Body appreciation in adult women: relationships with age and body satisfaction

#Ihaveembraced: a pilot cross-sectional naturalistic evaluation of the documentary film Embrace and its potential associations with body image in adult women

Background

The aim of this project was to examine the qualitative responses of adult women who had seen the feature-length documentary film ‘Embrace’. In addition, to establish the potential for the documentary to be used as an intervention to improve adult body image, a naturalistic study was conducted to examine whether any differences on measures of body image were apparent among women who had, versus those who had not, seen the film.

Method

Participants were 1429 women aged 18–77 who were members of the Facebook group ‘Body Image Movement’ facilitated by Taryn Brumfitt, who also directed the documentary Embrace. Participants completed a cross-sectional online questionnaire regarding whether they had seen the film, their perceptions of the impact of the film on their lives and body image, and a range of standardized scales measuring psychological wellbeing.

Results

Overall, the majority of participants had seen the film (n = 1053, 73.7%). Qualitative analysis of open-ended data asking about the changes participants made after viewing the film revealed that a large proportion (44.1%) felt they had higher levels of body appreciation and body confidence, many reported engaging less in dieting (19.6%), and some reported lowered disordered eating (2.8%), since seeing Embrace. Women who had seen the film also reported significantly higher levels of body appreciation (Body Appreciation Scale; medium effect size), and significantly lower levels of internalization of body ideals, self-objectification, body shame, and dietary restraint, than women who had not seen the film.

Conclusions

Adult women reported numerous positive responses to their viewing of the film. Future experimental research should explore the efficacy of Embrace as a brief and engaging intervention for improving body image in adult women.

An exploration of the associations between facets of interoceptive awareness and body image in adolescents

Previous research suggests that lower interoceptive awareness is associated with more negative body image during adolescence. However, studies have not distinguished between adaptive and maladaptive modes of attention toward interoceptive signals, and relationships between interoceptive awareness and positive body image remain unexplored. To address these issues, a sample of 265 British adolescents (140 girls, 125 boys) aged 13-16 years completed measures of interoceptive awareness, body appreciation, functionality appreciation, body pride, body shame, and body surveillance. Correlational analyses broadly indicated that greater interoceptive awareness was significantly associated with more positive body image. Multiple regressions revealed significant predictive relationships between interoceptive awareness and all facets of body image in both girls and boys, except body surveillance, which was not statistically significant for girls. At the univariate level, the interoceptive awareness facets of Attention Regulation, Body Listening, Self-Regulation, and Trusting emerged as significant predictors for at least one facet of positive body image, whilst the Noticing and Emotional Awareness facets did not. These findings broadly align with previous research with adults, which has indicated that the way interoceptive stimuli are appraised and responded to might be more closely associated with facets of body image than the tendency to notice interoceptive stimuli.

Women's Body Image Throughout the Adult Life Span: A Latent Growth Modeling Approach

This retrospective study examined developmental trajectories of women's body image perceptions throughout the adult life span from life course and self-discrepancy theory perspectives. Data were collected from women over 65 years of age, recruited from 15 senior communities and centers in a Midwest U.S. state in 2012. A total of 102 older women completed a survey about their past and current body image perceptions. To examine developmental trajectories of the repeated body image measures, a latent growth modeling analysis was adopted. Distinct and significant trajectories in each body image measure during the entire adult life course were found, confirming that a retrospective account of women's body image perceptions significantly change with age. The individual differences in the trajectories over time and the relationship between an individual's initial mean level and the rate of change on each variable were also examined. The findings advanced understanding of the retrospective age effects on women's body image throughout the adult life span.

The Body as an Object of Stigmatization in Cultures of Guilt and Shame: A Polish-Vietnamese Comparison

The aim of this paper is to examine cross-cultural differences in body stigmatization between the individualistic Christian culture of guilt (Poland) and the collectivistic Buddhist/Confucian culture of honor and shame (Vietnam). The study included 1290 university students from Poland (n = 586) and Vietnam (n = 704). Subjects filled in the body esteem scale and the perceived stigmatization questionnaire, and body measurements were collected to calculate anthropometric indices. Participants from Vietnam were less satisfied with their appearance than their Polish peers. Men in both countries assessed themselves more favorably. No anthropometric index predicted body esteem in Vietnamese women, while only indices related to fat levels were predictors in Polish women. Men with a V-shaped body assessed themselves as stronger and as having a better physical condition. A possible explanation of the observed cross-cultural differences is that interdependent self-construal makes young adults in collectivistic societies more susceptible to criticism, and the Confucian values of modesty and shame lead to them not perceiving their bodies as sexual objects. The Christian sense of guilt does not influence the perception of sexuality. Absence of friendly behavior mediated the relation between anthropometric indices and body esteem in both cultures.

Ideal comparisons: Body ideals harm women's body image through social comparison

Body dissatisfaction and self-objectification can arise when women view idealized thin bodies, as well as idealized athletic or curvy bodies. State-level social comparisons have been shown to mediate such effects, with mixed evidence for the moderating role of trait-level social comparison. An experiment tested the hypotheses that viewing messages idealizing thin, athletic, and curvy bodies would be associated with greater state social comparison as compared to a body acceptance condition, and that trait social comparison would moderate this association. Additionally, state social comparison was expected to mediate the association between viewing idealized images and negative body image. Data were collected online from 200 adult women. Regression analyses indicated that all three body ideals significantly increased state social comparison, which in turn predicted greater body surveillance, lower body appreciation, and, for thin and curvy conditions only, lower body esteem for looks. Further, trait social comparison moderated the association between viewing the curvy ideal and state social comparison. This study increases our knowledge of how state and trait social comparison function in relation to body ideals. Reducing social comparison to idealized images, as opposed to replacing the thin ideal with other body types, may be a superior approach to improving body image.

Facebook, body esteem, and body surveillance in adult women: The moderating role of self-compassion and appearance-contingent self-worth

This study examined how Facebook use and specific Facebook activities were associated with body esteem and body surveillance in adult women. This study also examined whether self-compassion and appearance-contingent self-worth moderated the relationship between Facebook appearance comparison and body esteem, and the relationship between Facebook appearance comparison and body surveillance. Self-report measures were administered to adult women (N = 232) between the ages of 20 and 72 (M = 35.91) recruited through MTurk. Results indicated that Facebook appearance-exposure and Facebook appearance comparison significantly related to body surveillance, whereas only Facebook appearance comparison significantly related to body esteem. Overall Facebook use and Facebook intensity were not significantly associated with either body esteem or body surveillance. Self-compassion and appearance-contingent self-worth significantly related to body esteem and body surveillance. However, neither self-compassion nor appearance-contingent self-worth significantly moderated the relationship between Facebook appearance comparison and body surveillance. Similarly, a lack of significant moderation was found for the relationship between Facebook appearance comparison and body esteem. The importance of studying body image and Facebook activities in adult women is discussed. Additionally, the importance for researchers to examine how specific Facebook activities, beyond Facebook use, are linked with body image in this population is also highlighted.

Multiple dimensions of interoceptive awareness are associated with facets of body image in British adults

Previous research has identified a relationship between interoception and body image, where lower interoceptive awareness (IA) is associated with negative body image. However, relationships between facets of interoception and positive body image remain unexplored, and men and older adults remain underrepresented. To overcome these limitations, we assessed relationships between multiple dimensions of interoceptive awareness (IA) and multiple facets of body image in community adults. An online sample of 646 British adults (447 women) aged 18-76 years completed the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA), the Body Appreciation Scale-2, the Functionality Appreciation Scale, the Authentic Pride subscale from the Body and Appearance Self-Conscious Emotions Scale, and the Appearance Orientation and Overweight Preoccupation subscales from the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire. Hierarchical regressions revealed significant predictive relationships between IA and all five facets of body image after controlling for sex, body mass index, and age. In the final models, the MAIA subscales emerged as significant predictors for at least one facet of body image, with the exception of the MAIA Body Listening subscale. These findings extend previous work by demonstrating significant relationships between IA and previously unexplored facets of body image, which may hold promise for practitioner-based interventions.

Extending the use of the Body Appreciation Scale -2 in older adults: A Portuguese validation study

Body appreciation is a key characteristic, and the most common operationalization, of positive body image. Positive body image is often measured using the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2; Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015a), which has demonstrated good psychometric properties in adult samples. The purpose of this study is to extend the validation of the BAS-2 to late adulthood facilitating future research with this population. A total of 202 male and female participants (aged 65-91 years) completed the Portuguese version of the BAS-2, along with other body image-related instruments and measures of self-esteem and intuitive eating. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the one-factor model and demonstrated sex invariance. There were no significant sex differences in BAS-2 scores. The BAS-2 had satisfactory convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity. Internal consistency and test-retest stability estimates were adequate. The BAS-2 will likely meet the needs of researchers interested in exploring body appreciation among elderly people.

Female genital image: is there a relationship with body image?

OBJECTIVE

Dissatisfaction with body image may extend to the genital region, and the most dissatisfied with their bodies are women. To analyze the relation between body image and genital image in female, and to verify demographic and/or clinical factors related to body image and genital image.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This is a cross-sectional study in 421 women. The Body Shape Questionnaire-34 (BSQ-34) was used to evaluate body image perception; scores ≤110 indicate no dissatisfaction. Also, the female genital self-image scale-7 (FGSIS-7) was used to evaluate genital self-image; scores range between 7 and 28, with higher values considered to indicate a more positive genital self-image. The relation between body image and genital image was determined using the Pearson Correlation test, as well as the relation of these with body mass index (BMI) and age. The relation between these data and genital image was determined by using the ANOVA test or the independent t-test (statistical difference was accepted as p<0.05). In order to verify predictors of dissatisfaction with body image, variables with p<0.10 were inserted into the logistic regression model and checked if they remained significant (p<0.05).

RESULTS

Three hundred eighty-nine women were analyzed. The mean age was 34.7±10.2 years. The mean BMI was 24.1±3.6 kg/m², 49% were single, and the mean BSQ-34 and FGSIS scores were 83.2±30.8 and 23.8±3.4, respectively. The correlation (r=-0.24) was found between body image and genital image (p<0.001). A total of 315 women indicated to be satisfied with their body and presented an FGSIS-7 score of 24±3.3. Participants who were dissatisfied with their body had an average FGSIS-7 score of 22.6±3.3.

CONCLUSION

Genital image, age, and BMI influence body image. Change in the perception of body image seems to have low correlation with genital self-image in women.

Hormones Matter? Association of the Menstrual Cycle With Selective Attention for Liked and Disliked Body Parts

Body dissatisfaction is wide spread among women and is considered a risk factor for eating pathology. Therefore, it is clinically relevant to investigate potential influencing factors. While previous research has mainly revealed inconsistent findings for attentional processes in body perception, the present study aimed to investigate the association of menstrual cycle phase with body satisfaction and its perception. In a within subject design, 16 women with a natural menstrual cycle (NC) and 19 women who used hormonal contraception (HC) rated their bodily attractiveness and underwent a 3-minute mirror exposure while their eye movements were recorded at two different times during their cycle (NC: ovulation vs. late luteal phase; HC: mid vs. end of cycle). At ovulation, NC women felt more attractive and gazed less at unattractive body parts in contrast to the late luteal phase, where they felt less attractive and gazed more at unattractive body parts. There was no difference in the gaze pattern for the attractive body parts at ovulation and late luteal phase. Notably, HC women showed a balanced gazed pattern at attractive and unattractive body at both times. The menstrual cycle phase is associated with women's self-rated attractiveness and selective attention when looking at their own body. It should therefore be taken into account in clinical research addressing body image.

The Utility of a Positive Body Image Among Community-Dwelling Older Adults Who Perceive Death to Be Near and Fear It

Physical changes are an inevitable part of the aging process. However, research has demonstrated inconclusive findings with regard to body image among older adults. This study attempts to clarify the utility of body image among this age-group, by adopting the framework of terror management theory. It is suggested that a positive body image may moderate the connection between two types of death concerns and psychological distress: subjective nearness-to-death and death anxiety. A convenience sample of 386 community-dwelling older adults, aged 60-97, filled scales measuring subjective nearness-to-death, positive body image, psychological distress, and death anxiety. A significant negative association was found between a positive body image and distress. Moreover, positive body image moderated the connection between distress and both subjective nearness-to-death and death anxiety. Thus, holding a positive image of the body seems to be an important resource for older adults when death is perceived to be near.

Influences on Satisfaction with Reconstructed Breasts and Intimacy in Younger Women Following Bilateral Prophylactic Mastectomy: a Qualitative Analysis

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to explore the influences on satisfaction with reconstructed breasts and intimacy following bilateral prophylactic mastectomy (BPM) in younger women (< 35) with a strong family history of breast cancer.

METHODS

Twenty-six women who had undergone BPM between 1 and6 years ago were recruited from New Zealand and Australia through a genetics clinic, registry, research cohort, and online (M_age = 31). Twenty-three were BRCA mutation carriers. Qualitative interviews guided by interpretative phenomenological analysis were conducted.

RESULTS

Four themes were identified: satisfaction with breasts before surgery, outcome expectations, type of mastectomy, and open communication. Women who liked their breasts pre-BPM appeared less satisfied with their reconstructed breasts post-surgery, and women who disliked their breasts before BPM were more satisfied with their reconstructed breasts. Women with unrealistic expectations concerning the look and feel of reconstructed breasts were often unhappy with their reconstructed breasts and felt they did not meet their expectations. Unrealistic photos of breast reconstruction and satisfactory communication of realistic outcome expectations by surgeons or psychologists also appeared to influence satisfaction. Communication with partners prior to BPM appeared to improve satisfaction with intimacy post-BPM.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that satisfaction with reconstructed breasts for younger women post-BPM appeared to be influenced by realistic outcome expectations and communication with others concerning reconstructed breast appearance and intimacy post-BPM. Implications for practice include discussion of realistic reconstructed breast appearance, referral to a psychologist to discuss sensitive issues, and accurate communication of surgical risks and consequences.

Eating Breakfast and Family Meals in Adolescence: The Role of Body Image

Regularly eating breakfast and meals with family has important health implications for youth. However, the association between eating breakfast and family meals regularly with body image has not been explored. Utilizing the 2009-2010 World Health Organization's Health Behavior in School-Aged Children U.S. survey (N = 12,642), we sought to begin this conversation. Our findings suggest that eating breakfast and meals with parents more regularly may be related to more positive body image. This cross-sectional glance suggests that policies and programs that encourage youth and families to regularly eat breakfast and family meals may also encourage better body image among youth.

Gender congruence and body satisfaction in nonbinary transgender people: A case control study

Background: Binary transgender people access gender affirming medical interventions to alleviate gender incongruence and increase body satisfaction. Despite the increase in nonbinary transgender people, this population are less likely to access transgender health services compared to binary transgender people. No research has yet understood why by exploring levels of gender congruence and body satisfaction in nonbinary transgender people. Objective: The aim of this study was to compare levels of gender congruence and body satisfaction in nonbinary transgender people to controls [binary transgender people and cisgender (nontrans) people]. Method: In total, 526 people from a community sample in the UK took part in the study (97 nonbinary, 91 binary, and 338 cisgender identifying people). Participants were asked to complete an online survey about gender congruence and body satisfaction. Results: There were differences in gender congruence and body satisfaction between nonbinary and binary transgender people. On sex-specific parts of the body (i.e., chest, genitalia, and secondary sex characteristics), nonbinary transgender people reported significantly higher levels of gender and body satisfaction compared to binary transgender people. However, there was no difference in congruence and satisfaction with social gender role between the two transgender groups (nonbinary and binary). Cisgender people reported significantly higher levels of gender congruence and body satisfaction compared to transgender people (nonbinary and binary). Conclusions: There are differences in gender congruence and body satisfaction between nonbinary and binary transgender people. Nonbinary individuals may be less likely to access transgender health services due to experiencing less gender incongruence and more body satisfaction compared to binary transgender people. Transgender health services need to be more inclusive of nonbinary transgender people and their support and treatment needs, which may differ from those who identify within the binary gender system.

Psychological Effects of the SRS-22 on Girls With Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective, randomized control study.

OBJECTIVES

To determine whether the SRS-22r (SRS-22) has a negative effect on the body image of females with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) using the Body Appreciation Scale (BAS).

SUMMARY

The SRS-22 is a validated questionnaire designed by the Scoliosis Research Society (SRS) to assess outcomes of scoliosis patients. Parents and nursing staff have expressed concern that the questionnaire may incite body image concerns when administered to teenagers with AIS.

METHODS

Female AIS patients were prospectively enrolled and randomly assigned to the study or control group. Patients were being observed, braced, or planning operative intervention. Patients in the study group were administered the SRS-22, followed by the BAS. Patients in the control group were administered only the BAS. The BAS is scored from 13 to 65, with higher scores indicating a more positive body image.

RESULTS

45 females were enrolled and assigned to study group (n = 24, SRS-22+BAS) or control group (n = 21, BAS only). There were no differences between the groups in age (p = .55) or Cobb angle (p = .21). There were no differences in overall BAS scores between study (mean = 55.9, range 31-65) and control group participants (mean = 54.2, range 42-64, p = .56). SRS-22 questions and BAS scores had multiple correlations. A higher BAS score is associated with the following SRS-22 questions: being a happy person in the last 6 months, feeling calm and peaceful during the past 6 months, and feeling attractive with one's current back condition. A lower BAS score is associated with the following SRS-22 questions: being down in the dumps, feeling downhearted and blue, and feeling that one's back condition affects personal relationships.

CONCLUSION

Similar BAS scores were observed between the study and control group. Despite concerns regarding the potential negative impact of the SRS-22, taking the questionnaire was not observed to negatively affect patients' body image.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level II.

Body Dissatisfaction, Importance of Appearance, and Body Appreciation in Men and Women Over the Lifespan

Body image disturbance is associated with several mental disorders. Previous research on body image has focused mostly on women, largely neglecting body image in men. Moreover, only a small number of studies have conducted gender comparisons of body image over the lifespan and included participants aged 50 years and older. With regard to measurement, body image has often been assessed only in terms of body dissatisfaction, disregarding further aspects such as body appreciation or the importance of appearance. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to explore different aspects of body image in the general German-speaking population and to compare men and women of various ages. Participants completed an online survey comprising questionnaires about body image. Body dissatisfaction, importance of appearance, the number of hours per day participants would invest and the number of years they would sacrifice to achieve their ideal appearance, and body appreciation were assessed and analyzed with respect to gender and age differences. We hypothesized that body dissatisfaction and importance of appearance would be higher in women than in men, that body dissatisfaction would remain stable across age in women, and that importance of appearance would be lower in older women compared to younger women. Body appreciation was predicted to be higher in men than in women. General and generalized linear models were used to examine the impact of age and gender. In line with our hypotheses, body dissatisfaction was higher in women than in men and was unaffected by age in women, and importance of appearance was higher in women than in men. However, only in men did age predict a lower level of the importance of appearance. Compared to men, women stated that they would invest more hours of their lives to achieve their ideal appearance. For both genders, age was a predictor of the number of years participants would sacrifice to achieve their ideal appearance. Contrary to our assumption, body appreciation improved and was higher in women across all ages than in men. The results seem to suggest that men's and women's body image are dissimilar and appear to vary across different ages.

Body appreciation in British men: Correlates and variation across sexual orientation

Investigations of positive body image among men and across various social identities are lacking, and could contribute to a more complete understanding of the construct, including how positive body image can be improved. This study addressed this gap by investigating correlates of body appreciation - a key facet of positive body image - in men, and testing whether levels of body appreciation vary across sexual orientation. Data from a British community sample of 439 men (M_age = 39.13) showed that body appreciation inversely correlated with conformity to masculine norms and upward appearance-based social comparisons, and positively correlated with physical activity. Body appreciation was lower among sexual minority compared to heterosexual men, and athletic appearance-ideal internalisation and upward appearance-based social comparisons mediated this relationship. Replicating prior research among men, body appreciation positively correlated with body satisfaction, and inversely correlated with perceived appearance pressures from media and eating pathology. These findings have implications for interventions addressing body image among men.

Body image satisfaction, sociodemographic, functional and clinical aspects of community-dwelling older adults

Body image, according to the definition by Ledoux et al.(1) is “the systematic, cognitive, affective, conscious, and unconscious representation that people have concerning their bodies during their biological development and throughout their social relationships”.

Association between Body Image Dissatisfaction and Self-Rated Health, as Mediated by Physical Activity and Eating Habits: Structural Equation Modelling in ELSA-Brasil

This study investigated whether the association between body image dissatisfaction and poor self-rated health is mediated by insufficient physical activity and unhealthy eating habits. The participants were 6727 men and 8037 women from the baseline (2008–2010) of the Longitudinal Study of Adult Health (Estudo Longitudinal de Saúde do Adulto, ELSA-Brasil). Structural equation modelling was used. Associations were found between body image dissatisfaction and poor self-rated health in both sexes. Insufficient physical activity was a mediator. However, unhealthy eating habits were found to exert a mediator effect only via insufficient physical activity. Body image dissatisfaction was found to associate, both directly and possibly indirectly, with poor self-rated health, mediated by insufficient physical activity and unhealthy eating habits. Accordingly, encouraging physical activity and healthy eating can contribute to reducing body image dissatisfaction and favour better self-rated health.

Appearance Dissatisfaction, Body Appreciation, and Sexual Health in Women Across Adulthood

Risk and protective factors are equally important to the promotion of sexual health. Yet, in body image and sexuality research, most of the focus has been placed on the deleterious effects of appearance dissatisfaction and body mass index (BMI) at the expense of more adaptive dimensions. Furthermore, although age can affect appearance and sexual function, little is known regarding the experience of older women. Therefore, this study was aimed at comparing how positive body image (operationalized as body appreciation) and negative body image (operationalized as appearance dissatisfaction) each contribute to indicators of sexual health when controlling for BMI in a sample of age-varied women. Cross-sectional data were collected online from 215 heterosexual women aged 18-88 years. Results showed that body appreciation was a unique predictor of sexual function, satisfaction, and distress, above and beyond the effect of BMI and appearance dissatisfaction. Body appreciation was not found to fluctuate with age. Further, body appreciation moderated the relationship between age and sexual satisfaction, but not sexual distress. Post hoc analyses showed that high body appreciation may serve as a buffer against age-related changes in sexual satisfaction only in women with clinically significant sexual function difficulties. Increasing body appreciation may be a promising clinical intervention in the treatment of sexual problems in older adult women.

Does Late-onset Anorexia Nervosa Exist? Findings From a Comparative Study in Singapore

OBJECTIVE

The incidence of cases of older onset anorexia nervosa (AN) has increased in recent years. However, the literature on late-onset AN has been inconclusive. The goal of this study was to compare late-onset with early-onset cases of AN.

METHODS

Cases of AN presenting to an eating disorders treatment service were identified and the associated medical records were studied retrospectively.

RESULTS

Of the 577 cases of AN that were studied, 7.1% were late-onset. Unlike the early-onset cases of AN, the late-onset cases reported less teasing and more relationship problems as a trigger for the illness. They were also less likely to join the eating disorders treatment program. Otherwise, the late-onset AN cases were largely similar to the early-onset cases.

CONCLUSIONS

Although differences exist between early-onset and late-onset cases of AN, these are few. Until stronger evidence emerges over time, there currently seems to be minimal justification to accord late-onset AN a unique position in psychiatric nosology.

How do you define body image? Exploring conceptual gaps in understandings of body image at an exercise facility

The definition of body image has evolved within research; however, less is known about the layperson's understanding of the construct. This study explored how members and student trainees of an exercise facility (designed for older adults, people with physical disability, and those with cardiac complications) defined body image. Nineteen participants completed a one-on-one interview, and seven of those participants took part in six additional focus group meetings. The following main themes were found: stereotypical assumptions about body image (e.g., it is solely a person's weight or merely a woman's issue), body image continua for positive and negative body image, degree of complexity of body image dimensions, broad considerations of body image (e.g., it is self-esteem), and limited knowledge about body image. These findings suggest a need for knowledge translation between researchers and the general public which informs future body image program design.

The Functionality Appreciation Scale (FAS): Development and psychometric evaluation in U.S. community women and men

Body functionality has been identified as an important dimension of body image that has the potential to be useful in the prevention and treatment of negative body image and in the enhancement of positive body image. Specifically, cultivating appreciation of body functionality may offset appearance concerns. However, a scale assessing this construct has yet to be developed. Therefore, we developed the Functionality Appreciation Scale (FAS) and examined its psychometric properties among three online community samples totalling 1042 women and men (ns=490 and 552, respectively). Exploratory factor analyses revealed a unidimensional structure with seven items. Confirmatory factor analysis upheld its unidimensionality and invariance across gender. The internal consistency, test-retest reliability, criterion-related, and construct (convergent, discriminant, incremental) validity of its scores were upheld. The FAS is a psychometrically sound measure that is unique from existing positive body image measures. Scholars will find the FAS applicable within research and clinical settings.

Positive body image is positively associated with hedonic (emotional) and eudaimonic (psychological and social) well-being in British adults

Studies examining associations between positive body image and well-being have used a limited array of measures of each construct. To rectify this, we asked an online sample of 1148 U.K. adults to complete a range of measures of positive body image (body appreciation, body image flexibility, body pride, body acceptance from others) and a multi-dimensional measure of well-being (emotional, psychological, and social). Results showed that, once the effects of age and body mass index (BMI) had been accounted for, body appreciation significantly predicted all dimensions of well-being. Other positive body image measures emerged as significant predictors, but patterns of associations were mixed across sex and well-being dimension. Additional analyses showed that women had significantly lower scores than men on most body image measures, and that BMI was negatively associated with all body image measures. These results have implications for the promotion of well-being, which we discuss.

"I Kinda Feel Like Wonder Woman": An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis of Pole Fitness and Positive Body Image

The purpose of this research was to describe and interpret the positive body image experiences of women actively engaged in pole fitness. A total of seven women between the ages of 20 and 36 years participated in semistructured one-on-one interviews and follow-up interviews. Participant observation was also used to generate data. Data were analyzed using an interpretative phenomenological analysis approach, and the positive body image experiences of women are represented by five themes: (a) observation and exposure fostering body acceptance, (b) performance promoting self-confidence, (c) personal growth and sexual expression, (d) unconditional community support creates comfort, and (e) body appreciation through physical skill development. Findings suggest that women engaging in pole fitness may experience positive body image, and the words of participants provide insight into the components of pole fitness that may foster positive body image. Pole fitness may provide a unique exercise context whereby women can develop and maintain positive body image.

Body appreciation, anxiety, and depression among a racially diverse sample of women

This study aims to explore correlates between body appreciation and mental health among a racially and ethnically diverse sample of adult women using validated measures. The sample included racially and ethnically diverse women ( N = 497) from various socioeconomic levels. Linear regression results indicated that body appreciation was significantly and inversely associated with depression ( b = −3.68; p < 0.001). In this sample, as body appreciation increased, depression scores decreased. Similarly, body appreciation was significantly and inversely associated with anxiety among this sample ( b = −1.78; p < 0.001). This article concludes with a discussion of findings and implications.

Subjective Meanings and Identification With Middle Age

The "middle-age" life period has not been researched extensively and lacks a theoretical conceptualization. The present study explores subjective experiences of members of this age-group. This is a qualitative research, based on in-depth interviews and thematic analysis, which looks into the life stories of 25 Israeli residents aged 48-64 years. The results indicate that the definition of middle age is not clear-cut, and some participants regard their age negatively. Yet, participants report that this period is characterized by a relief of tasks, broader choice opportunity, a sense of liberation, peace of mind, experience, self-awareness, and self-acceptance. Description of middle age as a peak in life, with concerns about future old age, came up repeatedly. Middle-aged individuals' difficulties to identify with their age-group and the social concept that dichotomizes age into young versus old are discussed. The article calls for further research of and engagement with middle age.

Body image in adult women: Associations with health behaviors, quality of life, and functional impairment

This study examined body image in adult women along with probable correlates including health behaviors, negative affect, quality of life, and functional impairment. Adult women (N = 738, age = 25-86 years) completed an online survey assessing these domains. Women across all ages reported similar body image concerns. Negative body image significantly correlated with poorer wellness behaviors, negative affect, quality of life, and functional impairment. The inverse held for positive body image. The majority of correlations remained even when controlling for negative affect. Further research is warranted to investigate nature of the correlational relationships identified in this study.

The Mediating Roles of Primary and Secondary Control in the Relationship between Body Satisfaction and Subjective Well-Being Among Middle-Aged and Older Women

Objectives

This study examined primary and secondary control as mediators in the relationship between body satisfaction and subjective well-being (SWB) and explored age differences in the mediation model.

Method

Data from 362 women, aged 40-91 years, assessed (i) the relationships between body satisfaction, age, primary and secondary control strategies (body-specific social comparison, acceptance, and positive reappraisal), and three indices of SWB (positive affect, negative affect, and life satisfaction), (ii) the mediation effects of primary and secondary control on the relationship between body satisfaction and SWB, and (iii) whether mediational relationships were moderated by age.

Results

Body satisfaction was unrelated to age but positively related to positive affect and life satisfaction and negatively related to negative affect. Body satisfaction was also related to primary and secondary control strategies. There were significant indirect (mediated) effects of body satisfaction on all outcome variables through acceptance and positive reappraisal. These mediators were significant at all age levels, but exerted their strongest influence among younger women.

Discussion

This study provides new information about the mechanisms that influence the relationship between body satisfaction and SWB among a broad age range of women who are experiencing physical changes that are inconsistent with Western beauty standards.

Body image in adult women: Associations with health behaviors, quality of life, and functional impairment

This study examined body image in adult women along with probable correlates including health behaviors, negative affect, quality of life, and functional impairment. Adult women (N = 738, age = 25-86 years) completed an online survey assessing these domains. Women across all ages reported similar body image concerns. Negative body image significantly correlated with poorer wellness behaviors, negative affect, quality of life, and functional impairment. The inverse held for positive body image. The majority of correlations remained even when controlling for negative affect. Further research is warranted to investigate nature of the correlational relationships identified in this study.

Staring at My Body: The Experience of Body Reconstruction in Breast Cancer Long-term Survivors

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer takes time for its survivors after a mastectomy to adjust to their changed bodies. There are limited studies about the process of how those survivors accept the changes of their bodies and how they reestablish their new selves.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to understand the perception of body from women diagnosed with breast cancer more than 5 years previously and whose treatment included a mastectomy.

METHODS

A phenomenological method was applied to this study. Women who received a mastectomy at least 5 years previously were invited to participate. Eight participants were recruited from southern Taiwan.

RESULTS

Twenty transcripts were obtained and analyzed using Colaizzi's method. Three themes were obtained from the data analysis: "restoration of the body image," "abandonment of objectification," and "redefinition of self." Subthemes were also identified and described.

CONCLUSION

The results indicate that women with breast cancer have embodied the recovering experience to a new self and have adapted to identify their new bodies. They overcome being a female body with an absent breast(s) by discovering the value of their existence and being free from self-objectification.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

This study contributes to the understanding of the perception of body in long-term breast cancer survivors, which reflects the process of adjusting to the loss of a breast/breasts to reconstructing a new body experience. Health professionals could help and encourage women undergoing a mastectomy to engage in self-recovery by searching for and affirming self-value.

Intergenerational transmission of disordered eating: Direct and indirect maternal communication among grandmothers, mothers, and daughters

The current study explored disordered eating (i.e., dieting, bulimia and food preoccupation, and oral control) among grandmothers, their daughters, and their granddaughters, and also explored specific direct (i.e., maternal commentary) and indirect (i.e., maternal modeling) communication behaviors as mechanisms by which disordered eating is intergenerationally transmitted. A sample of 242 grandmother-mother-daughter triads provided self-reports of their own disordered eating and perceptions of their mothers' weight-related behaviors. Results revealed that only mothers' and daughters' reports of disordered eating were related, but not grandmothers' and mothers' nor grandmothers' and daughters'. However, a number of indirect effects were observed through maternal commentary and maternal modeling, including an indirect effect of grandmothers' reports of maternal communication on their granddaughters' disordered eating. Data from three generations of women illustrate the intergenerational transmission of disordered eating within families, specific communication variables that may propagate this relationship, and possible cohort and age effects within the sample.

Biological, Psychological, and Sociocultural Factors Contributing to the Drive for Muscularity in Weight-Training Men

The drive for muscularity and associated behaviors (e.g., exercising and dieting) are of growing importance for men in Western societies. In its extreme form, it can lead to body image concerns and harmful behaviors like over-exercising and the misuse of performance-enhancing substances. Therefore, investigating factors associated with the drive for muscularity, especially in vulnerable populations like bodybuilders and weight trainers can help identify potential risk and protective factors for body image problems. Using a biopsychosocial framework, the aim of the current study was to explore different factors associated with drive for muscularity in weight-training men. To this purpose, German-speaking male weight trainers (N = 248) completed an online survey to determine the extent to which biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors contribute to drive for muscularity and its related attitudes and behaviors. Using multiple regression models, findings showed that media ideal body internalization was the strongest positive predictor for drive for muscularity, while age (M = 25.9, SD = 7.4) held the strongest negative association with drive for muscularity. Dissatisfaction with muscularity, but not with body fat, was related to drive for muscularity. The fat-free mass index, a quantification of the actual degree of muscularity of a person, significantly predicted drive for muscularity-related behavior but not attitudes. Body-related aspects of self-esteem, but not global self-esteem, were significant negative predictors of drive for muscularity. Since internalization of media body ideals presented the highest predictive value for drive for muscularity, these findings suggest that media body ideal internalizations may be a risk factor for body image concerns in men, leading, in its most extreme form to disordered eating or muscle dysmorphia. Future research should investigate the relations between drive for muscularity, age, body composition, internalization, dissatisfaction with muscularity and body-related self-esteem using longitudinal study designs. Limitations concern the cross-sectional design of the study, self-reported body composition measures and the homogeneity of the sample.

Exploring body appreciation and women's health-related quality of life: The moderating role of age

This study explored relationships between body appreciation, health-related quality of life, and age, in an age-diverse sample of 289 women in the United States. Linear regression indicated the relationship between body appreciation and the physical component of health-related quality of life varied by age. For women aged 36 years and older, there was a positive relationship between body appreciation and health-related quality of life; however, a negative relationship was present for other age groups. Findings have clinical implications and suggest body appreciation may buffer the decline in physical health-related quality of life that occurs as age increases.

Physical Activity and Health Perception in Aging: Do Body Mass and Satisfaction Matter? A Three-Path Mediated Link

Although ageing people could benefit from healthy diet and physical activity to maintain health and quality of life, further understandings of the diet- and physical activity-related mechanisms that may cause changes in health and quality of life perception are necessary. The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of eating attitudes, body mass and image satisfaction, and exercise dependence in the relationship between physical activity and health and quality of life perception in older individuals. Hundred and seventy-nine late middle-aged, (55–64 yrs), young-old (65–74 yrs), and old (75–84 yrs) senior athletes (n = 56), physically active (n = 58) or sedentary adults (n = 65) were submitted to anthropometric evaluations (body mass, height) and self-reported questionnaires: Body Image Dimensional Assessment, Exercise Dependence Scale, Eating Attitude Test, and Short Form Health Survey (Physical Component Summary [PCS] and Mental Component Summary [MCS] of and health and quality of life perception). Senior athletes, physically active, and sedentary participants subgroups differed (P<0.05) from each other in body mass index (BMI) and several components of body image and exercise dependence. Senior athletes showed, compared to their sedentary counterparts, further differences (P<0.05) in eating attitudes and in both PCS and MCS. Mediation analysis showed that the relationship between physical activity habit and MCS, but not PCS, was indirectly explained by a serial mediation chain composed of objective BMI and subjective body image (dis)satisfaction. Findings confirm the relevant role of physically active life habits for older individuals to perceive good physical and mental health. The novelty of the three-path mediated link between physical activity level and mental health perception suggests that the beneficial effect of a physically active lifestyle on weight control can positively impinge on the cognitive-emotional dimension of mental health by ensuring the maintenance, also at older age, of a satisfactory body image.

Factor structure and psychometric properties of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 in Iran

Tylka and Wood-Barcalow (2015b) developed the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) as a psychometrically robust measure that is conceptually consistent with recent findings on positive body image. The present study aimed to examine the factor structure and psychometric properties of the BAS-2 in Iran. Participants were 568 men and 525 women from seven universities in Tehran, Iran. Two exploratory factor analyses were performed on data from women and men separately. Similar to the original English version, the Persian BAS-2 had a one-factor solution. Persian BAS-2 scores had satisfactory convergent validity (indexed by significantly correlations with self-esteem and life satisfaction) and internal consistency. Men had significantly higher scores on BAS-2 compared to women. The present study suggests that the Persian BAS-2 has adequate psychometric properties to assess body appreciation.

Embodied possibilities and disruptions: The emergence of the Experience of Embodiment construct from qualitative studies with girls and women

There are multiple indicators of disruption in the way girls and women inhabit their bodies. The qualitative research program examined lived experiences of embodiment among girls and women by conducting 171 interviews with 69 girls and women in three different studies: (a) A life history study of 30 interviews with 11 women, ages 20-27; (b) A 5-year prospective interview study of 87 interviews with 27 girls, ages 9-14 in the first phase of the study; and (c) A life history study of 54 interviews with 31 women, ages 50-68. Data analyses used a constructivist grounded theory approach. In all three studies the emergent core construct of Experience of Embodiment had five central dimensions, each with a positive and negative pole. These dimensions included: body-self connection, agency, desire, self-attunement, and resisting objectification. The Experience of Embodiment provides a new, integrated perspective on ways girls and women inhabit their bodies.

Predicting body appreciation in young women: An integrated model of positive body image

This study examined a range of predictors, based on previous theoretical models, of positive body image in young adult women. Participants were 266 women who completed an online questionnaire measuring body appreciation, activity participation, media consumption, perceived body acceptance by others, self-compassion, and autonomy. Potential mechanisms in predicting body appreciation assessed were self-objectification, social appearance comparison, and thin-ideal internalisation. Results indicated that greater perceived body acceptance by others and self-compassion, and lower appearance media consumption, self-objectification, social comparison, and thin-ideal internalisation were related to greater body appreciation. An integrated model showed that appearance media (negatively) and non-appearance media and self-compassion (positively) were associated with lower self-objectification, social comparison, and thin-ideal internalisation, which in turn related to greater body appreciation. Additionally, perceived body acceptance by others was directly associated with body appreciation. The results contribute to an understanding of potential pathways of positive body image development, thereby highlighting possible intervention targets.

Yoga and positive body image: A test of the Embodiment Model

The study aimed to test the Embodiment Model of Positive Body Image (Menzel & Levine, 2011) within the context of yoga. Participants were 193 yoga practitioners (124 Iyengar, 69 Bikram) and 127 university students (non-yoga participants) from Adelaide, South Australia. Participants completed questionnaire measures of positive body image, embodiment, self-objectification, and desire for thinness. Results showed yoga practitioners scored higher on positive body image and embodiment, and lower on self-objectification than non-yoga participants. In support of the embodiment model, the relationship between yoga participation and positive body image was serially mediated by embodiment and reduced self-objectification. Although Bikram practitioners endorsed appearance-related reasons for participating in yoga more than Iyengar practitioners, there were no significant differences between Iyengar and Bikram yoga practitioners on body image variables. It was concluded that yoga is an embodying activity that can provide women with the opportunity to cultivate a favourable relationship with their body.

Body image, aging, and identity in women over 50: The Gender and Body Image (GABI) study

We conducted a qualitative study of 1,849 women over age 50 to capture the thoughts, feelings, and attitudes that women at middle age have about their bodies and the experience of aging. Via an open-ended question online survey, four primary themes emerged: (a) the physical and psychological experience of aging; (b) the injustices, inequities, and challenges of aging; (c) the importance of self-care; and (d) a plea for recognition of the need to maintain a contributory role in society. Results highlight the complexities of women's psychological and physical aspects of aging and point toward important topics worthy of further study in this growing population.

Exploring the complexities of body image experiences in middle age and older adult women within an exercise context: The simultaneous existence of negative and positive body images

Despite many body changes that accompany the aging process, the extant research is limited on middle age and older adults' body image experiences. The purpose of the present study was to explore how body image is represented for middle age and older adult women. Using thematic analysis, 10 women over the age of 55 were interviewed within an exercise context. The following themes were found: body dissatisfaction, body satisfaction despite ageist stereotypes, neutral body image within cohort, and positive body image characteristics. Negative and positive body images were experienced simultaneously, with neutral experiences expressed as low levels of dissatisfaction. This supports the contention that negative and positive body images exist on separate continuums and neutral body image is likely on the same continuum as negative body image. Programs that foster a social support network to reduce negative body image and improve positive body image in older female populations are needed.

Running to win or to be thin? An evaluation of body dissatisfaction and eating disorder symptoms among adult runners

The current study evaluated associations between sport-performance-related body dissatisfaction (BD), general-appearance-related BD, and their relation to EAT-26 scores among a sample of adult runners who participated in middle- and long-distance races in the northeastern United States (N=400, 46.5% male). Women reported elevated BD and eating disorder symptoms, as compared to men. Ridge regression was used to analyze correlations between appearance- and performance-related BD with EAT-26 scores. Results demonstrated that appearance- and performance-related BD positively correlated with EAT-26 scores in women (βs=0.18 and 0.13, respectively). Race length was a significant covariate for women, such that those who ran middle-distance race events were more likely to report higher EAT-26 scores (β=-3.12). These associations were not demonstrated in men. Results suggest that it is beneficial to address sport-specific body image concerns, in addition to more general appearance-related body image concerns in female runners.