparison group. Most homes had lead hazards. Lead education significantly increased knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Campbell
- The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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Exposure to lead exacerbates dental fluorosis. Arch Oral Biol 2011; 56:695-702. [DOI: 10.1016/j.archoralbio.2010.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2010] [Revised: 12/18/2010] [Accepted: 12/21/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Dribben WH, Creeley CE, Farber N. Low-level lead exposure triggers neuronal apoptosis in the developing mouse brain. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2011; 33:473-80. [PMID: 21640820 PMCID: PMC3661300 DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2011.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2011] [Accepted: 05/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
While the toxic effects of lead have been recognized for millennia, it has remained a significant public health concern due to its continued use and toxicological potential. Of particular interest is the increased susceptibility of young children to the toxic effects of lead. Although the exact mechanism(s) for lead toxicity is currently not well understood, research has established that it can be a potent NMDA antagonist. Previous research has established that exposure to NMDA antagonists during the brain growth spurt period (first 2 weeks of life in mice) can produce apoptotic neurodegeneration throughout the brain. Based on this information, the ability of lead exposure (two injections of 350 mg/kg lead 4h apart) to produce apoptosis in the neonatal mouse brain was assessed histologically 8-24h after treatment using activated caspase-3 immunohistochemistry, De Olmos silver technique, Nissl staining, and electron microscopy. Lead exposure produced significant neurodegeneration in the caudate/putamen, hippocampus, subiculum, and superficial and deep cortical layers of the frontal cortical regions. Further ultrastructural examination revealed cellular profiles consistent with apoptotic cell death. Statistical results showed that lead exposure significantly increased apoptotic neurodegeneration above that seen in normal controls in animals treated at postnatal day 7, but not on day 14. The results of this study may provide a basis for further elucidation of mechanisms through which the immature nervous system may be particularly susceptible to lead exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- William H Dribben
- Division of Emergency Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, 660 S. Euclid Ave., Campus Box 8072, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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70
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Karr
- Pediatric Environmental Health Specialty Unit, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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71
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Burke MG, Miller MD. Practical guidelines for evaluating lead exposure in children with mental health conditions: molecular effects and clinical implications. Postgrad Med 2011; 123:160-8. [PMID: 21293095 DOI: 10.3810/pgm.2011.01.2256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Children in the United States are exhibiting extremely high levels of attentional and learning disabilities. Although lead has been eliminated from many industrial products, children continue to come into contact with it, such as in toys and cosmetics. Lead exposure occurs most commonly in poor, urban populations, and can exacerbate psychiatric disorders associated with stress. We present 1) an overview of lead exposure; 2) a detailed summary of current research on the molecular synergy of toxicity caused by lead and stress; 3) a review of human studies that appear to correlate with these molecular findings, including understanding nutrition, environmental enrichment, and caregiving as risk modifiers; and 4) a systematic approach for mental health practitioners in managing children presenting with multiple symptoms and risk factors for mental health conditions. In this article, we review some of the clinical and scientific challenges that relate to the assessment and treatment of children presenting for mental health care who may have potential lead exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary G Burke
- Sutter Pacific Medical Foundation, Greenbrae, CA 94904, USA.
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72
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Magzamen S, Van Sickle D, Rose LD, Cronk C. Environmental pediatrics. Pediatr Ann 2011; 40:144-51. [PMID: 21417205 DOI: 10.3928/00904481-20110217-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sheryl Magzamen
- Department of Population Health Sciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
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73
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Lead levels in long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) hair from Singapore. Primates 2011; 52:163-70. [DOI: 10.1007/s10329-011-0236-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2010] [Accepted: 01/19/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Jin Y, Yu F, Liao Y, Liu S, Liu M, Xu J, Yang J. Therapeutic efficiency of succimer used with calcium and ascorbic acid in the treatment of mild lead-poisoning. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2011; 31:137-142. [PMID: 21787678 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2010.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2010] [Revised: 09/26/2010] [Accepted: 09/27/2010] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to explore therapeutic efficiency of succimer used with calcium and ascorbic acid in the treatment of mildly lead-poisoned mice and preschool children. Mice were exposed to lead by drinking water, and then treated with saline solution, 50mg/kg body weight (b.w.) succimer, 100mg/kg b.w. succimer, or 50mg/kg b.w. succimer plus calcium and ascorbic acid by gavage. Seventy-two children aged 48-72 months were randomly assigned into combined treatment or nutritional intervention group. Lead levels in blood and bone were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Activities of aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALAD) in blood were determined by colorimetric method. Results of animal experiment showed that succimer used alone could reduce lead levels in blood and bone and reverse activities of ALAD in blood, however, a better therapeutic efficiency in mobilizing bone lead could be achieved by succimer used with calcium and ascorbic acid. Findings from the clinical study showed that reduction of blood lead levels (BLLs) between the end and initiation of therapy in the combined treatment group was significantly greater than that in the nutritional intervention group. Percentage of children with BLLs less than 10μg/dL at the end of therapy and the eighth week after therapy in the combined treatment group was significantly higher than that in the nutritional intervention group. In conclusion, combined use of succimer with calcium and ascorbic acid seemed to be a choice in the treatment of mildly lead poisoned children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaping Jin
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, China Medical University, No. 92 Beier Road, Heping District, Shenyang, Liaoning, Postal code: 110001, PR China.
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Padilla MA, Elobeid M, Ruden DM, Allison DB. An examination of the association of selected toxic metals with total and central obesity indices: NHANES 99-02. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2010; 7:3332-47. [PMID: 20948927 PMCID: PMC2954548 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph7093332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2010] [Revised: 08/09/2010] [Accepted: 08/23/2010] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
It is conceivable that toxic metals contribute to obesity by influencing various aspects of metabolism, such as by substituting for essential micronutrients and vital metals, or by inducing oxidative stress. Deficiency of the essential metal zinc decreases adiposity in humans and rodent models, whereas deficiencies of chromium, copper, iron, and magnesium increases adiposity. This study utilized the NHANES 99-02 data to explore the association between waist circumference and body mass index with the body burdens of selected toxic metals (barium, cadmium, cobalt, cesium, molybdenum, lead, antimony, thallium, and tungsten). Some of the associations were significant direct relationships (barium and thallium), and some of the associations were significant inverse relationships (cadmium, cobalt, cesium, and lead). Molybdenum, antimony, and tungsten had mostly insignificant associations with waist circumference and body mass index. This is novel result for most of the toxic metals studied, and a surprising result for lead because high stored lead levels have been shown to correlate with higher rates of diabetes, and obesity may be a key risk factor for developing diabetes. These associations suggest the possibility that environmental exposure to metals may contribute to variations in human weight gain/loss. Future research, such as prospective studies rather than the cross-sectional studies presented here, is warranted to confirm these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel A. Padilla
- Department of Psychology, Old Dominion University, 250 Mills Godwin Building, Norfolk, VA 23529, USA; E-Mail:
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Old Dominion University, 250 Mills Godwin Building, Norfolk, VA 23529, USA
| | - Mai Elobeid
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1665 University Boulevard, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA; E-Mail:
- Division of Cardiovascular Disease, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1665 University Boulevard, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Douglas M. Ruden
- Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Wayne State University, 259 Mack Avenue, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA; E-Mail:
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Wayne State University, Wayne State University, 275 E. Hancock Avenue, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - David B. Allison
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1665 University Boulevard, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA; E-Mail:
- Department of Nutrition Sciences, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1665 University Boulevard, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
- Clinical Nutrition Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1665 University Boulevard, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
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Chinnakaruppan NR, Marcus SM. Asymptomatic congenital lead poisoning - case report. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2010; 48:563-5. [PMID: 20533891 DOI: 10.3109/15563650.2010.490222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Congenital lead poisoning is uncommon and there is no consensus on the management of the newborn. CASE DETAILS A female infant was born to a lead-burdened woman identified by screening just prior to delivery. Maternal blood lead level (BLL) was 58 μg/dL. The infant's BLL on the second day of life was 72 μg/dL with a free erythrocyte protoporphyrin level of 175 μg/dL. The child was managed by an exchange transfusion followed by chelation. The BLL 6 h after exchange transfusion was 11.4 μg/dL. Follow-up 2 years later showed a BLL of 9 μg/dL and normal development. DISCUSSION We present the details of a case of congenital lead poisoning treated aggressively which appears to have resulted in a favorable outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nachammai R Chinnakaruppan
- Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Department of Pediatrics, Lehigh Valley Health Network, Allentown, PA 18105-1556, USA.
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Wilhelm M, Heinzow B, Angerer J, Schulz C. Reassessment of critical lead effects by the German Human Biomonitoring Commission results in suspension of the human biomonitoring values (HBM I and HBM II) for lead in blood of children and adults. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2010; 213:265-9. [PMID: 20493765 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2010.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In Germany, the Human Biomonitoring Commission of the Federal Environment Agency continuously assesses environmental pollutants to derive human biomonitoring (HBM) and reference values. HBM values are derived on the basis of toxicological, epidemiological studies or toxicokinetic extrapolation which provides a concentration of a substance or its metabolites corresponding to tolerable intake doses. Two levels are defined: HBM I and HBM II. In 1996, the Commission set a HBM I of 100 microg/l for lead in blood of children < or =12 years and females of a reproductive age and a HBM I of 150 microg/l for the other persons. In the light of findings from epidemiological studies on effects below 100 microg/l, the Commission reevaluated and confirmed the assessment from 1996 in 2002. Meanwhile the general decline in lead pollution has allowed recent studies to include more cohorts with blood lead levels predominantly below 100 microg/l. These data confirm that lead's critical effect, particularly on the developing organism and during early childhood, concerns the nervous system and that negative correlations between blood lead levels and relevant variables (cognitive function, behaviour) occur at blood lead levels below 100 microg/l. The new data also support the possible persistence of lead-induced effects into adulthood. It is not possible to indicate thresholds. Concerning the estimation of the size of the effects, recent studies suggest that lead's influence on development is comparable with other factors influencing development. Furthermore inorganic lead and compounds were classified by IARC in group 2A (probably carcinogenic to humans) and by the German Research Foundation (MAK Commission) in category 2 (to be regarded as human carcinogen). We conclude that any setting of an "effect threshold" for blood lead levels would be arbitrary and therefore unjustified. As a consequence the Commission suspends the HBM values for lead in blood of children and adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Wilhelm
- Department of Hygiene, Social and Environmental Medicine, Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany.
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78
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Naicker N, Norris SA, Mathee A, von Schirnding YE, Richter L. Prenatal and adolescent blood lead levels in South Africa: child, maternal and household risk factors in the Birth to Twenty cohort. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2010; 110:355-362. [PMID: 20226441 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2010.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2009] [Revised: 02/08/2010] [Accepted: 02/22/2010] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The risk factors for lead exposure in developing countries have not been fully described. This study looks at child, maternal and household factors associated with increased risk of lead exposure at birth and at 13 years of age in the Birth to Twenty cohort. METHODS Mothers were recruited from antenatal clinics in the Johannesburg-Soweto metropolitan area in 1990 (n=3273). Lead levels were analysed in cord blood collected at birth (n=618) and at 13 years (n=1546). Data on selected child, maternal and household factors were collected using a structured questionnaire in the third trimester and at 13 years of age. Statistical analyses were conducted to determine the associated risk factors. RESULTS The mean blood lead level at birth was 5.85 microg/dl, and at 13 years of age it was 5.66 microg/dl. The majority of children had blood lead levels above 5 microg/dl (52% at birth and 56% at 13 years). At birth, being a teenage mother and having low educational status were strong predictors for elevated cord blood lead levels. Being a male child, having an elevated cord blood level, and lack of household ownership of a phone were significant risk factors for high blood lead levels at 13 years. CONCLUSION Significant associations found in the study point to the low socio-economic status of lead-affected mothers and children. These poor circumstances frequently persist into later childhood, resulting in continued high lead levels. Thus broader measures of poverty alleviation and provision of better education may help decrease the risk of exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nisha Naicker
- Medical Research Council of South Africa, Environment and Health Research Unit, PO Box 87373, Houghton 2041, Johannesburg, South Africa.
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Costa de Almeida GR, de Freitas Tavares CF, de Souza AM, Sampaio de Sousa T, Rodrigues Funayama CA, Barbosa F, Tanus-Santos JE, Gerlach RF. Whole blood, serum, and saliva lead concentrations in 6- to 8-year-old children. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2010; 408:1551-1556. [PMID: 20060572 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.12.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2009] [Revised: 12/17/2009] [Accepted: 12/17/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
With increasing evidence of adverse health effects of lower lead levels (below 10microg/dL in whole blood), studies on novel internal dose biomarkers are needed. This study aimed at: (1) assessing the lead exposure by measuring this element in whole blood (Pb-blood), serum (Pb-serum), and 3 different types of saliva: whole (Pb-whole-saliva), submandibular/sublingual (Pb-sub-saliva) and parotid saliva (Pb-parotid-saliva); (2) correlating Pb-blood with Pb-serum; and (3) relating Pb-blood and Pb-serum with the lead found in the different salivas. The study population included 444 children aged 6 to 8 years attending 4 government schools in the district of Campos Eliseos, in Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo State, Brazil. Whole blood, serum, parotid, submandibular/sublingual ("sub-saliva"), and whole saliva were collected in trace element-free tubes. Lead concentrations were determined by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Median Pb-blood and Pb-serum were 2.1microg/dL and 0.4microg/L, respectively. Ten percent of the children had Pb-blood between 4.0 and 9.4microg/dL. Boys showed higher Pb-blood than girls (2.3 vs. 2.0microg/dL, p<0.0003). Lead concentrations in whole, sub, and parotid saliva were 1.7, 1.4, and 1.3microg/L, respectively. No significant correlations were found between Pb-blood and Pb-serum, between Pb-blood and lead in the 3 different salivas, or between Pb-serum and Pb-whole-saliva or Pb-sub-saliva. However, there was a weak statistically significant correlation between Pb-serum and Pb-parotid-saliva. In conclusion, the mean Pb-blood concentration was 2.4microg/dL, with 10% of the children exhibiting Pb-blood between 4.0 and 9.4microg/dL. Boys presented higher Pb-blood. Results suggest that Pb-blood has no correlation with Pb-serum or lead in the 3 different salivas collected here. A weak but statistically significant correlation between Pb-serum and Pb-parotid-saliva was found. Our results also point to the need for carrying out more studies on sources of exposure and lead levels in children in Brazil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glauce Regina Costa de Almeida
- Department of Morphology, Estomatology and Physiology, Dental School of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo - FORP/USP, Av. do Café, Ribeirao Preto-SP, Brazil
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Sawan RMM, Leite GAS, Saraiva MCP, Barbosa F, Tanus-Santos JE, Gerlach RF. Fluoride increases lead concentrations in whole blood and in calcified tissues from lead-exposed rats. Toxicology 2010; 271:21-6. [PMID: 20188782 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2010.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2009] [Revised: 02/01/2010] [Accepted: 02/02/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Higher blood lead (BPb) levels have been reported in children living in communities that receive fluoride-treated water. Here, we examined whether fluoride co-administered with lead increases BPb and lead concentrations in calcified tissues in Wistar rats exposed to this metal from the beginning of gestation. We exposed female rats and their offspring to control water (Control Group), 100mg/L of fluoride (F Group), 30mg/L of lead (Pb Group), or 100mg/L of fluoride and 30mg/L of lead (F+Pb Group) from 1 week prior to mating until offspring was 81 days old. Blood and calcified tissues (enamel, dentine, and bone) were harvested at day 81 for lead and fluoride analyses. Higher BPb concentrations were found in the F+Pb Group compared with the Pb Group (76.7+/-11.0microg/dL vs. 22.6+/-8.5microg/dL, respectively; p<0.001). Two- to threefold higher lead concentrations were found in the calcified tissues in the F+Pb Group compared with the Pb Group (all p<0.001). Fluoride concentrations were similar in the F and in the F+Pb Groups. These findings show that fluoride consistently increases BPb and calcified tissues Pb concentrations in animals exposed to low levels of lead and suggest that a biological effect not yet recognized may underlie the epidemiological association between increased BPb lead levels in children living in water-fluoridated communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosangela M M Sawan
- School of Dentistry of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo (FORP/USP), Av do Café s/n, 14040-904, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
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Carlisle JC, Dowling KC, Siegel DM, Alexeeff GV. A blood lead benchmark for assessing risks from childhood lead exposure. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART A, TOXIC/HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 2009; 44:1200-1208. [PMID: 19847706 DOI: 10.1080/10934520903139829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Lead exposure is an insidious problem, causing subtle effects in children at low exposure levels where clinical signs are not apparent. Although a target blood lead concentration (Pb(B)) of ten micrograms per deciliter (10 microg/dL) has been used as the basis for environmental decision-making in California for nearly two decades, recent epidemiologic evidence suggests a relationship between cognitive deficits and Pb(B) at concentrations < 10 microg/dL. Based on a published meta-analysis of children's IQ scores and their blood lead concentrations, we developed a new blood lead benchmark: an incremental increase in blood lead concentration (DeltaPb(B)) of 1 microg/dL, an increase that we estimate could decrease the IQ score in an average school child in California by up to one point. Although there is no evidence to date for a threshold for the neurobehavioral effects of lead, a one-point IQ decrement was chosen to represent a de minimus change. To safeguard the intellectual potential of all children, additional efforts to reduce or eliminate multiple-source exposures to lead are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- James C Carlisle
- California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, Sacramento, California 95812-4010, USA.
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Abstract
Lead in household dust is dangerous to children who ingest lead from playing close to the ground, and having frequent hand-to-mouth contact. Although there have been several investigations of lead levels in India in air, blood and new paint, the literature is sparse on the levels of lead in household dust. This study analyzed 99 samples of dust taken from bare floors and 49 samples of dust taken from windowsills in a cross-section of Delhi, India houses for lead loadings. The arithmetic mean of lead loading for floor samples and windowsill dust samples was found to be 36.24 microg/ft(2) and 129.5 microg/ft(2), respectively. The geometric mean of dust lead loading for floor and interior windowsill samples was found to be 19.7 microg/ft(2) and 75.5 microg/ft(2), respectively. Comparing the results with US geometric mean dust lead levels from a national cross-section of US housing, which in 2000 were 1.1 microg/ft(2) and 9.4 microg/ft(2) on floors and windowsills, respectively as reported by Jacobs et al. (2002) suggests that the lead content of the dust in Delhi homes is much higher than that in the national data in the US and that the levels pose a hazard to children. Practical Implications The present study is first of its kind in this part of the world. In the context of ongoing efforts to eliminate lead from paints worldwide this research will help the scientists and policy makers in assessing the Children's exposure to lead in developing country as well. Since more than one half of the housing units tested had at least one dust lead sample exceeding US health-based standards, health care providers and public health officials need to give attention to possible lead poisoning in Delhi children. Routine blood lead screening of children should follow recommended public health practice for children at risk. Additional larger-scale studies are needed in Delhi and elsewhere to determine how representative these findings are and to attempt to delineate the sources of the high dust lead which are expected to vary depending on the location. Knowledge of the sources is needed to appropriately allocate resources. From other studies performed in India it is likely that lead-based paint is one of the sources and its continued use should be discontinued.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Kumar
- Chemicals and Health, Toxics Link, New Delhi, India.
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Gould E. Childhood lead poisoning: conservative estimates of the social and economic benefits of lead hazard control. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2009; 117:1162-7. [PMID: 19654928 PMCID: PMC2717145 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.0800408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2008] [Accepted: 03/31/2009] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study is a cost-benefit analysis that quantifies the social and economic benefits to household lead paint hazard control compared with the investments needed to minimize exposure to these hazards. OBJECTIVES This research updates estimates of elevated blood lead levels among a cohort of children < or = 6 years of age and compiles recent research to determine a range of the costs of lead paint hazard control ($1-$11 billion) and the benefits of reduction attributed to each cohort for health care ($11-$53 billion), lifetime earnings ($165-$233 billion), tax revenue ($25-$35 billion), special education ($30-$146 million), attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder ($267 million), and the direct costs of crime ($1.7 billion). RESULTS Each dollar invested in lead paint hazard control results in a return of $17-$221 or a net savings of $181-269 billion. CONCLUSIONS There are substantial returns to investing in lead hazard control, particularly targeted at early intervention in communities most likely at risk. Given the high societal costs of inaction, lead hazard control appears to be well worth the price.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elise Gould
- Economic Policy Institute, Washington, DC 20005, USA.
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[Occurrence of lead poisoning during follow-up of children at risk with initial screening lead blood levels below 100 microg/L]. Rev Epidemiol Sante Publique 2009; 57:249-55. [PMID: 19553045 DOI: 10.1016/j.respe.2009.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2008] [Revised: 03/04/2009] [Accepted: 03/04/2009] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Follow-up is recommended for children initially screened with a lead blood level below the threshold for lead poisoning of 10 microg/dL when they have one or more risk factors. At first, the frequency of a follow-up lead blood test was calculated in children at risk for lead poisoning. In second time, we calculated the rate of occurrence and independent factors for lead poisoning in the follow-up group. METHODS Since 1992, the Greater Paris lead poisoning monitoring system (SSSIILF) has been systematically recording data on lead levels in blood tests conducted for screening and follow-up in Greater Paris. Children initially screened before the age of seven whose blood lead level was inferior to 10 microg/dL and who had one or more risk factors were selected. The association between qualitative variables and a follow-up lead blood test was compared using the Chi(2) test. For children given follow-up, the association between qualitative variables and occurrence of lead poisoning was compared using the Chi(2) test; independent factors for lead poisoning were estimated by logistic regression. RESULTS A follow-up lead blood test was more frequent and the difference was statistically significant, for children with one or more of the following risk factors identified at the time of screening: home address in Seine Saint-Denis or central Paris, screened in mother/child healthcare centers (PMI) or through a private physician, a blood lead level 5 microg/dL on initial screening, young age (<24 months) at the time of screening and some others known risk factors. The rate of occurrence of lead poisoning during follow-up was 25.9% for children screened between 1992 to 1994 and decrease to 5.1% for children screened in 2004 to 2005 (p<0.001) and was lower in central Paris and Seine Saint-Denis than in other districts in Greater Paris (p<0.01). The rate of occurrence during follow-up, independent of known risk factors for lead poisoning (p<0.01), was higher for children screened before the age of two (p<0.01) and for children whose mothers were from Sub-Saharan Africa (p<0.01). CONCLUSION It is essential to follow up children at risk with an initial lead blood level below 10 microg/dL, especially those initially screened before the age of 24 months. Local action on home environment could also be needed when the initial blood lead level is 5 microg/dL and more than one risk factor has been identified.
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Wang CN, Song XY, Gao Q, Wang F, Liu P, Wu YN. Dietary exposure to lead by children and adults in the Jinhu area of China. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2009; 26:821-8. [DOI: 10.1080/02652030802714000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Gaitens JM, Dixon SL, Jacobs DE, Nagaraja J, Strauss W, Wilson JW, Ashley PJ. Exposure of U.S. children to residential dust lead, 1999-2004: I. Housing and demographic factors. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2009; 117:461-7. [PMID: 19337523 PMCID: PMC2661918 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.11917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2008] [Accepted: 11/13/2008] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lead-contaminated house dust is a major source of lead exposure for children in the United States. In 1999-2004, the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) collected dust lead (PbD) loading samples from the homes of children 12-60 months of age. OBJECTIVES In this study we aimed to compare national PbD levels with existing health-based standards and to identify housing and demographic factors associated with floor and windowsill PbD. METHODS We used NHANES PbD data (n=2,065 from floors and n=1,618 from windowsills) and covariates to construct linear and logistic regression models. RESULTS The population-weighted geometric mean floor and windowsill PbD were 0.5 microg/ft2 [geometric standard error (GSE)=1.0] and 7.6 microg/ft2 (GSE=1.0), respectively. Only 0.16% of the floors and 4.0% of the sills had PbD at or above current federal standards of 40 and 250 microg/ft2, respectively. Income, race/ethnicity, floor surface/condition, windowsill PbD, year of construction, recent renovation, smoking, and survey year were significant predictors of floor PbD [the proportion of variability in the dependent variable accounted for by the model (R2)=35%]. A similar set of predictors plus the presence of large areas of exterior deteriorated paint in pre-1950 homes and the presence of interior deteriorated paint explained 20% of the variability in sill PbD. A companion article [Dixon et al. Environ Health Perspect 117:468-474 (2009)] describes the relationship between children's blood lead and PbD. CONCLUSION Most houses with children have PbD levels that comply with federal standards but may put children at risk. Factors associated with PbD in our population-based models are primarily the same as factors identified in smaller at-risk cohorts. PbD on floors and windowsills should be kept as low as possible to protect children.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sherry L. Dixon
- National Center for Healthy Housing, Columbia, Maryland, USA
- Address correspondence to S.L. Dixon, National Center for Healthy Housing, 10320 Little Patuxent Parkway, Suite 500, Columbia, MD 21044 USA. Telephone: (443) 539-4156. Fax: (443) 539-4150. E-mail:
| | - David E. Jacobs
- National Center for Healthy Housing, Columbia, Maryland, USA
| | | | | | | | - Peter J. Ashley
- U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Washington, DC, USA
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Murata K, Iwata T, Dakeishi M, Karita K. Lead Toxicity: Does the Critical Level of Lead Resulting in Adverse Effects Differ between Adults and Children? J Occup Health 2009; 51:1-12. [DOI: 10.1539/joh.k8003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Katsuyuki Murata
- Department of Environmental Health SciencesAkita University School of MedicineJapan
| | - Toyoto Iwata
- Department of Environmental Health SciencesAkita University School of MedicineJapan
| | - Miwako Dakeishi
- Department of Environmental Health SciencesAkita University School of MedicineJapan
| | - Kanae Karita
- Department of Public HealthKyorin University School of MedicineJapan
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88
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Sanders T, Liu Y, Buchner V, Tchounwou PB. Neurotoxic effects and biomarkers of lead exposure: a review. REVIEWS ON ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 2009; 24:15-45. [PMID: 19476290 PMCID: PMC2858639 DOI: 10.1515/reveh.2009.24.1.15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 486] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Lead, a systemic toxicant affecting virtually every organ system, primarily affects the central nervous system, particularly the developing brain. Consequently, children are at a greater risk than adults of suffering from the neurotoxic effects of lead. To date, no safe lead-exposure threshold has been identified. The ability of lead to pass through the blood-brain barrier is due in large part to its ability to substitute for calcium ions. Within the brain, lead-induced damage in the prefrontal cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum can lead to a variety of neurologic disorders. At the molecular level, lead interferes with the regulatory action of calcium on cell functions and disrupts many intracellular biological activities. Experimental studies have also shown that lead exposure may have genotoxic effects, especially in the brain, bone marrow, liver, and lung cells. Knowledge of the neurotoxicology of lead has advanced in recent decades due to new information on its toxic mechanisms and cellular specificity. This paper presents an overview, updated to January 2009, of the neurotoxic effects of lead with regard to children, adults, and experimental animals at both cellular and molecular levels, and discusses the biomarkers of lead exposure that are useful for risk assessment in the field of environmental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Talia Sanders
- Molecular Toxicology Research Laboratory, NIH RCMI - Center for Environmental Health, College of Science, Engineering, and Technology, Jackson State University, Jackson, MS, USA
| | - Yiming Liu
- Molecular Toxicology Research Laboratory, NIH RCMI - Center for Environmental Health, College of Science, Engineering, and Technology, Jackson State University, Jackson, MS, USA
| | | | - Paul B. Tchounwou
- Molecular Toxicology Research Laboratory, NIH RCMI - Center for Environmental Health, College of Science, Engineering, and Technology, Jackson State University, Jackson, MS, USA
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89
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Heavey E. Lead poisoning in children: still a threat. Nursing 2008; 38:17-18. [PMID: 19033967 DOI: 10.1097/01.nurse.0000342011.07225.3f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
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91
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Wang HL, Chen XT, Yang B, Ma FL, Wang S, Tang ML, Hao MG, Ruan DY. Case-control study of blood lead levels and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in Chinese children. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2008; 116:1401-6. [PMID: 18941585 PMCID: PMC2569102 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.11400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2008] [Accepted: 06/05/2008] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and lead exposure are high-prevalence conditions among children. OBJECTIVE Our goal was to investigate the association between ADHD and blood lead levels (BLLs) in Chinese children, adjusting for known ADHD risk factors and potential confounding variables. METHODS We conducted a pair-matching case-control study with 630 ADHD cases and 630 non-ADHD controls 4-12 years of age, matched on the same age, sex, and socioeconomic status. The case and control children were systematically evaluated via structured diagnostic interviews, including caregiver interviews, based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed., revised criteria (DSM-IV-R). We evaluated the association between BLLs and ADHD using the Pearson chi-square test for categorical variables and the Student t-test for continuous data. We then performed conditional multiple variables logistic regression analyses with backward stepwise selection to predict risk factors for ADHD. RESULTS There was a significant difference in BLLs between ADHD cases and controls. ADHD cases were more likely to have been exposed to lead during childhood than the non-ADHD control subjects, with adjustment for other known risk factors [children with BLLs >or= 10 microg/dL vs. <or= 5 microg/dL; OR = 6.0; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 4.10-8.77, p < 0.01; 5-10 microg/dL vs.<or= 5 microg/dL, OR = 4.9; 95% CI = 3.47-6.98, p < 0.01]. These results were not modified by age and sex variables. CONCLUSIONS This was the largest sample size case-control study to date to study the association between BLLs and ADHD in Chinese children. ADHD may be an additional deleterious outcome of lead exposure during childhood, even when BLLs are < 10 microg/dL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui-Li Wang
- School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiang-Tao Chen
- School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, People’s Republic of China
- Anhui College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Hefei, Anhui, People’s Republic of China
| | - Bin Yang
- Anhui Provincial Children’s Hospital, Hefei, Anhui, People’s Republic of China
| | - Fang-Li Ma
- Nanfang Lee Kum Kee Co., Ltd., Guangzhou, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
| | - Shu Wang
- School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ming-Liang Tang
- School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ming-Gao Hao
- Institute of Anhui Traditional Chinese Medicine, Hefei, Anhui, People’s Republic of China
| | - Di-Yun Ruan
- School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, People’s Republic of China
- Address correspondence to D-Y. Ruan, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230027, P. R. China. Telephone: 86 551 3606374. Fax: 86 551 3601443. E-mail:
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