101
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Lrrk promotes tau neurotoxicity through dysregulation of actin and mitochondrial dynamics. PLoS Biol 2018; 16:e2006265. [PMID: 30571694 PMCID: PMC6319772 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2006265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2018] [Revised: 01/04/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most common cause of familial Parkinson disease. Genetics and neuropathology link Parkinson disease with the microtubule-binding protein tau, but the mechanism of action of LRRK2 mutations and the molecular connection between tau and Parkinson disease are unclear. Here, we investigate the interaction of LRRK and tau in Drosophila and mouse models of tauopathy. We find that either increasing or decreasing the level of fly Lrrk enhances tau neurotoxicity, which is further exacerbated by expressing Lrrk with dominantly acting Parkinson disease-associated mutations. At the cellular level, altering Lrrk expression promotes tau neurotoxicity via excess stabilization of filamentous actin (F-actin) and subsequent mislocalization of the critical mitochondrial fission protein dynamin-1-like protein (Drp1). Biochemically, monomeric LRRK2 exhibits actin-severing activity, which is reduced as increasing concentrations of wild-type LRRK2, or expression of mutant forms of LRRK2 promote oligomerization of the protein. Overall, our findings provide a potential mechanistic basis for a dominant negative mechanism in LRRK2-mediated Parkinson disease, suggest a common molecular pathway with other familial forms of Parkinson disease linked to abnormalities of mitochondrial dynamics and quality control, and raise the possibility of new therapeutic approaches to Parkinson disease and related disorders.
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102
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Roco Proteins and the Parkinson's Disease-Associated LRRK2. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19124074. [PMID: 30562929 PMCID: PMC6320773 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19124074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2018] [Revised: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 12/14/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Small G-proteins are structurally-conserved modules that function as molecular on-off switches. They function in many different cellular processes with differential specificity determined by the unique effector-binding surfaces, which undergo conformational changes during the switching action. These switches are typically standalone monomeric modules that form transient heterodimers with specific effector proteins in the 'on' state, and cycle to back to the monomeric conformation in the 'off' state. A new class of small G-proteins called "Roco" was discovered about a decade ago; this class is distinct from the typical G-proteins in several intriguing ways. Their switch module resides within a polypeptide chain of a large multi-domain protein, always adjacent to a unique domain called COR, and its effector kinase often resides within the same polypeptide. As such, the mechanisms of action of the Roco G-proteins are likely to differ from those of the typical G-proteins. Understanding these mechanisms is important because aberrant activity in the human Roco protein LRRK2 is associated with the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. This review provides an update on the current state of our understanding of the Roco G-proteins and the prospects of targeting them for therapeutic purposes.
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103
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Mamais A, Manzoni C, Nazish I, Arber C, Sonustun B, Wray S, Warner TT, Cookson MR, Lewis PA, Bandopadhyay R. Analysis of macroautophagy related proteins in G2019S LRRK2 Parkinson's disease brains with Lewy body pathology. Brain Res 2018; 1701:75-84. [PMID: 30055128 PMCID: PMC6361106 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2018.07.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2018] [Revised: 07/04/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
LRRK2, the gene encoding the multidomain kinase Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2), has been linked to familial and sporadic forms of Parkinson's disease (PD), as well as cancer, leprosy and Crohn's disease, establishing it as a target for discovery therapeutics. LRRK2 has been associated with a range of cellular processes, however its physiological and pathological functions remain unclear. The most prevalent LRRK2 mutations in PD have been shown to affect macroautophagy in various cellular models while a role in autophagy signalling has been recapitulated in vivo. Dysregulation of autophagy has been implicated in PD pathology, and this raises the possibility that differential autophagic activity is relevant to disease progression in PD patients carrying LRRK2 mutations. To examine the relevance of LRRK2 to the regulation of macroautophagy in a disease setting we examined the levels of autophagic markers in the basal ganglia of G2019S LRRK2 PD post-mortem tissue, in comparison to pathology-matched idiopathic PD (iPD), using immunoblotting (IB). Significantly lower levels of p62 and LAMP1 were observed in G2019S LRRK2 PD compared to iPD cases. Similarly, an increase in ULK1 was observed in iPD but was not reflected in G2019S LRRK2 PD cases. Furthermore, examination of p62 by immunohistochemistry (IH) recapitulated a distinct signature for G2019S PD. IH of LAMP1, LC3 and ULK1 broadly correlated with the IB results. Our data from a small but pathologically well-characterized cases highlights a divergence of G2019S PD carriers in terms of autophagic response in alpha-synuclein pathology affected brain regions compared to iPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adamantios Mamais
- Reta Lila Weston Institute of Neurological Studies, UCL Institute of Neurology, 1 Wakefield Street, London WC1N 1PJ, United Kingdom; Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, NIH, Building 35, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892-3707, USA.
| | - Claudia Manzoni
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 6AP, United Kingdom; Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom
| | - Iqra Nazish
- Reta Lila Weston Institute of Neurological Studies, UCL Institute of Neurology, 1 Wakefield Street, London WC1N 1PJ, United Kingdom; Department of Clinical and Movement Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Neurology, WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom
| | - Charles Arber
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom
| | - Berkiye Sonustun
- Reta Lila Weston Institute of Neurological Studies, UCL Institute of Neurology, 1 Wakefield Street, London WC1N 1PJ, United Kingdom
| | - Selina Wray
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas T Warner
- Reta Lila Weston Institute of Neurological Studies, UCL Institute of Neurology, 1 Wakefield Street, London WC1N 1PJ, United Kingdom; Department of Clinical and Movement Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Neurology, WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom
| | - Mark R Cookson
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, NIH, Building 35, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892-3707, USA
| | - Patrick A Lewis
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 6AP, United Kingdom; Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom
| | - Rina Bandopadhyay
- Reta Lila Weston Institute of Neurological Studies, UCL Institute of Neurology, 1 Wakefield Street, London WC1N 1PJ, United Kingdom; Department of Clinical and Movement Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Neurology, WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom.
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104
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Functional and behavioral consequences of Parkinson's disease-associated LRRK2-G2019S mutation. Biochem Soc Trans 2018; 46:1697-1705. [PMID: 30514770 DOI: 10.1042/bst20180468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2018] [Revised: 10/09/2018] [Accepted: 10/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
LRRK2 mutation is the most common inherited, autosomal dominant cause of Parkinson's disease (PD) and has also been observed in sporadic cases. Most mutations result in increased LRRK2 kinase activity. LRRK2 is highly expressed in brain regions that receive dense, convergent innervation by dopaminergic and glutamatergic axons, and its levels rise developmentally coincident with glutamatergic synapse formation. The onset and timing of expression suggests strongly that LRRK2 regulates the development, maturation and function of synapses. Several lines of data in mice show that LRRK2-G2019S, the most common LRRK2 mutation, produces an abnormal gain of pathological function that affects synaptic activity, spine morphology, persistent forms of synapse plasticity and behavioral responses to social stress. Effects of the mutation can be detected as early as the second week of postnatal development and can last or have consequences that extend into adulthood and occur in the absence of dopamine loss. These data suggest that the generation of neural circuits that support complex behaviors is modified by LRRK2-G2019S. Whether such alterations impart vulnerability to neurons directly or indirectly, they bring to the forefront the idea that neural circuits within which dopamine neurons eventually degenerate are assembled and utilized in ways that are distinct from circuits that lack this mutation and may contribute to non-motor symptoms observed in humans with PD.
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105
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Araki M, Ito G, Tomita T. Physiological and pathological functions of LRRK2: implications from substrate proteins. Neuronal Signal 2018; 2:NS20180005. [PMID: 32714591 PMCID: PMC7373236 DOI: 10.1042/ns20180005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2018] [Revised: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 09/19/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) encodes a 2527-amino acid (aa) protein composed of multiple functional domains, including a Ras of complex proteins (ROC)-type GTP-binding domain, a carboxyl terminal of ROC (COR) domain, a serine/threonine protein kinase domain, and several repeat domains. LRRK2 is genetically involved in the pathogenesis of both sporadic and familial Parkinson's disease (FPD). Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder, manifesting progressive motor dysfunction. PD is pathologically characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, and the presence of intracellular inclusion bodies called Lewy bodies (LB) in the remaining neurons. As the most frequent PD-causing mutation in LRRK2, G2019S, increases the kinase activity of LRRK2, an abnormal increase in LRRK2 kinase activity is believed to contribute to PD pathology; however, the precise biological functions of LRRK2 involved in PD pathogenesis remain unknown. Although biochemical studies have discovered several substrate proteins of LRRK2 including Rab GTPases and tau, little is known about whether excess phosphorylation of these substrates is the cause of the neurodegeneration in PD. In this review, we summarize latest findings regarding the physiological and pathological functions of LRRK2, and discuss the possible molecular mechanisms of neurodegeneration caused by LRRK2 and its substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miho Araki
- Laboratory of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Genta Ito
- Laboratory of Brain and Neurological Disorders, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Taisuke Tomita
- Laboratory of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
- Laboratory of Brain and Neurological Disorders, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
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106
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Madero-Pérez J, Fernández B, Lara Ordóñez AJ, Fdez E, Lobbestael E, Baekelandt V, Hilfiker S. RAB7L1-Mediated Relocalization of LRRK2 to the Golgi Complex Causes Centrosomal Deficits via RAB8A. Front Mol Neurosci 2018; 11:417. [PMID: 30483055 PMCID: PMC6243087 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2018.00417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2018] [Accepted: 10/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the LRRK2 gene cause autosomal-dominant Parkinson’s disease (PD), and both LRRK2 as well as RAB7L1 have been implicated in increased susceptibility to idiopathic PD. RAB7L1 has been shown to increase membrane-association and kinase activity of LRRK2, and both seem to be mechanistically implicated in the same pathway. Another RAB protein, RAB8A, has been identified as a prominent LRRK2 kinase substrate, and our recent work demonstrates that aberrant LRRK2-mediated phosphorylation of RAB8A leads to centrosomal alterations. Here, we show that RAB7L1 recruits LRRK2 to the Golgi complex, which causes accumulation of phosphorylated RAB8A in a pericentrosomal/centrosomal location as well as centrosomal deficits identical to those observed with pathogenic LRRK2. The centrosomal alterations induced by wildtype LRRK2 in the presence of RAB7L1 depend on Golgi integrity. This is in contrast to pathogenic LRRK2 mutants, which cause centrosomal deficits independent of Golgi integrity or largely independent on RAB7L1 expression. Furthermore, centrosomal alterations in the presence of wildtype LRRK2 and RAB7L1 are at least in part mediated by aberrant LRRK2-mediated RAB8A phosphorylation, as abolished by kinase inhibitors and reduced upon knockdown of RAB8A. These results indicate that pathogenic LRRK2, as well as increased levels of RAB7L1, cause centrosomal deficits in a manner dependent on aberrant RAB8A phosphorylation and centrosomal/pericentrosomal accumulation, suggesting that centrosomal cohesion deficits may comprise a useful cellular readout for a broader spectrum of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús Madero-Pérez
- Institute of Parasitology and Biomedicine "López-Neyra", Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Granada, Spain
| | - Belén Fernández
- Institute of Parasitology and Biomedicine "López-Neyra", Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Granada, Spain
| | - Antonio Jesús Lara Ordóñez
- Institute of Parasitology and Biomedicine "López-Neyra", Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Granada, Spain
| | - Elena Fdez
- Institute of Parasitology and Biomedicine "López-Neyra", Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Granada, Spain
| | - Evy Lobbestael
- Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Veerle Baekelandt
- Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sabine Hilfiker
- Institute of Parasitology and Biomedicine "López-Neyra", Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Granada, Spain
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107
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Brain injury induces HIF-1α-dependent transcriptional activation of LRRK2 that exacerbates brain damage. Cell Death Dis 2018; 9:1125. [PMID: 30420654 PMCID: PMC6232134 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-018-1180-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2018] [Accepted: 10/22/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), originally identified as a causative genetic factor in Parkinson’s disease, is now associated with a number of pathologies. Here, we show that brain injury induces a robust expression of endogenous LRRK2 and suggest a role of LRRK2 after injury. We found that various in vitro and in vivo models of traumatic brain injury (TBI) markedly enhanced LRRK2 expression in neurons and also increased the level of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α. Luciferase reporter assay and chromatin immunoprecipitation revealed direct binding of HIF-1α in LRRK2 proximal promoter. We also found that HIF-1α-dependent transcriptional induction of LRRK2 exacerbated neuronal cell death following injury. Furthermore, application of G1023, a specific, brain-permeable inhibitor of LRRK2, substantially prevented brain tissue damage, cell death, and inflammatory response and alleviated motor and cognitive defects induced by controlled cortical impact injury. Together, these results suggest HIF-1α-LRRK2 axis as a potential therapeutic target for brain injury.
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108
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LRRK2 and its substrate Rab GTPases are sequentially targeted onto stressed lysosomes and maintain their homeostasis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:E9115-E9124. [PMID: 30209220 PMCID: PMC6166828 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1812196115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 178] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) has been associated with a variety of human diseases, including Parkinson's disease and Crohn's disease, whereas LRRK2 deficiency leads to accumulation of abnormal lysosomes in aged animals. However, the cellular roles and mechanisms of LRRK2-mediated lysosomal regulation have remained elusive. Here, we reveal a mechanism of stress-induced lysosomal response by LRRK2 and its target Rab GTPases. Lysosomal overload stress induced the recruitment of endogenous LRRK2 onto lysosomal membranes and activated LRRK2. An upstream adaptor Rab7L1 (Rab29) promoted the lysosomal recruitment of LRRK2. Subsequent family-wide screening of Rab GTPases that may act downstream of LRRK2 translocation revealed that Rab8a and Rab10 were specifically accumulated on overloaded lysosomes dependent on their phosphorylation by LRRK2. Rab7L1-mediated lysosomal targeting of LRRK2 attenuated the stress-induced lysosomal enlargement and promoted lysosomal secretion, whereas Rab8 stabilized by LRRK2 on stressed lysosomes suppressed lysosomal enlargement and Rab10 promoted lysosomal secretion, respectively. These effects were mediated by the recruitment of Rab8/10 effectors EHBP1 and EHBP1L1. LRRK2 deficiency augmented the chloroquine-induced lysosomal vacuolation of renal tubules in vivo. These results implicate the stress-responsive machinery composed of Rab7L1, LRRK2, phosphorylated Rab8/10, and their downstream effectors in the maintenance of lysosomal homeostasis.
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109
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Mitochondrial abnormalities in Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease: can mitochondria be targeted therapeutically? Biochem Soc Trans 2018; 46:891-909. [PMID: 30026371 DOI: 10.1042/bst20170501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2018] [Revised: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 06/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondrial abnormalities have been identified as a central mechanism in multiple neurodegenerative diseases and, therefore, the mitochondria have been explored as a therapeutic target. This review will focus on the evidence for mitochondrial abnormalities in the two most common neurodegenerative diseases, Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. In addition, we discuss the main strategies which have been explored in these diseases to target the mitochondria for therapeutic purposes, focusing on mitochondrially targeted antioxidants, peptides, modulators of mitochondrial dynamics and phenotypic screening outcomes.
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110
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Tied up: Does altering phosphoinositide-mediated membrane trafficking influence neurodegenerative disease phenotypes? J Genet 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s12041-018-0961-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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111
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Abstract
The LRRK2 gene is a major contributor to genetic risk for Parkinson's disease and understanding the biology of the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2, the protein product of this gene) is an important goal in Parkinson's research. LRRK2 is a multi-domain, multi-activity enzyme and has been implicated in a wide range of signalling events within the cell. Because of the complexities of the signal transduction pathways in which LRRK2 is involved, it has been challenging to generate a clear idea as to how mutations and disease associated variants in this gene are altered in disease. Understanding the events in which LRRK2 is involved at a systems level is therefore critical to fully understand the biology and pathobiology of this protein and is the subject of this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Price
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading, RG6 6AP, UK
| | - Claudia Manzoni
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading, RG6 6AP, UK
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - Mark R Cookson
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Building. 35, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Patrick A Lewis
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading, RG6 6AP, UK.
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, WC1N 3BG, UK.
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112
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Abstract
Preferential degeneration of dopamine neurons (DAn) in the midbrain represents the principal hallmark of Parkinson's disease (PD). It has been hypothesized that major contributors to DAn vulnerability lie in their unique cellular physiology and architecture, which make them particularly susceptible to stress factors. Here, we report a concise overview of some of the cell mechanisms that may exacerbate DAn sensitivity and loss in PD. In particular, we highlight how defective protein sorting and clearance, endoplasmic reticulum stress, calcium dyshomeostasis and intracellular trafficking converge to contribute synergistically to neuronal dysfunction in PD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Cherubini
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, Le Gros Clark Building, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QX, UK
| | - Richard Wade-Martins
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, Le Gros Clark Building, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QX, UK.
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113
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Aufschnaiter A, Kohler V, Walter C, Tosal-Castano S, Habernig L, Wolinski H, Keller W, Vögtle FN, Büttner S. The Enzymatic Core of the Parkinson's Disease-Associated Protein LRRK2 Impairs Mitochondrial Biogenesis in Aging Yeast. Front Mol Neurosci 2018; 11:205. [PMID: 29977190 PMCID: PMC6021522 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2018.00205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction is a prominent trait of cellular decline during aging and intimately linked to neuronal degeneration during Parkinson's disease (PD). Various proteins associated with PD have been shown to differentially impact mitochondrial dynamics, quality control and function, including the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2). Here, we demonstrate that high levels of the enzymatic core of human LRRK2, harboring GTPase as well as kinase activity, decreases mitochondrial mass via an impairment of mitochondrial biogenesis in aging yeast. We link mitochondrial depletion to a global downregulation of mitochondria-related gene transcripts and show that this catalytic core of LRRK2 localizes to mitochondria and selectively compromises respiratory chain complex IV formation. With progressing cellular age, this culminates in dissipation of mitochondrial transmembrane potential, decreased respiratory capacity, ATP depletion and generation of reactive oxygen species. Ultimately, the collapse of the mitochondrial network results in cell death. A point mutation in LRRK2 that increases the intrinsic GTPase activity diminishes mitochondrial impairment and consequently provides cytoprotection. In sum, we report that a downregulation of mitochondrial biogenesis rather than excessive degradation of mitochondria underlies the reduction of mitochondrial abundance induced by the enzymatic core of LRRK2 in aging yeast cells. Thus, our data provide a novel perspective for deciphering the causative mechanisms of LRRK2-associated PD pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Verena Kohler
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Corvin Walter
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, ZBMZ, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Sergi Tosal-Castano
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lukas Habernig
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Heimo Wolinski
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Walter Keller
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - F.-Nora Vögtle
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, ZBMZ, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Sabrina Büttner
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
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114
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Baltussen LL, Rosianu F, Ultanir SK. Kinases in synaptic development and neurological diseases. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2018; 84:343-352. [PMID: 29241837 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2017] [Revised: 12/08/2017] [Accepted: 12/09/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Neuronal morphogenesis and synapse development is essential for building a functioning nervous system, and defects in these processes are associated with neurological disorders. Our understanding of molecular components and signalling events that contribute to neuronal development and pathogenesis is limited. Genes associated with neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative diseases provide entry points for elucidating molecular events that contribute to these conditions. Several protein kinases, enzymes that regulate protein function by phosphorylating their substrates, are genetically linked to neurological disorders. Identifying substrates of these kinases is key to discovering their function and providing insight for possible therapies. In this review, we describe how various methods for kinase-substrate identification helped elucidate kinase signalling pathways important for neuronal development and function. We describe recent advances on roles of kinases TAOK2, TNIK and CDKL5 in neuronal development and the converging pathways of LRRK2, PINK1 and GAK in Parkinson's Disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas L Baltussen
- Kinases and Brain Development Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London NW1 1AT, United Kingdom
| | - Flavia Rosianu
- Kinases and Brain Development Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London NW1 1AT, United Kingdom
| | - Sila K Ultanir
- Kinases and Brain Development Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London NW1 1AT, United Kingdom.
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115
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Pozo Devoto VM, Falzone TL. Mitochondrial dynamics in Parkinson's disease: a role for α-synuclein? Dis Model Mech 2018; 10:1075-1087. [PMID: 28883016 PMCID: PMC5611962 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.026294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2017] [Accepted: 07/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The distinctive pathological hallmarks of Parkinson's disease are the progressive death of dopaminergic neurons and the intracellular accumulation of Lewy bodies enriched in α-synuclein protein. Several lines of evidence from the study of sporadic, familial and pharmacologically induced forms of human Parkinson's disease also suggest that mitochondrial dysfunction plays an important role in disease progression. Although many functions have been proposed for α-synuclein, emerging data from human and animal models of Parkinson's disease highlight a role for α-synuclein in the control of neuronal mitochondrial dynamics. Here, we review the α-synuclein structural, biophysical and biochemical properties that influence relevant mitochondrial dynamic processes such as fusion-fission, transport and clearance. Drawing on current evidence, we propose that α-synuclein contributes to the mitochondrial defects that are associated with the pathology of this common and progressive neurodegenerative disease. Summary: The authors review the α-synuclein structural, biophysical and biochemical properties that influence relevant mitochondrial physiological processes such as fusion-fission, transport and clearance, and propose that α-synuclein contributes to the mitochondrial defects that are associated with Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victorio M Pozo Devoto
- Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencias, IBCN (UBA-CONICET), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Paraguay 2155, Buenos Aires, CP1121, Argentina.,International Clinical Research Center (ICRC), St. Anne's University Hospital, CZ-65691, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Tomas L Falzone
- Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencias, IBCN (UBA-CONICET), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Paraguay 2155, Buenos Aires, CP1121, Argentina .,Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, IBYME-CONICET, Vuelta de Obligado 2490, Buenos Aires, CP1428, Argentina
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116
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LRRK2 phosphorylation of auxilin mediates synaptic defects in dopaminergic neurons from patients with Parkinson's disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:5576-5581. [PMID: 29735704 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1717590115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently identified Parkinson's disease (PD) genes involved in synaptic vesicle endocytosis, such as DNAJC6 (auxilin), have further implicated synaptic dysfunction in PD pathogenesis. However, how synaptic dysfunction contributes to the vulnerability of human dopaminergic neurons has not been previously explored. Here, we demonstrate that commonly mutated, PD-linked leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) mediates the phosphorylation of auxilin in its clathrin-binding domain at Ser627. Kinase activity-dependent LRRK2 phosphorylation of auxilin led to differential clathrin binding, resulting in disrupted synaptic vesicle endocytosis and decreased synaptic vesicle density in LRRK2 patient-derived dopaminergic neurons. Moreover, impaired synaptic vesicle endocytosis contributed to the accumulation of oxidized dopamine that in turn mediated pathogenic effects such as decreased glucocerebrosidase activity and increased α-synuclein in mutant LRRK2 neurons. Importantly, these pathogenic phenotypes were partially attenuated by restoring auxilin function in mutant LRRK2 dopaminergic neurons. Together, this work suggests that mutant LRRK2 disrupts synaptic vesicle endocytosis, leading to altered dopamine metabolism and dopamine-mediated toxic effects in patient-derived dopaminergic neurons.
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117
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Vermilyea SC, Emborg ME. In Vitro Modeling of Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 G2019S-Mediated Parkinson's Disease Pathology. Stem Cells Dev 2018; 27:960-967. [PMID: 29402177 DOI: 10.1089/scd.2017.0286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) G2019S (glycine to serine) is the most common mutation associated with sporadic and familial Parkinson's disease (PD) with 80% penetrance by age 70. This mutation is found worldwide, with up to 40% of individuals in the North African Arab population carrying the mutation. Induced pluripotent stem cells derived from fibroblasts of patients carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation have been a critical source of cells for generating dopaminergic neurons and studying G2019S-related pathology. These studies have elucidated LRRK2-related mechanisms of mitochondrial dysregulation, increased reactive oxygen species, truncated and simplified neurites, and cell death. These phenotypes are thought to result from the G2019S mutation increasing substrate access and therefore increasing the catalytic rate of the serine/threonine kinase. In this article, we critically review the contributions of in vitro modeling to the current knowledge on LRRK2 G2019S. We also analyze the role of patient-derived cell lines for the identification and validation of therapeutic targets, emphasizing their importance as part of a 3R approach to translational research and personalized medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott C Vermilyea
- 1 Neuroscience Training Program, University of Wisconsin , Madison, Wisconsin.,2 Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin , Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Marina E Emborg
- 1 Neuroscience Training Program, University of Wisconsin , Madison, Wisconsin.,2 Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin , Madison, Wisconsin.,3 Department of Medical Physics, University of Wisconsin , Madison, Wisconsin
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118
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Anzell AR, Maizy R, Przyklenk K, Sanderson TH. Mitochondrial Quality Control and Disease: Insights into Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury. Mol Neurobiol 2018; 55:2547-2564. [PMID: 28401475 PMCID: PMC5636654 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-017-0503-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 252] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Accepted: 03/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondria are key regulators of cell fate during disease. They control cell survival via the production of ATP that fuels cellular processes and, conversely, cell death via the induction of apoptosis through release of pro-apoptotic factors such as cytochrome C. Therefore, it is essential to have stringent quality control mechanisms to ensure a healthy mitochondrial network. Quality control mechanisms are largely regulated by mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy. The processes of mitochondrial fission (division) and fusion allow for damaged mitochondria to be segregated and facilitate the equilibration of mitochondrial components such as DNA, proteins, and metabolites. The process of mitophagy are responsible for the degradation and recycling of damaged mitochondria. These mitochondrial quality control mechanisms have been well studied in chronic and acute pathologies such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, stroke, and acute myocardial infarction, but less is known about how these two processes interact and contribute to specific pathophysiologic states. To date, evidence for the role of mitochondrial quality control in acute and chronic disease is divergent and suggests that mitochondrial quality control processes can serve both survival and death functions depending on the disease state. This review aims to provide a synopsis of the molecular mechanisms involved in mitochondrial quality control, to summarize our current understanding of the complex role that mitochondrial quality control plays in the progression of acute vs chronic diseases and, finally, to speculate on the possibility that targeted manipulation of mitochondrial quality control mechanisms may be exploited for the rationale design of novel therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony R Anzell
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
- Department of Physiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
| | - Rita Maizy
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
| | - Karin Przyklenk
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
- Department of Physiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
| | - Thomas H Sanderson
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA.
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA.
- Department of Physiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA.
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119
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Perez Carrion M, Pischedda F, Biosa A, Russo I, Straniero L, Civiero L, Guida M, Gloeckner CJ, Ticozzi N, Tiloca C, Mariani C, Pezzoli G, Duga S, Pichler I, Pan L, Landers JE, Greggio E, Hess MW, Goldwurm S, Piccoli G. The LRRK2 Variant E193K Prevents Mitochondrial Fission Upon MPP+ Treatment by Altering LRRK2 Binding to DRP1. Front Mol Neurosci 2018. [PMID: 29541021 PMCID: PMC5835904 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2018.00064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 gene (LRRK2) are associated with familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD). LRRK2 is a complex protein that consists of multiple domains, including 13 putative armadillo-type repeats at the N-terminus. In this study, we analyzed the functional and molecular consequences of a novel variant, E193K, identified in an Italian family. E193K substitution does not influence LRRK2 kinase activity. Instead it affects LRRK2 biochemical properties, such as phosphorylation at Ser935 and affinity for 14-3-3ε. Primary fibroblasts obtained from an E193K carrier demonstrated increased cellular toxicity and abnormal mitochondrial fission upon 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium treatment. We found that E193K alters LRRK2 binding to DRP1, a crucial mediator of mitochondrial fission. Our data support a role for LRRK2 as a scaffolding protein influencing mitochondrial fission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Perez Carrion
- Dulbecco Telethon Institute, CIBIO, Università degli Studi di Trento, Trento, Italy
| | - Francesca Pischedda
- Dulbecco Telethon Institute, CIBIO, Università degli Studi di Trento, Trento, Italy
| | - Alice Biosa
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Isabella Russo
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
| | | | - Laura Civiero
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Marianna Guida
- Institute for Biomedicine, Eurac Research, Affiliated Institute of the University of Lübeck, Bolzano, Italy
| | - Christian J Gloeckner
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, Germany.,Institute for Ophthalmic Research, Center for Ophthalmology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Nicola Ticozzi
- Dino Ferrari Center, Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Milan, Italy.,Department of Neurology and Laboratory of Neuroscience, Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Milan, Italy
| | - Cinzia Tiloca
- Dino Ferrari Center, Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Milan, Italy.,Department of Neurology and Laboratory of Neuroscience, Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Gianni Pezzoli
- Parkinson Institute, ASST Gaetano Pini-CTO, Milan, Italy
| | - Stefano Duga
- Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Milan, Italy.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Milan, Italy
| | - Irene Pichler
- Institute for Biomedicine, Eurac Research, Affiliated Institute of the University of Lübeck, Bolzano, Italy
| | - Lifeng Pan
- Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - John E Landers
- Department of Neurology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, University of Massachusetts, Worcester, MA, United States
| | - Elisa Greggio
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Michael W Hess
- Division of Histology and Embryology, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Stefano Goldwurm
- Department of Neurology and Laboratory of Neuroscience, Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Milan, Italy.,Department of Neuroscience Rita Levi Montalcini, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Giovanni Piccoli
- Dulbecco Telethon Institute, CIBIO, Università degli Studi di Trento, Trento, Italy
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120
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Jeong GR, Jang EH, Bae JR, Jun S, Kang HC, Park CH, Shin JH, Yamamoto Y, Tanaka-Yamamoto K, Dawson VL, Dawson TM, Hur EM, Lee BD. Dysregulated phosphorylation of Rab GTPases by LRRK2 induces neurodegeneration. Mol Neurodegener 2018; 13:8. [PMID: 29439717 PMCID: PMC5811984 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-018-0240-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2017] [Accepted: 02/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most common cause of familial and sporadic Parkinson’s disease (PD). Elevated kinase activity is associated with LRRK2 toxicity, but the substrates that mediate neurodegeneration remain poorly defined. Given the increasing evidence suggesting a role of LRRK2 in membrane and vesicle trafficking, here we systemically screened Rab GTPases, core regulators of vesicular dynamics, as potential substrates of LRRK2 and investigated the functional consequence of such phosphorylation in cells and in vivo. Methods In vitro LRRK2 kinase assay with forty-five purified human Rab GTPases was performed to identify Rab family proteins as substrates of LRRK2. We identified the phosphorylation site by tandem mass-spectrometry and confirmed it by assessing phosphorylation in the in vitro LRRK2 kinase assay and in cells. Effects of Rab phosphorylation on neurodegeneration were examined in primary cultures and in vivo by intracranial injection of adeno-associated viral vectors (AAV) expressing wild-type or phosphomutants of Rab35. Results Our screening revealed that LRRK2 phosphorylated several Rab GTPases at a conserved threonine residue in the switch II region, and by using the kinase-inactive LRRK2-D1994A and the pathogenic LRRK2-G2019S along with Rab proteins in which the LRRK2 site was mutated, we verified that a subset of Rab proteins, including Rab35, were authentic substrates of LRRK2 both in vitro and in cells. We also showed that phosphorylation of Rab regulated GDP/GTP-binding property in cells. Moreover, in primary cortical neurons, mutation of the LRRK2 site in several Rabs caused neurotoxicity, which was most severely induced by phosphomutants of Rab35. Furthermore, intracranial injection of the AAV-Rab35 -T72A or AAV-Rab35-T72D into the substantia nigra substantially induced degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in vivo. Conclusions Here we show that a subset of Rab GTPases are authentic substrates of LRRK2 both in vitro and in cells. We also provide evidence that dysregulation of Rab phosphorylation in the LRRK2 site induces neurotoxicity in primary neurons and degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in vivo. Our study suggests that Rab GTPases might mediate LRRK2 toxicity in the progression of PD. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13024-018-0240-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ga Ram Jeong
- Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Eun-Hae Jang
- Center for Neuroscience, Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), 5 Hwarang-ro 14-gil, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02792, South Korea.,Convergence Research Center for Diagnosis, Treatment and Care System of Dementia, KIST, Seoul, South Korea.,Division of Bio-Medical Science &Technology, KIST School, Korea University of Science and Technology, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jae Ryul Bae
- Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Soyoung Jun
- Center for Neuroscience, Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), 5 Hwarang-ro 14-gil, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02792, South Korea.,Convergence Research Center for Diagnosis, Treatment and Care System of Dementia, KIST, Seoul, South Korea.,Division of Bio-Medical Science &Technology, KIST School, Korea University of Science and Technology, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Ho Chul Kang
- Department of Physiology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, South Korea
| | | | - Joo-Ho Shin
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Samsung Biomedical Research Institute, Single Cell Network Research Center, SungKyunKwan University School of Medicine, Suwon, South Korea
| | - Yukio Yamamoto
- Center for Functional Connectomics, KIST, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Keiko Tanaka-Yamamoto
- Division of Bio-Medical Science &Technology, KIST School, Korea University of Science and Technology, Seoul, South Korea.,Center for Functional Connectomics, KIST, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Valina L Dawson
- Neurodegeneration and Stem Cell Program, Institute for Cell Engineering and Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA.,Department of Physiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA.,Solomon H Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA
| | - Ted M Dawson
- Neurodegeneration and Stem Cell Program, Institute for Cell Engineering and Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA.,Solomon H Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA.,Department of Pharmacology & Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA
| | - Eun-Mi Hur
- Center for Neuroscience, Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), 5 Hwarang-ro 14-gil, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02792, South Korea. .,Convergence Research Center for Diagnosis, Treatment and Care System of Dementia, KIST, Seoul, South Korea. .,Division of Bio-Medical Science &Technology, KIST School, Korea University of Science and Technology, Seoul, South Korea.
| | - Byoung Dae Lee
- Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea. .,Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, 26 Kyungheedae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul, 02447, South Korea.
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121
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Nguyen APT, Daniel G, Valdés P, Islam MS, Schneider BL, Moore DJ. G2019S LRRK2 enhances the neuronal transmission of tau in the mouse brain. Hum Mol Genet 2018; 27:120-134. [PMID: 29088368 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddx389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2017] [Accepted: 10/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene cause late-onset, autosomal dominant Parkinson's disease (PD). LRRK2 mutations typically give rise to Lewy pathology in the brains of PD subjects yet can induce tau-positive neuropathology in some cases. The pathological interaction between LRRK2 and tau remains poorly defined. To explore this interaction in vivo, we crossed a well-characterized human P301S-tau transgenic mouse model of tauopathy with human G2019S-LRRK2 transgenic mice or LRRK2 knockout (KO) mice. We find that endogenous or pathogenic LRRK2 expression has minimal effects on the steady-state levels, solubility and abnormal phosphorylation of human P301S-tau throughout the mouse brain. We next developed a new model of tauopathy by delivering AAV2/6 vectors expressing human P301S-tau to the hippocampal CA1 region of G2019S-LRRK2 transgenic or LRRK2 KO mice. P301S-tau expression induces hippocampal tau pathology and marked degeneration of CA1 pyramidal neurons in mice, however, this occurs independently of endogenous or pathogenic LRRK2 expression. We further developed new AAV2/6 vectors co-expressing human WT-tau and GFP to monitor the neuron-to-neuron transmission of tau within defined hippocampal neuronal circuits. While endogenous LRRK2 is not required for tau transmission, we find that G2019S-LRRK2 markedly enhances the neuron-to-neuron transmission of tau in mice. Our data suggest that mutant tau-induced neuropathology occurs independently of LRRK2 expression in two mouse models of tauopathy but identifies a novel pathogenic role for G2019S-LRRK2 in promoting the neuronal transmission of WT-tau protein. These findings may have important implications for understanding the development of tau neuropathology in LRRK2-linked PD brains.
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Affiliation(s)
- An Phu Tran Nguyen
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, MI 49503, USA
| | | | - Pamela Valdés
- Neurodegenerative Disease Laboratory, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Md Shariful Islam
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, MI 49503, USA
| | - Bernard L Schneider
- Neurodegenerative Disease Laboratory, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Darren J Moore
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, MI 49503, USA
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurodegenerative Research
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122
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Rui Q, Ni H, Li D, Gao R, Chen G. The Role of LRRK2 in Neurodegeneration of Parkinson Disease. Curr Neuropharmacol 2018; 16:1348-1357. [PMID: 29473513 PMCID: PMC6251048 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x16666180222165418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2017] [Revised: 07/17/2017] [Accepted: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene and α-synuclein gene (SNCA) are the key influencing factors of Parkinson's disease (PD). It is reported that dysfunction of LRRK2 may influence the accumulation of α-synuclein and its pathology to alter cellular functions and signaling pathways by the kinase activation of LRRK2. The accumulation of α-synuclein is one of the main stimulants of microglial activation. Microglia are macrophages that reside in the brain, and activation of microglia is believed to contribute to neuroinflammation and neuronal death in PD. Therefore, clarifying the complex relationship among LRRK2, α-synuclein and microglials could offer targeted clinical therapies for PD. Here, we provide an updated review focused on the discussion of the evidence supporting some of the key mechanisms that are important for LRRK2-dependent neurodegeneration in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Rong Gao
- Address correspondence to this author at the Department of Neurosurgery, The First People’s Hospital of Zhangjiagang City, No.68 Jiyang Western Road, Suzhou, P.R. China; Tel: +86-18921962599; E-mail:
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123
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Wang S, Liu Z, Ye T, Mabrouk OS, Maltbie T, Aasly J, West AB. Elevated LRRK2 autophosphorylation in brain-derived and peripheral exosomes in LRRK2 mutation carriers. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2017; 5:86. [PMID: 29166931 PMCID: PMC5700679 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-017-0492-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2017] [Accepted: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Missense mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene can cause late-onset Parkinson disease (PD). LRRK2 mutations increase LRRK2 kinase activities that may increase levels of LRRK2 autophosphorylation at serine 1292 (pS1292) and neurotoxicity in model systems. pS1292-LRRK2 protein can be packaged into exosomes and measured in biobanked urine. Herein we provide evidence that pS1292-LRRK2 protein is robustly expressed in cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) exosomes. In a novel cohort of Norwegian subjects with and without the G2019S-LRRK2 mutation, with and without PD, we quantified levels of pS1292-LRRK2, total LRRK2, and other exosome proteins in urine from 132 subjects and in CSF from 82 subjects. CSF and urine were collected from the same morning clinic visit in 55 of the participants. We found that total LRRK2 protein concentration was similar in exosomes purified from either CSF or urine but the levels did not correlate. pS1292-LRRK2 levels were higher in urinary exosomes from male and female subjects with a LRRK2 mutation. Male LRRK2 mutation carriers without PD had intermediate pS1292-LRRK2 levels compared to male carriers with PD and controls. However, female LRRK2 mutation carriers without PD had the same pS1292-LRRK2 levels compared to female carriers with PD. pS1292-LRRK2 levels in CSF exosomes were near saturated in most subjects, ten-fold higher on average than pS1292-LRRK2 levels in urinary exosomes, irrespective of LRRK2 mutation status or PD diagnosis. These results provide insights into the effects of LRRK2 mutations in both the periphery and brain in a well-characterized clinical population and show that LRRK2 protein in brain exosomes may be much more active than in the periphery in most subjects.
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Mitochondrial Calcium Dysregulation Contributes to Dendrite Degeneration Mediated by PD/LBD-Associated LRRK2 Mutants. J Neurosci 2017; 37:11151-11165. [PMID: 29038245 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3791-16.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2016] [Revised: 10/03/2017] [Accepted: 10/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) contribute to development of late-onset familial Parkinson's disease (PD), with clinical features of motor and cognitive dysfunction indistinguishable from sporadic PD. Calcium dysregulation plays an important role in PD pathogenesis, but the mechanisms of neurodegeneration remain unclear. Recent reports indicate enhanced excitatory neurotransmission in cortical neurons expressing mutant LRRK2, which occurs before the well-characterized phenotype of dendritic shortening. As mitochondria play a major role in the rapid buffering of cytosolic calcium, we hypothesized that altered mitochondrial calcium handling contributes to dendritic retraction elicited by the LRRK2-G2019S and -R1441C mutations. In primary mouse cortical neurons, we observed increased depolarization-induced mitochondrial calcium uptake. We found that expression of mutant LRRK2 elicited transcriptional upregulation of the mitochondrial calcium uniporter (MCU) and the mitochondrial calcium uptake 1 protein (MICU1) with no change in levels of the mitochondrial calcium antiporter NCLX. Elevated MCU and MICU1 were also observed in LRRK2-mutated patient fibroblasts, along with increased mitochondrial calcium uptake, and in postmortem brains of sporadic PD/PDD patients of both sexes. Transcriptional upregulation of MCU and MICU1 was caused by activation of the ERK1/2 (MAPK3/1) pathway. Inhibiting ERK1/2 conferred protection against mutant LRRK2-induced neurite shortening. Pharmacological inhibitors or RNAi knockdown of MCU attenuated mitochondrial calcium uptake and dendritic/neuritic shortening elicited by mutant LRRK2, whereas expression of a constitutively active mutant of NCLX that enhances calcium export from mitochondria was neuroprotective. These data suggest that an increased susceptibility to mitochondrial calcium dysregulation contributes to dendritic injury in mutant LRRK2 pathogenesis.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Cognitive dysfunction and dementia are common features of Parkinson's disease (PD), causing significant disability. Mutations in LRRK2 represent the most common known genetic cause of PD. We found that PD-linked LRRK2 mutations increased dendritic and mitochondrial calcium uptake in cortical neurons and familial PD patient fibroblasts, accompanied by increased expression of the mitochondrial calcium transporter MCU. Blocking the ERK1/2-dependent upregulation of MCU conferred protection against mutant LRRK2-elicited dendrite shortening, as did inhibiting MCU-mediated calcium import. Conversely, stimulating the export of calcium from mitochondria was also neuroprotective. These results implicate increased susceptibility to mitochondrial calcium overload in LRRK2-driven neurodegeneration, and suggest possible interventions that may slow the progression of cognitive dysfunction in PD.
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Inoshita T, Arano T, Hosaka Y, Meng H, Umezaki Y, Kosugi S, Morimoto T, Koike M, Chang HY, Imai Y, Hattori N. Vps35 in cooperation with LRRK2 regulates synaptic vesicle endocytosis through the endosomal pathway in Drosophila. Hum Mol Genet 2017; 26:2933-2948. [PMID: 28482024 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddx179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2017] [Accepted: 05/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations of the retromer component Vps35 and endosomal kinase LRRK2 are linked to autosomal dominant forms of familial Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the physiological and pathological roles of Vps35 and LRRK2 in neuronal functions are poorly understood. Here, we demonstrated that the loss of Drosophila Vps35 (dVps35) affects synaptic vesicle recycling, dopaminergic synaptic release and sleep behavior associated with dopaminergic activity, which is rescued by the expression of wild-type dVps35 but not the PD-associated mutant dVps35 D647N. Drosophila LRRK2 dLRRK together with Rab5 and Rab11 is also implicated in synaptic vesicle recycling, and the manipulation of these activities improves the Vps35 synaptic phenotypes. These findings indicate that defects of synaptic vesicle recycling in which two late-onset PD genes, Vps35 and LRRK2, are involved could be key aspects of PD etiology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Taku Arano
- Center for Genomic and Regenerative Medicine, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo 113-8421, Japan
| | - Yuka Hosaka
- Department of Neurology, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo 113-8421, Japan
| | - Hongrui Meng
- Research Institute for Diseases of Old Age, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo 113-8421, Japan
| | - Yujiro Umezaki
- Research Institute for Diseases of Old Age, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo 113-8421, Japan
| | - Sakiko Kosugi
- Laboratory of Cellular Neurobiology, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Science, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0392, Japan
| | - Takako Morimoto
- Laboratory of Cellular Neurobiology, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Science, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0392, Japan
| | - Masato Koike
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo 113-8421, Japan
| | - Hui-Yun Chang
- Institute of Systems Neuroscience and Department of Medical Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Yuzuru Imai
- Department of Research for Parkinson's Disease
- Department of Neurology, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo 113-8421, Japan
| | - Nobutaka Hattori
- Department of Research for Parkinson's Disease
- Department of Neurology, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo 113-8421, Japan
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126
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Cellular functions of LRRK2 implicate vesicular trafficking pathways in Parkinson's disease. Biochem Soc Trans 2017; 44:1603-1610. [PMID: 27913668 DOI: 10.1042/bst20160228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2016] [Revised: 08/31/2016] [Accepted: 09/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene, associated with Parkinson's disease, have been shown to affect intracellular trafficking pathways in a variety of cells and organisms. An emerging theme is that LRRK2 can bind to multiple membranous structures in cells, and several recent studies have suggested that the Rab family of small GTPases might be important in controlling the recruitment of LRRK2 to specific cellular compartments. Once localized to membranes, LRRK2 then influences downstream events, evidenced by changes in the autophagy-lysosome pathway. Here, I will discuss available evidence that supports or challenges this outline, with a specific emphasis on those aspects of LRRK2 function that have been controversial or remain to be fully clarified.
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G2019S-LRRK2 Expression Augments α-Synuclein Sequestration into Inclusions in Neurons. J Neurosci 2017; 36:7415-27. [PMID: 27413152 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3642-15.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2015] [Accepted: 05/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Pathologic inclusions define α-synucleinopathies that include Parkinson's disease (PD). The most common genetic cause of PD is the G2019S LRRK2 mutation that upregulates LRRK2 kinase activity. However, the interaction between α-synuclein, LRRK2, and the formation of α-synuclein inclusions remains unclear. Here, we show that G2019S-LRRK2 expression, in both cultured neurons and dopaminergic neurons in the rat substantia nigra pars compact, increases the recruitment of endogenous α-synuclein into inclusions in response to α-synuclein fibril exposure. This results from the expression of mutant G2019S-LRRK2, as overexpression of WT-LRRK2 not only does not increase formation of inclusions but reduces their abundance. In addition, treatment of primary mouse neurons with LRRK2 kinase inhibitors, PF-06447475 and MLi-2, blocks G2019S-LRRK2 effects, suggesting that the G2019S-LRRK2 potentiation of inclusion formation depends on its kinase activity. Overexpression of G2019S-LRRK2 slightly increases, whereas WT-LRRK2 decreases, total levels of α-synuclein. Knockdown of total α-synuclein with potent antisense oligonucleotides substantially reduces inclusion formation in G2019S-LRRK2-expressing neurons, suggesting that LRRK2 influences α-synuclein inclusion formation by altering α-synuclein levels. These findings support the hypothesis that G2019S-LRRK2 may increase the progression of pathological α-synuclein inclusions after the initial formation of α-synuclein pathology by increasing a pool of α-synuclein that is more susceptible to forming inclusions. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT α-Synuclein inclusions are found in the brains of patients with many different neurodegenerative diseases. Point mutation, duplication, or triplication of the α-synuclein gene can all cause Parkinson's disease (PD). The G2019S mutation in LRRK2 is the most common known genetic cause of PD. The interaction between G2019S-LRRK2 and α-synuclein may uncover new mechanisms and targets for neuroprotection. Here, we show that expression of G2019S-LRRK2 increases α-synuclein mobility and enhances aggregation of α-synuclein in primary cultured neurons and in dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta, a susceptible brain region in PD. Potent LRRK2 kinase inhibitors, which are being developed for clinical use, block the increased α-synuclein aggregation in G2019S-LRRK2-expressing neurons. These results demonstrate that α-synuclein inclusion formation in neurons can be blocked and that novel therapeutic compounds targeting this process by inhibiting LRRK2 kinase activity may slow progression of PD-associated pathology.
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Maulik M, Mitra S, Bult-Ito A, Taylor BE, Vayndorf EM. Behavioral Phenotyping and Pathological Indicators of Parkinson's Disease in C. elegans Models. Front Genet 2017; 8:77. [PMID: 28659967 PMCID: PMC5468440 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2017.00077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2017] [Accepted: 05/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder with symptoms that progressively worsen with age. Pathologically, PD is characterized by the aggregation of α-synuclein in cells of the substantia nigra in the brain and loss of dopaminergic neurons. This pathology is associated with impaired movement and reduced cognitive function. The etiology of PD can be attributed to a combination of environmental and genetic factors. A popular animal model, the nematode roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans, has been frequently used to study the role of genetic and environmental factors in the molecular pathology and behavioral phenotypes associated with PD. The current review summarizes cellular markers and behavioral phenotypes in transgenic and toxin-induced PD models of C. elegans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malabika Maulik
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Alaska FairbanksFairbanks, AK, United States
| | - Swarup Mitra
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Alaska FairbanksFairbanks, AK, United States
| | - Abel Bult-Ito
- Department of Biology and Wildlife, University of Alaska FairbanksFairbanks, AK, United States
| | - Barbara E Taylor
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, Long BeachLong Beach, CA, United States
| | - Elena M Vayndorf
- Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska FairbanksFairbanks, AK, United States
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129
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LRRK2: An Emerging New Molecule in the Enteric Neuronal System That Quantitatively Regulates Neuronal Peptides and IgA in the Gut. Dig Dis Sci 2017; 62:903-912. [PMID: 28168579 DOI: 10.1007/s10620-017-4476-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2016] [Accepted: 01/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a recently discovered molecule associated with familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease. It regulates many central neuronal functions such as cell proliferation, apoptosis, autophagy, and axonal extension. However, in contrast to the well-documented function of LRRK2 in central neurons, it is unclear whether LRRK2 is expressed in enteric neurons and affects the physiology of the gut. AIMS By examining LRRK2-KO mice, this study investigated whether enteric neurons express LRRK2 and whether intestinal neuronal peptides and IgA are quantitatively changed. METHODS Intestinal protein lysates and sections prepared from male C57BL/6 J mice were analyzed by Western blotting and immunostaining using anti-LRRK2 antibody, respectively. Intestinal neuronal peptide-mRNAs were quantified by real-time PCR in wild-type mice and LRRK2-KO mice. Intestinal IgA was quantified by ELISA. Lamina propria mononuclear cells (LPMCs) were analyzed by flow cytometry to evaluate the ratio of B1 to B2 B cells. RESULTS Western analysis and immunostaining revealed that LRRK2 is expressed in enteric neurons. The amounts of mRNA for vasoactive intestinal peptide, neuropeptide Y, and substance P were increased in LRRK2-KO mice accompanied by an increment of IgA. However, the intestinal B cell subpopulations were not altered in LRRK2-KO mice. CONCLUSIONS For the first time, we have revealed that LRRK2 is expressed in enteric neurons and related to quantitative alterations of neuronal peptide and IgA. Our study highlights the importance of LRRK2 in enteric neurons as well as central neurons.
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130
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Giannoccaro MP, La Morgia C, Rizzo G, Carelli V. Mitochondrial DNA and primary mitochondrial dysfunction in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2017; 32:346-363. [PMID: 28251677 DOI: 10.1002/mds.26966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2016] [Revised: 01/27/2017] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In 1979, it was observed that parkinsonism could be induced by a toxin inhibiting mitochondrial respiratory complex I. This initiated the long-standing hypothesis that mitochondrial dysfunction may play a key role in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). This hypothesis evolved, with accumulating evidence pointing to complex I dysfunction, which could be caused by environmental or genetic factors. Attention was focused on the mitochondrial DNA, considering the occurrence of mutations, polymorphic haplogroup-specific variants, and defective mitochondrial DNA maintenance with the accumulation of multiple deletions and a reduction of copy number. Genetically determined diseases of mitochondrial DNA maintenance frequently manifest with parkinsonism, but the age-related accumulation of somatic mitochondrial DNA errors also represents a major driving mechanism for PD. Recently, the discovery of the genetic cause of rare inherited forms of PD highlighted an extremely complex homeostatic control over mitochondria, involving their dynamic fission/fusion cycle, the balancing of mitobiogenesis and mitophagy, and consequently the quality control surveillance that corrects faulty mitochondrial DNA maintenance. Many genes came into play, including the PINK1/parkin axis, but also OPA1, as pieces of the same puzzle, together with mitochondrial DNA damage, complex I deficiency and increased oxidative stress. The search for answers will drive future research to reach the understanding necessary to provide therapeutic options directed not only at limiting the clinical evolution of symptoms but also finally addressing the pathogenic mechanisms of neurodegeneration in PD. © 2017 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Pia Giannoccaro
- IRCCS Institute of Neurological Sciences of Bologna, Bellaria Hospital, Bologna, Italy.,Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Chiara La Morgia
- IRCCS Institute of Neurological Sciences of Bologna, Bellaria Hospital, Bologna, Italy.,Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Giovanni Rizzo
- IRCCS Institute of Neurological Sciences of Bologna, Bellaria Hospital, Bologna, Italy.,Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Valerio Carelli
- IRCCS Institute of Neurological Sciences of Bologna, Bellaria Hospital, Bologna, Italy.,Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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131
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Maas JWJ, Yang J, Edwards RH. Endogenous Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 Slows Synaptic Vesicle Recycling in Striatal Neurons. Front Synaptic Neurosci 2017; 9:5. [PMID: 28280464 PMCID: PMC5322269 DOI: 10.3389/fnsyn.2017.00005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2016] [Accepted: 02/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Dominant mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) produce the most common inherited form of Parkinson’s disease (PD) but the function of LRRK2 remains poorly understood. The presynaptic role of multiple genes linked to PD including α-synuclein (α-syn) has suggested that LRRK2 may also influence neurotransmitter release, a possibility supported by recent work. However, the use of disease-associated mutants that cause toxicity complicates the analysis. To determine whether LRRK2 normally influences the synaptic vesicle, we have now used a combination of imaging and electrophysiology to study LRRK2 knockout (KO) mice. Surprisingly, we find that in hippocampal (generally excitatory) neurons, the loss of LRRK2 does not affect synaptic vesicle exocytosis, endocytosis or the mobility of α-syn. Double KO (DKO) mice lacking LRRK1 as well as LRRK2 also show no defect in transmitter release by hippocampal neurons. However, in striatal neurons, which express LRRK2 at higher levels, the loss of LRRK2 leads to modest acceleration of synaptic vesicle endocytosis. Thus, endogenous LRRK2 normally slows synaptic vesicle recycling at striatal terminals.
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Affiliation(s)
- James W Jr Maas
- Departments of Neurology and Physiology, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, and Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, UCSF School of Medicine San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Jing Yang
- Departments of Neurology and Physiology, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, and Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, UCSF School of Medicine San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Robert H Edwards
- Departments of Neurology and Physiology, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, and Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, UCSF School of Medicine San Francisco, CA, USA
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132
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Abstract
Polymorphisms in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) have been linked to familial Parkinson's disease, increased risk of sporadic Parkinson's disease, increased risk of Crohn's inflammatory bowel disease, and increased susceptibility to leprosy. As well as LRRK2 mutations, these diseases share in common immune dysfunction and inflammation. LRRK2 is highly expressed in particular immune cells and has been biochemically linked to the intertwined pathways regulating inflammation, mitochondrial function, and autophagy/lysosomal function. This review outlines what is currently understood about LRRK2 function in the immune system and the potential implications of LRRK2 dysfunction for diseases genetically linked to this enigmatic enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas L Dzamko
- School of Medical Sciences, University of NSW, Kensington, NSW, 2052, Australia.
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, NSW, 2031, Australia.
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133
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Truban D, Hou X, Caulfield TR, Fiesel FC, Springer W. PINK1, Parkin, and Mitochondrial Quality Control: What can we Learn about Parkinson's Disease Pathobiology? JOURNAL OF PARKINSON'S DISEASE 2017; 7:13-29. [PMID: 27911343 PMCID: PMC5302033 DOI: 10.3233/jpd-160989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The first clinical description of Parkinson's disease (PD) will embrace its two century anniversary in 2017. For the past 30 years, mitochondrial dysfunction has been hypothesized to play a central role in the pathobiology of this devastating neurodegenerative disease. The identifications of mutations in genes encoding PINK1 (PTEN-induced kinase 1) and Parkin (E3 ubiquitin ligase) in familial PD and their functional association with mitochondrial quality control provided further support to this hypothesis. Recent research focused mainly on their key involvement in the clearance of damaged mitochondria, a process known as mitophagy. It has become evident that there are many other aspects of this complex regulated, multifaceted pathway that provides neuroprotection. As such, numerous additional factors that impact PINK1/Parkin have already been identified including genes involved in other forms of PD. A great pathogenic overlap amongst different forms of familial, environmental and even sporadic disease is emerging that potentially converges at the level of mitochondrial quality control. Tremendous efforts now seek to further detail the roles and exploit PINK1 and Parkin, their upstream regulators and downstream signaling pathways for future translation. This review summarizes the latest findings on PINK1/Parkin-directed mitochondrial quality control, its integration and cross-talk with other disease factors and pathways as well as the implications for idiopathic PD. In addition, we highlight novel avenues for the development of biomarkers and disease-modifying therapies that are based on a detailed understanding of the PINK1/Parkin pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominika Truban
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Xu Hou
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Thomas R. Caulfield
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
- Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Fabienne C. Fiesel
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
- Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Wolfdieter Springer
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
- Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Jacksonville, FL, USA
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134
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Kang UB, Marto JA. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 and Parkinson's disease. Proteomics 2016; 17. [PMID: 27723254 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201600092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2016] [Revised: 09/13/2016] [Accepted: 10/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a large multidomain protein that is expressed in many tissues and participates in numerous biological pathways. Mutations in LRRK2 are recognized as genetic risk factors for familial Parkinson's disease (PD) and may also represent causal factors in the more common sporadic form of PD. The structure of LRRK2 comprises a combination of GTPase, kinase, and scaffolding domains. This functional diversity, combined with a potentially central role in genetic and idiopathic PD motivates significant effort to further credential LRRK2 as a therapeutic target. Here, we review the current understanding for LRRK2 function in normal physiology and PD, with emphasis on insight gained from proteomic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Un-Beom Kang
- Department of Cancer Biology and Blais Proteomics Center, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jarrod A Marto
- Department of Cancer Biology and Blais Proteomics Center, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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135
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Islam MS, Nolte H, Jacob W, Ziegler AB, Pütz S, Grosjean Y, Szczepanowska K, Trifunovic A, Braun T, Heumann H, Heumann R, Hovemann B, Moore DJ, Krüger M. Human R1441C LRRK2 regulates the synaptic vesicle proteome and phosphoproteome in a Drosophila model of Parkinson's disease. Hum Mol Genet 2016; 25:5365-5382. [PMID: 27794539 PMCID: PMC6078604 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddw352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Revised: 10/06/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) cause late-onset, autosomal dominant familial Parkinson`s disease (PD) and variation at the LRRK2 locus contributes to the risk for idiopathic PD. LRRK2 can function as a protein kinase and mutations lead to increased kinase activity. To elucidate the pathophysiological mechanism of the R1441C mutation in the GTPase domain of LRRK2, we expressed human wild-type or R1441C LRRK2 in dopaminergic neurons of Drosophila and observe reduced locomotor activity, impaired survival and an age-dependent degeneration of dopaminergic neurons thereby creating a new PD-like model. To explore the function of LRRK2 variants in vivo, we performed mass spectrometry and quantified 3,616 proteins in the fly brain. We identify several differentially-expressed cytoskeletal, mitochondrial and synaptic vesicle proteins (SV), including synaptotagmin-1, syntaxin-1A and Rab3, in the brain of this LRRK2 fly model. In addition, a global phosphoproteome analysis reveals the enhanced phosphorylation of several SV proteins, including synaptojanin-1 (pThr1131) and the microtubule-associated protein futsch (pSer4106) in the brain of R1441C hLRRK2 flies. The direct phosphorylation of human synaptojanin-1 by R1441C hLRRK2 could further be confirmed by in vitro kinase assays. A protein-protein interaction screen in the fly brain confirms that LRRK2 robustly interacts with numerous SV proteins, including synaptojanin-1 and EndophilinA. Our proteomic, phosphoproteomic and interactome study in the Drosophila brain provides a systematic analyses of R1441C hLRRK2-induced pathobiological mechanisms in this model. We demonstrate for the first time that the R1441C mutation located within the LRRK2 GTPase domain induces the enhanced phosphorylation of SV proteins in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Shariful Islam
- Silantes GmbH, Munich, Germany
- Institute for Genetics, Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging‐Associated Diseases (CECAD), Cologne, Germany
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA
| | - Hendrik Nolte
- Institute for Genetics, Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging‐Associated Diseases (CECAD), Cologne, Germany
| | - Wright Jacob
- Biochemistry II, Molecular Neurobiochemistry Faculty for Chemistry and Biochemistry Ruhr-University Bochum, NC 7/174 Universitaetsstraße 150, 44780 Bochum, Germany
| | - Anna B. Ziegler
- CNRS, UMR6265 Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, F-21000 Dijon, France
- INRA, UMR1324 Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, F-21000 Dijon, France
- Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, UMR Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | | | - Yael Grosjean
- CNRS, UMR6265 Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, F-21000 Dijon, France
- INRA, UMR1324 Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, F-21000 Dijon, France
- Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, UMR Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Karolina Szczepanowska
- Institute for Mitochondrial Diseases and Aging, Medical Faculty, University of Cologne, D-50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Aleksandra Trifunovic
- Institute for Genetics, Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging‐Associated Diseases (CECAD), Cologne, Germany
- Institute for Mitochondrial Diseases and Aging, Medical Faculty, University of Cologne, D-50931 Cologne, Germany
- Center for Molecular Medicine (CMMC), University of Cologne, Germany
| | - Thomas Braun
- Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Ludwigstr. 43, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | | | - Rolf Heumann
- Biochemistry II, Molecular Neurobiochemistry Faculty for Chemistry and Biochemistry Ruhr-University Bochum, NC 7/174 Universitaetsstraße 150, 44780 Bochum, Germany
| | | | - Darren J. Moore
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA
| | - Marcus Krüger
- Institute for Genetics, Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging‐Associated Diseases (CECAD), Cologne, Germany
- Center for Molecular Medicine (CMMC), University of Cologne, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Ludwigstr. 43, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
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136
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Roosen DA, Cookson MR. LRRK2 at the interface of autophagosomes, endosomes and lysosomes. Mol Neurodegener 2016; 11:73. [PMID: 27927216 PMCID: PMC5142374 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-016-0140-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 12/03/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Over the past 20 years, substantial progress has been made in identifying the underlying genetics of Parkinson's disease (PD). Of the known genes, LRRK2 is a major genetic contributor to PD. However, the exact function of LRRK2 remains to be elucidated. In this review, we discuss how familial forms of PD have led us to hypothesize that alterations in endomembrane trafficking play a role in the pathobiology of PD. We will discuss the major observations that have been made to elucidate the role of LRRK2 in particular, including LRRK2 animal models and high-throughput proteomics approaches. Taken together, these studies strongly support a role of LRRK2 in vesicular dynamics. We also propose that targeting these pathways may not only be beneficial for developing therapeutics for LRRK2-driven PD, but also for other familial and sporadic cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorien A. Roosen
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bldg. 35, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892-3707 USA
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading, RG6 6AP UK
| | - Mark R. Cookson
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bldg. 35, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892-3707 USA
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137
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Dzamko N, Gysbers AM, Bandopadhyay R, Bolliger MF, Uchino A, Zhao Y, Takao M, Wauters S, Berg WDJ, Takahashi‐Fujigasaki J, Nichols RJ, Holton JL, Murayama S, Halliday GM. LRRK2 levels and phosphorylation in Parkinson's disease brain and cases with restricted Lewy bodies. Mov Disord 2016; 32:423-432. [DOI: 10.1002/mds.26892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2016] [Revised: 10/31/2016] [Accepted: 11/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Dzamko
- School of Medical SciencesUniversity of New South WalesKensington Australia
- Neuroscience Research AustraliaRandwick Australia
| | | | - Rina Bandopadhyay
- Queen Square Brain Bank, UCL Institute of NeurologyUniversity College LondonLondon UK
| | - Marc F. Bolliger
- Parkinson's Institute and Clinical CenterSunnyvale California USA
| | - Akiko Uchino
- Department of Neuropathology, Brain Bank for Aging ResearchTokyo Metropolitan Geriatric Hospital and Institute of GerontologyTokyo Japan
| | - Ye Zhao
- School of Medical SciencesUniversity of New South WalesKensington Australia
| | - Masaki Takao
- Department of Neuropathology, Brain Bank for Aging ResearchTokyo Metropolitan Geriatric Hospital and Institute of GerontologyTokyo Japan
- Department of NeurologySaitama Medical University, International Medical CentreSaitama Japan
| | - Sandrine Wauters
- Queen Square Brain Bank, UCL Institute of NeurologyUniversity College LondonLondon UK
| | - Wilma D. J. Berg
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, Neuroscience Campus AmsterdamVU University Medical CentreAmsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Junko Takahashi‐Fujigasaki
- Department of Neuropathology, Brain Bank for Aging ResearchTokyo Metropolitan Geriatric Hospital and Institute of GerontologyTokyo Japan
| | | | - Janice L. Holton
- Queen Square Brain Bank, UCL Institute of NeurologyUniversity College LondonLondon UK
| | - Shigeo Murayama
- Department of Neuropathology, Brain Bank for Aging ResearchTokyo Metropolitan Geriatric Hospital and Institute of GerontologyTokyo Japan
| | - Glenda M. Halliday
- School of Medical SciencesUniversity of New South WalesKensington Australia
- Neuroscience Research AustraliaRandwick Australia
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138
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Requejo-Aguilar R, Bolaños JP. Mitochondrial control of cell bioenergetics in Parkinson's disease. Free Radic Biol Med 2016; 100:123-137. [PMID: 27091692 PMCID: PMC5065935 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2016.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2016] [Revised: 04/13/2016] [Accepted: 04/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a selective loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. The earliest biochemical signs of the disease involve failure in mitochondrial-endoplasmic reticulum cross talk and lysosomal function, mitochondrial electron chain impairment, mitochondrial dynamics alterations, and calcium and iron homeostasis abnormalities. These changes are associated with increased mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mROS) and energy deficiency. Recently, it has been reported that, as an attempt to compensate for the mitochondrial dysfunction, neurons invoke glycolysis as a low-efficient mode of energy production in models of PD. Here, we review how mitochondria orchestrate the maintenance of cellular energetic status in PD, with special focus on the switch from oxidative phosphorylation to glycolysis, as well as the implication of endoplasmic reticulum and lysosomes in the control of bioenergetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Requejo-Aguilar
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Cordoba, Institute Maimonides of Biomedical Investigation of Cordoba (IMIBIC), Cordoba, Spain
| | - Juan P Bolaños
- Institute of Functional Biology and Genomics (IBFG), University of Salamanca-CSIC, Zacarias Gonzalez, 2, 37007 Salamanca, Spain.
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139
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De Rose F, Corda V, Solari P, Sacchetti P, Belcari A, Poddighe S, Kasture S, Solla P, Marrosu F, Liscia A. Drosophila Mutant Model of Parkinson's Disease Revealed an Unexpected Olfactory Performance: Morphofunctional Evidences. PARKINSON'S DISEASE 2016; 2016:3508073. [PMID: 27648340 PMCID: PMC5018337 DOI: 10.1155/2016/3508073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2016] [Revised: 08/02/2016] [Accepted: 08/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases characterized by the clinical triad: tremor, akinesia, and rigidity. Several studies have suggested that PD patients show disturbances in olfaction as one of the earliest, nonspecific nonmotor symptoms of disease onset. We sought to use the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster as a model organism to explore olfactory function in LRRK loss-of-function mutants, which was previously demonstrated to be a useful model for PD. Surprisingly, our results showed that the LRRK mutant, compared to the wild flies, presents a dramatic increase in the amplitude of the electroantennogram responses and this is coupled with a higher number of olfactory sensilla. In spite of the above reported results, the behavioural response to olfactory stimuli in mutant flies is impaired compared to that obtained in wild type flies. Thus, behaviour modifications and morphofunctional changes in the olfaction of LRRK loss-of-function mutants might be used as an index to explore the progression of parkinsonism in this specific model, also with the aim of studying and developing new treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Valentina Corda
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Paolo Solari
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Patrizia Sacchetti
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Section of Plant Protection, University of Florence, Firenze, Italy
| | - Antonio Belcari
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Section of Plant Protection, University of Florence, Firenze, Italy
| | - Simone Poddighe
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | | | - Paolo Solla
- Department of Public Health, Clinical and Molecular Medicine, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Francesco Marrosu
- Department of Public Health, Clinical and Molecular Medicine, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Anna Liscia
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
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140
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Emerging (and converging) pathways in Parkinson's disease: keeping mitochondrial wellness. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2016; 483:1020-1030. [PMID: 27581196 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2016.08.153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Revised: 08/25/2016] [Accepted: 08/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The selective cell loss in the ventral component of the substantia nigra pars compacta and the presence of alpha-synuclein (α-syn)-rich intraneuronal inclusions called Lewy bodies are the pathological hallmarks of Parkinson's disease (PD), the most common motor system disorder whose aetiology remains largely elusive. Although most cases of PD are idiopathic, there are rare familial forms of the disease that can be traced to single gene mutations that follow Mendelian inheritance pattern. The study of several nuclear encoded proteins whose mutations are linked to the development of autosomal recessive and dominant forms of familial PD enhanced our understanding of biochemical and cellular mechanisms contributing to the disease and suggested that many signs of neurodegeneration result from compromised mitochondrial function. Here we present an overview of the current understanding of PD-related mitochondrial dysfunction including defects in bioenergetics and Ca2+ homeostasis, mitochondrial DNA mutations, altered mitochondrial dynamics and autophagy. We emphasize, in particular, the convergence of many "apparently" different pathways towards a common route involving mitochondria. Understanding whether mitochondrial dysfunction in PD represents the cause or the consequence of the disease is challenging and will help to define the pathogenic processes at the basis of the PD onset and progression.
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141
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Esteves AR, Cardoso SM. LRRK2 at the Crossroad Between Autophagy and Microtubule Trafficking: Insights into Parkinson's Disease. Neuroscientist 2016; 23:16-26. [PMID: 26740081 DOI: 10.1177/1073858415616558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 ( lrrk2) gene cause inherited Parkinson's disease (PD), and common variants in lrrk2 are a risk factor for sporadic PD. The neuropathology associated with LRRK2-linked PD is extremely pleomorphic involving inclusions of α-synuclein (SNCA), tau or neither, therefore suggesting that LRRK2 may be central in the pathogenic pathways of PD. This large protein localizes in the cytosol, as well as, in specific membrane domains, including mitochondria and autophagosomes and interacts with a wide range of proteins such as SNCA, tau, α- and β-tubulin. For this reason LRRK2 has been associated with a variety of cellular functions, including autophagy, mitochondrial function/dynamics and microtubule/cytoskeletal dynamics. LRRK2 has been shown to interact with microtubules as well as with mitochondria interfering with their network and dynamics. Moreover, LRRK2 knock-out or mutations affect autophagic efficiency. Here, we review and discuss the literature on how LRRK2 affects mitochondrial function, autophagy, and microtubule dynamics and how this is implicated in the PD etiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Raquel Esteves
- 1 CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,2 CNC-IBILI, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Sandra M Cardoso
- 1 CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,2 CNC-IBILI, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,3 Institute of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
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142
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Abstract
Lysosomes have emerged in the last decade as an immensely important intracellular site of Ca2+ storage and signalling. More recently there has been an increase in the number of new ion channels found to be functional on lysosomes and the potential roles that these signalling pathways might play in fundamental cellular processes are being uncovered. Defects in lysosomal function have been shown to result in changes in lysosomal Ca2+ homeostasis and ultimately can result in cell death. Several neurodegenerative diseases, from rare lysosomal storage diseases through to more common diseases of ageing, have recently been identified as having alterations in lysosomal Ca2+ homeostasis that may play an important role in neuronal excitotoxicity and ultimately cell death. This review will critically summarise these recent findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emyr Lloyd-Evans
- School of Biosciences, Sir Martin Evans Building, Cardiff University, Museum Avenue, Cardiff, CF10 3AX
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143
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Abstract
The neurodegenerative movement disorder Parkinson disease (PD) is prevalent in the aged population. However, the underlying mechanisms that trigger disease are unclear. Increasing work implicates both impaired Ca2+ signalling and lysosomal dysfunction in neuronal demise. Here I aim to connect these distinct processes by exploring the evidence that lysosomal Ca2+ signalling is disrupted in PD. In particular, I highlight defects in lysosomal Ca2+ content and signalling through NAADP-regulated two-pore channels in patient fibroblasts harbouring mutations in the PD-linked genes, GBA1 and LRRK2. As an emerging contributor to PD pathogenesis, the lysosomal Ca2+ signalling apparatus could represent a novel therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bethan S Kilpatrick
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
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144
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Podlesniy P, Vilas D, Taylor P, Shaw LM, Tolosa E, Trullas R. Mitochondrial DNA in CSF distinguishes LRRK2 from idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2016; 94:10-7. [PMID: 27260835 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2016.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2016] [Revised: 05/20/2016] [Accepted: 05/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial DNA regulates mitochondrial function which is altered in both idiopathic and familial forms of Parkinson's disease. To investigate whether these two disease forms exhibit an altered regulation of mitochondrial DNA we measured cell free mitochondrial DNA content in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from idiopathic and LRRK2-related Parkinson's disease patients. The concentration of mitochondrial DNA was measured using a digital droplet polymerase chain reaction technique in a total of 98 CSF samples from a cohort of subjects including: 20 LRRK2(G2019S) mutation carriers with Parkinson's disease, 26 asymptomatic LRRK2(G2019S) mutation carriers, 31 patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease and 21 first-degree relatives of LRRK2 Parkinson's disease patients without the mutation. Here we report that LRRK2(G2019S) mutation carriers with Parkinson's disease exhibit a high concentration of mitochondrial DNA in CSF compared with asymptomatic LRRK2(G2019S) mutation carriers and with idiopathic Parkinson's disease patients. In addition, idiopathic, but not LRRK2 Parkinson's disease is associated with low CSF concentration of α-synuclein. These results show that high mitochondrial DNA content in CSF distinguishes idiopathic from LRRK2-related Parkinson's disease suggesting that different biochemical pathways underlie neurodegeneration in these two disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petar Podlesniy
- Neurobiology Unit, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Dolores Vilas
- Neurology Service, Parkinson's Disease and Movement Disorders Unit, Institut Clínic de Neurociències, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, University of Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Leslie M Shaw
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Eduard Tolosa
- Neurology Service, Parkinson's Disease and Movement Disorders Unit, Institut Clínic de Neurociències, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, University of Barcelona, Spain; Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ramon Trullas
- Neurobiology Unit, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Spain; Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain.
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145
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G2385R and I2020T Mutations Increase LRRK2 GTPase Activity. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 2016:7917128. [PMID: 27314038 PMCID: PMC4897664 DOI: 10.1155/2016/7917128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2016] [Revised: 04/24/2016] [Accepted: 04/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The LRRK2 mutation is a major causal mutation in familial Parkinson's disease. Although LRRK2 contains functional GTPase and kinase domains and their activities are altered by pathogenic mutations, most studies focused on LRRK2 kinase activity because the most prevalent mutant, G2019S, enhances kinase activity. However, the G2019S mutation is extremely rare in the Asian population. Instead, the G2385R mutation was reported as a major risk factor in the Asian population. Similar to other LRRK2 studies, G2385R studies have also focused on kinase activity. Here, we investigated GTPase activities of G2385R with other LRRK2 mutants, such as G2019S, R1441C, and I2020T, as well as wild type (WT). Our results suggest that both I2020T and G2385R contain GTPase activities stronger than that of WT. A kinase assay using the commercial recombinant proteins showed that I2020T harbored stronger activity, whereas G2385R had weaker activity than that of WT, as reported previously. This is the first report of LRRK2 I2020T and G2385R GTPase activities and shows that most of the LRRK2 mutations that are pathogenic or a risk factor altered either kinase or GTPase activity, suggesting that their physiological consequences are caused by altered enzyme activities.
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146
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Activation Mechanism of LRRK2 and Its Cellular Functions in Parkinson's Disease. PARKINSONS DISEASE 2016; 2016:7351985. [PMID: 27293958 PMCID: PMC4880697 DOI: 10.1155/2016/7351985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2015] [Accepted: 04/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Human LRRK2 (Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2) has been associated with both familial and idiopathic Parkinson's disease (PD). Although several LRRK2 mediated pathways and interaction partners have been identified, the cellular functions of LRRK2 and LRRK2 mediated progression of PD are still only partially understood. LRRK2 belongs to the group of Roco proteins which are characterized by the presence of a Ras-like G-domain (Roc), a C-terminal of Roc domain (COR), a kinase, and several protein-protein interaction domains. Roco proteins exhibit a complex activation mechanism involving intramolecular signaling, dimerization, and substrate/effector binding. Importantly, PD mutations in LRRK2 have been linked to a decreased GTPase and impaired kinase activity, thus providing putative therapeutic targets. To fully explore these potential targets it will be crucial to understand the function and identify the pathways responsible for LRRK2-linked PD. Here, we review the recent progress in elucidating the complex LRRK2 activation mechanism, describe the accumulating evidence that link LRRK2-mediated PD to mitochondrial dysfunction and aberrant autophagy, and discuss possible ways for therapeutically targeting LRRK2.
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147
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Abstract
Mutations in LRRK2 are associated with inherited Parkinson's disease (PD) in a large number of families, and the genetic locus containing the LRRK2 gene contains a risk factor for sporadic PD. The LRRK2 protein contains several domains that suggest a role in cellular signaling, including a kinase domain. It is also clear that LRRK2 interacts, either physically or genetically, with several other important proteins implicated in PD, suggesting that LRRK2 may be a central player in the pathways that underlie parkinsonism. As such, LRRK2 has been proposed to be a plausible target for therapeutic intervention, with kinase inhibition being pursued most actively. However, there are still several fundamental aspects of LRRK2 biology and function that remain unresolved at this time. This review will focus on the key questions of normal function of LRRK2 and how this might be related to the pathophysiology of PD.
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148
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Aroso M, Ferreira R, Freitas A, Vitorino R, Gomez-Lazaro M. New insights on the mitochondrial proteome plasticity in Parkinson's disease. Proteomics Clin Appl 2016; 10:416-29. [PMID: 26749507 DOI: 10.1002/prca.201500092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2015] [Revised: 12/09/2015] [Accepted: 01/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases whose relentless progression results in severe disability. Although PD aetiology is unknown, growing evidences point to the mitochondrial involvement in the pathobiology of this disorder. So, it seems imperative to understand the means by which the molecular pathways harboured in this organelle are regulated. With the advances in MS-based proteomics, there is a substantial expectation in the increased knowledge of mitochondrial protein dynamics. Still, few studies have been performed on mitochondrial protein profiling in the context of PD. In order to integrate data from these studies, network analyses were performed taking into consideration variables such as model of PD, cell line, or tissue origin. Overall, data retrieved from these analyses highlighted the modulation of the biological processes related with "generation of energy," "cellular metabolism," and "mitochondrial transport" in PD. However, it was noted that the impact of sample type and/or PD model on the biological processes was modulated by the disease. Moreover, technical considerations related to protein characterization using gel-based or gel-free MS approaches should be considered in data comparison among different studies. Data from the present review will help to envisage future studies targeting these mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Aroso
- Department of Medical Sciences, iBiMED, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Rita Ferreira
- Department of Chemistry, QOPNA, Mass Spectrometry Center, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Ana Freitas
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Rui Vitorino
- Department of Medical Sciences, iBiMED, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal.,Department of Chemistry, QOPNA, Mass Spectrometry Center, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal.,Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Department of Physiology and Cardiothoracic Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Maria Gomez-Lazaro
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
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149
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Alterations in late endocytic trafficking related to the pathobiology of LRRK2-linked Parkinson's disease. Biochem Soc Trans 2016; 43:390-5. [PMID: 26009181 DOI: 10.1042/bst20140301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene comprise the most common cause of familial Parkinson's disease (PD), and variants increase the risk for sporadic PD. LRRK2 displays kinase and GTPase activity, and altered catalytic activity correlates with neurotoxicity, making LRRK2 a promising therapeutic target. Despite the importance of LRRK2 for disease pathogenesis, its normal cellular function, and the mechanism(s) by which pathogenic mutations cause neurodegeneration remain unclear. LRRK2 seems to regulate a variety of intracellular vesicular trafficking events to and from the late endosome in a manner dependent on various Rab proteins. At least some of those events are further regulated by LRRK2 in a manner dependent on two-pore channels (TPCs). TPCs are ionic channels localized to distinct endosomal structures and can cause localized calcium release from those acidic stores, with downstream effects on vesicular trafficking. Here, we review current knowledge about the link between LRRK2, TPC- and Rab-mediated vesicular trafficking to and from the late endosome, highlighting a possible cross-talk between endolysosomal calcium stores and Rab proteins underlying pathomechanism(s) in LRRK2-related PD.
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150
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Fukuzono T, Pastuhov SI, Fukushima O, Li C, Hattori A, Iemura SI, Natsume T, Shibuya H, Hanafusa H, Matsumoto K, Hisamoto N. Chaperone complex BAG2-HSC70 regulates localization of Caenorhabditis elegans leucine-rich repeat kinase LRK-1 to the Golgi. Genes Cells 2016; 21:311-24. [PMID: 26853528 DOI: 10.1111/gtc.12338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2015] [Accepted: 12/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in LRRK2 are linked to autosomal dominant forms of Parkinson's disease. We identified two human proteins that bind to LRRK2: BAG2 and HSC70, which are known to form a chaperone complex. We characterized the role of their Caenorhabditis elegans homologues, UNC-23 and HSP-1, in the regulation of LRK-1, the sole homologue of human LRRK2. In C. elegans, LRK-1 determines the polarized sorting of synaptic vesicle (SV) proteins to the axons by excluding SV proteins from the dendrite-specific transport machinery in the Golgi. In unc-23 mutants, SV proteins are localized to both presynaptic and dendritic endings in neurons, a phenotype also observed in lrk-1 deletion mutants. Furthermore, we isolated mutations in the hsp-1 gene that can suppress the unc-23, but not the lrk-1 defect. We show that UNC-23 determines LRK-1 localization to the Golgi apparatus in cooperation with HSP-1. These results describe a chaperone-dependent mechanism through which LRK-1 localization is regulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Fukuzono
- Division of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8602, Japan
| | - Strahil Iv Pastuhov
- Division of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8602, Japan
| | - Okinobu Fukushima
- Division of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8602, Japan
| | - Chun Li
- Division of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8602, Japan
| | - Ayuna Hattori
- Division of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8602, Japan
| | - Shun-ichiro Iemura
- National Institutes of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Molecular Profiling Research Center for Drug Discovery (Molprof), Kohtoh-ku, Tokyo, 135-0064, Japan
| | - Tohru Natsume
- National Institutes of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Molecular Profiling Research Center for Drug Discovery (Molprof), Kohtoh-ku, Tokyo, 135-0064, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Shibuya
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Medical Research Institute, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 101-0062, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Hanafusa
- Division of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8602, Japan
| | - Kunihiro Matsumoto
- Division of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8602, Japan
| | - Naoki Hisamoto
- Division of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8602, Japan
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