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Pinzón C. JH, Beach-Letendre J, Weil E, Mydlarz LD. Relationship between phylogeny and immunity suggests older Caribbean coral lineages are more resistant to disease. PLoS One 2014; 9:e104787. [PMID: 25133685 PMCID: PMC4136782 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0104787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2014] [Accepted: 07/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Diseases affect coral species fitness and contribute significantly to the deterioration of coral reefs. The increase in frequency and severity of disease outbreaks has made evaluating and determining coral resistance a priority. Phylogenetic patterns in immunity and disease can provide important insight to how corals may respond to current and future environmental and/or biologically induced diseases. The purpose of this study was to determine if immunity, number of diseases and disease prevalence show a phylogenetic signal among Caribbean corals. We characterized the constitutive levels of six distinct innate immune traits in 14 Caribbean coral species and tested for the presence of a phylogenetic signal on each trait. Results indicate that constitutive levels of some individual immune related processes (i.e. melanin concentration, peroxidase and inhibition of bacterial growth), as well as their combination show a phylogenetic signal. Additionally, both the number of diseases affecting each species and disease prevalence (as measures of disease burden) show a significant phylogenetic signal. The phylogenetic signal of immune related processes, combined with estimates of species divergence times, indicates that among the studied species, those belonging to older lineages tend to resist/fight infections better than more recently diverged coral lineages. This result, combined with the increasing stressful conditions on corals in the Caribbean, suggest that future reefs in the region will likely be dominated by older lineages while modern species may face local population declines and/or geographic extinction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge H. Pinzón C.
- Department of Biology, University of Texas Arlington, Arlington, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Joshuah Beach-Letendre
- Department of Biology, University of Texas Arlington, Arlington, Texas, United States of America
| | - Ernesto Weil
- Department of Marine Sciences University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez, Puerto Rico, United States of America
| | - Laura D. Mydlarz
- Department of Biology, University of Texas Arlington, Arlington, Texas, United States of America
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102
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McDowell IC, Nikapitiya C, Aguiar D, Lane CE, Istrail S, Gomez-Chiarri M. Transcriptome of American oysters, Crassostrea virginica, in response to bacterial challenge: insights into potential mechanisms of disease resistance. PLoS One 2014; 9:e105097. [PMID: 25122115 PMCID: PMC4133350 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0105097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2014] [Accepted: 07/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The American oyster Crassostrea virginica, an ecologically and economically important estuarine organism, can suffer high mortalities in areas in the Northeast United States due to Roseovarius Oyster Disease (ROD), caused by the gram-negative bacterial pathogen Roseovarius crassostreae. The goals of this research were to provide insights into: 1) the responses of American oysters to R. crassostreae, and 2) potential mechanisms of resistance or susceptibility to ROD. The responses of oysters to bacterial challenge were characterized by exposing oysters from ROD-resistant and susceptible families to R. crassostreae, followed by high-throughput sequencing of cDNA samples from various timepoints after disease challenge. Sequence data was assembled into a reference transcriptome and analyzed through differential gene expression and functional enrichment to uncover genes and processes potentially involved in responses to ROD in the American oyster. While susceptible oysters experienced constant levels of mortality when challenged with R. crassostreae, resistant oysters showed levels of mortality similar to non-challenged oysters. Oysters exposed to R. crassostreae showed differential expression of transcripts involved in immune recognition, signaling, protease inhibition, detoxification, and apoptosis. Transcripts involved in metabolism were enriched in susceptible oysters, suggesting that bacterial infection places a large metabolic demand on these oysters. Transcripts differentially expressed in resistant oysters in response to infection included the immune modulators IL-17 and arginase, as well as several genes involved in extracellular matrix remodeling. The identification of potential genes and processes responsible for defense against R. crassostreae in the American oyster provides insights into potential mechanisms of disease resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian C. McDowell
- College of the Environment and Life Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island, United States of America
| | - Chamilani Nikapitiya
- College of the Environment and Life Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island, United States of America
| | - Derek Aguiar
- Department of Computer Science and Center for Computational Molecular Biology, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, United States of America
| | - Christopher E. Lane
- College of the Environment and Life Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island, United States of America
| | - Sorin Istrail
- Department of Computer Science and Center for Computational Molecular Biology, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, United States of America
| | - Marta Gomez-Chiarri
- College of the Environment and Life Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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103
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Dheilly NM, Adema C, Raftos DA, Gourbal B, Grunau C, Du Pasquier L. No more non-model species: the promise of next generation sequencing for comparative immunology. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 45:56-66. [PMID: 24508980 PMCID: PMC4096995 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2014.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2013] [Revised: 01/20/2014] [Accepted: 01/21/2014] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Next generation sequencing (NGS) allows for the rapid, comprehensive and cost effective analysis of entire genomes and transcriptomes. NGS provides approaches for immune response gene discovery, profiling gene expression over the course of parasitosis, studying mechanisms of diversification of immune receptors and investigating the role of epigenetic mechanisms in regulating immune gene expression and/or diversification. NGS will allow meaningful comparisons to be made between organisms from different taxa in an effort to understand the selection of diverse strategies for host defence under different environmental pathogen pressures. At the same time, it will reveal the shared and unique components of the immunological toolkit and basic functional aspects that are essential for immune defence throughout the living world. In this review, we argue that NGS will revolutionize our understanding of immune responses throughout the animal kingdom because the depth of information it provides will circumvent the need to concentrate on a few "model" species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nolwenn M Dheilly
- CNRS, UMR 5244, Ecologie et Evolution des Interactions (2EI), Perpignan F-66860, France; Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, Perpignan F-66860, France.
| | - Coen Adema
- Center for Evolutionary and Theoretical Immunology, Biology Department, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - David A Raftos
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Benjamin Gourbal
- CNRS, UMR 5244, Ecologie et Evolution des Interactions (2EI), Perpignan F-66860, France; Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, Perpignan F-66860, France
| | - Christoph Grunau
- CNRS, UMR 5244, Ecologie et Evolution des Interactions (2EI), Perpignan F-66860, France; Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, Perpignan F-66860, France
| | - Louis Du Pasquier
- University of Basel, Institute of Zoology and Evolutionary Biology, Basel, Switzerland
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104
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Iwanami N. Zebrafish as a model for understanding the evolution of the vertebrate immune system and human primary immunodeficiency. Exp Hematol 2014; 42:697-706. [PMID: 24824573 DOI: 10.1016/j.exphem.2014.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2014] [Revised: 04/21/2014] [Accepted: 05/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Zebrafish is an important vertebrate model that provides the opportunity for the combination of genetic interrogation with advanced live imaging in the analysis of complex developmental and physiologic processes. Among the many advances that have been achieved using the zebrafish model, it has had a great impact on immunology. Here, I discuss recent work focusing on the genetic underpinnings of the development and function of lymphocytes in fish. Lymphocytes play critical roles in vertebrate-specific acquired immune systems of jawless and jawed fish. The unique opportunities afforded by the ability to carry out forward genetic screens and the rapidly evolving armamentarium of reverse genetics in fish usher in a new immunologic research that complements the traditional models of chicken and mouse. Recent work has greatly increased our understanding of the molecular components of the zebrafish immune system, identifying evolutionarily conserved and fish-specific functions of immune-related genes. Interestingly, some of the genes whose mutations underlie the phenotypes in immunodeficient zebrafish were also identified in immunodeficient human patients. In addition, because of the generally conserved structure and function of immune facilities, the zebrafish also provides a versatile model to examine the functional consequences of genetic variants in immune-relevant genes in the human population. Thus, I propose that genetic approaches using the zebrafish hold great potential for a better understanding of molecular mechanisms of human primary immunodeficiencies and the evolution of vertebrate immune systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norimasa Iwanami
- Max Planck Institute of Immunobiology and Epigenetics, Freiburg, Germany.
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105
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Liu Y, Hou F, He S, Qian Z, Wang X, Mao A, Sun C, Liu X. Identification, characterization and functional analysis of a serine protease inhibitor (Lvserpin) from the Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 43:35-46. [PMID: 24211341 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2013.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2013] [Revised: 10/24/2013] [Accepted: 10/25/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
As important arthropod immune responses, prophenoloxidase (proPO) activation and Toll pathway initiation are mediated by serine proteinase cascades and regulated by serpins. Herein, a serine protease inhibitor (Lvserpin), encoding for 415 amino acids with calculated molecular weight of 46,639 Da and isoelectric point of 7.03 was characterized from the Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. Multiple sequence alignment revealed that Lvserpin shared the highest similarity with Penaeus monodon serpin6 (87%). Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) results showed that the transcripts of Lvserpin were detected in all the examined tissues and most highly expressed in gill. The expression profiles of Lvserpin were greatly fluctuated upon infection of Vibrio anguillarum, Micrococcus lysoleikticus or White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV). Double stranded RNA-mediated suppression of Lvserpin resulted in a significant increase in the transcripts of two clip-domain serine proteinases (PPAE and PPAF), prophenoloxidase (proPO), anti-lipopolysaccharide factor (ALF), Crustin and penaeidin3 (Pens3) and also increased the high cumulative mortality post V. anguillarum injection. Besides, the recombinant Lvserpin protein (rLvserpin) was purified and exhibited inhibitory activity against trypsin. Also the rLvserpin showed inhibition on prophenoloxidase activation and bacterial growth. Hence, we proposed that the Lvserpin played important role in the shrimp innate immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongjie Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi Yangling 712100, China
| | - Fujun Hou
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi Yangling 712100, China
| | - Shulin He
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi Yangling 712100, China
| | - Zhaoying Qian
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi Yangling 712100, China
| | - Xianzong Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi Yangling 712100, China
| | - Aitao Mao
- Fisheries College, Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Zhanjiang 524025, China
| | - Chengbo Sun
- Fisheries College, Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Zhanjiang 524025, China
| | - Xiaolin Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi Yangling 712100, China.
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106
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Fjøsne TF, Stenseth EB, Myromslien F, Rudi K. Gene expression of TLR homologues identified by genome-wide screening of the earthworm Dendrobaena veneta. Innate Immun 2014; 21:161-6. [PMID: 24574024 DOI: 10.1177/1753425914523056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
TLRs represent one of the most important components of innate immunity. Currently, these receptors have been extensively studied in vertebrates and insects, but our knowledge for annelids is very limited. Therefore, the aim of our study was to identify earthworm TLR homologs by genome-wide screening, and to determine the expression of candidate genes as a response to Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Using a combination of deep pyrosequencing and quantitative PCR we found six candidate genes, for which all were expressed in Dentrobaena veneta. Two of the candidates showed significant response to bacterial exposure. In conclusion, TLRs seem to have a role in earthworm immunology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trine F Fjøsne
- Faculty of Education and Science, Hedmark University College, Hamar, Norway Centre for Evolutionary and Ecological Synthesis (CEES), Department of Biology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Frøydis Myromslien
- Faculty of Education and Science, Hedmark University College, Hamar, Norway
| | - Knut Rudi
- Faculty of Education and Science, Hedmark University College, Hamar, Norway Department of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University for Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
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107
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Tindwa H, Patnaik BB, Kim DH, Mun S, Jo YH, Lee BL, Lee YS, Kim NJ, Han YS. Cloning, characterization and effect of TmPGRP-LE gene silencing on survival of Tenebrio molitor against Listeria monocytogenes infection. Int J Mol Sci 2013; 14:22462-82. [PMID: 24240808 PMCID: PMC3856074 DOI: 10.3390/ijms141122462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2013] [Revised: 10/16/2013] [Accepted: 10/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Peptidoglycan recognition proteins (PGRPs) are a family of innate immune molecules that recognize bacterial peptidoglycan. PGRP-LE, a member of the PGRP family, selectively binds to diaminopimelic acid (DAP)-type peptidoglycan to activate both the immune deficiency (Imd) and proPhenoloxidase (proPO) pathways in insects. A PGRP-LE-dependent induction of autophagy to control Listeria monocytogenes has also been reported. We identified and partially characterized a novel PGRP-LE homologue, from Tenebrio molitor and analyzed its functional role in the survival of the insect against infection by a DAP-type PGN containing intracellular pathogen, L. monocytogenes. The cDNA is comprised of an open reading frame (ORF) of 990 bp and encodes a polypeptide of 329 residues. TmPGRP-LE contains one PGRP domain, but lacks critical residues for amidase activity. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis showed a broad constitutive expression of the transcript at various stages of development spanning from larva to adult. RNAi mediated knockdown of the transcripts, followed by a challenge with L. monocytogenes, showed a significant reduction in survival rate of the larvae, suggesting a putative role of TmPGRP-LE in sensing and control of L. monocytogenes infection in T. molitor. These results implicate PGRP-LE as a defense protein necessary for survival of T. molitor against infection by L. monocytogenes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamisi Tindwa
- Division of Plant Biotechnology, Institute of Environmentally-Friendly Agriculture (IEFA), College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, Korea; E-Mails: (H.T.); (B.B.P.); (D.H.K.); (S.M.); (Y.H.J.)
| | - Bharat Bhusan Patnaik
- Division of Plant Biotechnology, Institute of Environmentally-Friendly Agriculture (IEFA), College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, Korea; E-Mails: (H.T.); (B.B.P.); (D.H.K.); (S.M.); (Y.H.J.)
| | - Dong Hyun Kim
- Division of Plant Biotechnology, Institute of Environmentally-Friendly Agriculture (IEFA), College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, Korea; E-Mails: (H.T.); (B.B.P.); (D.H.K.); (S.M.); (Y.H.J.)
| | - Seulgi Mun
- Division of Plant Biotechnology, Institute of Environmentally-Friendly Agriculture (IEFA), College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, Korea; E-Mails: (H.T.); (B.B.P.); (D.H.K.); (S.M.); (Y.H.J.)
| | - Yong Hun Jo
- Division of Plant Biotechnology, Institute of Environmentally-Friendly Agriculture (IEFA), College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, Korea; E-Mails: (H.T.); (B.B.P.); (D.H.K.); (S.M.); (Y.H.J.)
| | - Bok Luel Lee
- National Research Laboratory of Defense Proteins, College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Jangjeon Dong, Kumjeong Ku, Busan 609-735, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Yong Seok Lee
- Department of Life Science and Biotechnology, College of Natural Sciences, Soonchunhyang University, Asan City 336-745, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Nam Jung Kim
- Division of Applied Entomology, National Academy of Agricultural Science, Rural Development Administration, 61th, Seodun-dong, Gwonseon-gu, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 441-853, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Yeon Soo Han
- Division of Plant Biotechnology, Institute of Environmentally-Friendly Agriculture (IEFA), College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, Korea; E-Mails: (H.T.); (B.B.P.); (D.H.K.); (S.M.); (Y.H.J.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +82-62-530-2072; Fax: +82-62-530-2069
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108
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Abstract
The evolutionary emergence of vertebrates was accompanied by major morphological and functional innovations, including the development of an adaptive immune system. Vertebrate adaptive immunity is based on the clonal expression of somatically diversifying antigen receptors on lymphocytes. This is a common feature of both the jawless and jawed vertebrates , although these two groups of extant vertebrates employ structurally different types of antigen receptors and principal mechanisms for their somatic diversification . These observations suggest that the common vertebrate ancestor must have already possessed a complex immune system, including B- and T-like lymphocyte lineages and primary lymphoid organs, such as the thymus, but possibly lacked the facilities for somatic diversification of antigen receptors. Interestingly, memory formation, previously considered to be a defining feature of adaptive immunity, also occurs in the context of innate immune responses and can even be observed in unicellular organisms, attesting to the convergent evolutionary history of distinct aspects of adaptive immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Boehm
- Max Planck Institute of Immunobiology and Epigenetics, 79108 Freiburg, Germany; ,
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109
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Guo L, Zhao X, Zhang Y, Wang Z, Zhong M, Li S, Lun J. Evidences of SNPs in the variable region of hemocyanin Ig-like domain in shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 35:1532-1538. [PMID: 24012752 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2013.08.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2013] [Revised: 08/12/2013] [Accepted: 08/27/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are the commonest mode of genetic variation in invertebrate immune-related genes. Hemocyanin presents in the hemolymph of both mollusks and arthropods and functions as an important antigen non-specific immune protein. But people know very little about its gene polymorphism so far. In current study, bioinformatics, molecular biology and environmental challenge approaches were used to identify the SNPs within hemocyanin Ig-like domain in shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. A total of 11 SNPs were found in a variable region of Ig-like domain from L. vannamei hemocyanin large subunit (1258-1460 bp, HcLV1), 5 of which (1272, 1315, 1380, 1410 and 1450) were confirmed present in both genomic DNA and cDNA by clone sequencing. Furthermore, HcLV1 showed 3, 5 and 5 SSCP bands, respectively, in 16, 25 and 30 °C-treated shrimps, suggesting that the SSCP pattern of HcLV1 could be modulated by environmental stress. In addition, HcLV1 displayed two extra bands with different mobility when shrimps treated with Vibrio parahaemolyticus for 6-24 h, which was not observed in the control group. In conclusion, our data suggest that shrimp L. vannamei hemocyanin Ig-like domain possesses SNPs, which may be associated with environmental stress or pathogenic challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingling Guo
- Department of Biology and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Shantou University, Shantou 515063, People's Republic of China
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110
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Garcia-Garcia E, Galindo-Villegas J, Mulero V. Mucosal immunity in the gut: the non-vertebrate perspective. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 40:278-288. [PMID: 23537860 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2013.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2013] [Revised: 03/07/2013] [Accepted: 03/14/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Much is now known about the vertebrate mechanisms involved in mucosal immunity, and the requirement of commensal microbiota at mucosal surfaces for the proper functioning of the immune system. In comparison, very little is known about the mechanisms of immunity at the barrier epithelia of non-vertebrate organisms. The purpose of this review is to summarize key experimental evidence illustrating how non-vertebrate immune mechanisms at barrier epithelia compare to those of higher vertebrates, using the gut as a model organ. Not only effector mechanisms of gut immunity are similar between vertebrates and non-vertebrates, but it also seems that the proper functioning of non-vertebrate gut defense mechanisms requires the presence of a resident microbiota. As more information becomes available, it will be possible to obtain a more accurate picture of how mucosal immunity has evolved, and how it adapts to the organisms' life styles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erick Garcia-Garcia
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, Faculty of Biology, University of Murcia, Campus Universitario de Espinardo, 30100 Murcia, Spain.
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111
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Majeske AJ, Bayne CJ, Smith LC. Aggregation of sea urchin phagocytes is augmented in vitro by lipopolysaccharide. PLoS One 2013; 8:e61419. [PMID: 23613847 PMCID: PMC3629189 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0061419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2012] [Accepted: 03/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Development of protocols and media for culturing immune cells from marine invertebrates has not kept pace with advancements in mammalian immune cell culture, the latter having been driven by the need to understand the causes of and develop therapies for human and animal diseases. However, expansion of the aquaculture industry and the diseases that threaten these systems creates the need to develop cell and tissue culture methods for marine invertebrates. Such methods will enable us to better understand the causes of disease outbreaks and to develop means to avoid and remedy epidemics. We report a method for the short-term culture of phagocytes from the purple sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, by modifying an approach previously used to culture cells from another sea urchin species. The viability of cultured phagocytes from the purple sea urchin decreases from 91.6% to 57% over six days and phagocyte morphology changes from single cells to aggregates leading to the formation of syncytia-like structures. This process is accelerated in the presence of lipopolysaccharide suggesting that phagocytes are capable of detecting this molecular pattern in culture conditions. Sea urchin immune response proteins, called Sp185/333, are expressed on the surface of a subset of phagocytes and have been associated with syncytia-like structures. We evaluated their expression in cultured phagocytes to determine their possible role in cell aggregation and in the formation of syncytia-like structures. Between 0 and 3 hr, syncytia-like structures were observed in cultures when only ∼10% of the cells were positive for Sp185/333 proteins. At 24 hr, ∼90% of the nuclei were Sp185/333-positive when all of the phagocytes had aggregated into syncytia-like structures. Consequently, we conclude that the Sp185/333 proteins do not have a major role in initiating the aggregation of cultured phagocytes, however the Sp185/333 proteins are associated with the clustered nuclei within the syncytia-like structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey J. Majeske
- Department of Biological Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, D. C., United States of America
| | - Christopher J. Bayne
- Department of Zoology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, United States of America
| | - L. Courtney Smith
- Department of Biological Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, D. C., United States of America
- * E-mail:
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112
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Abstract
All multicellular organisms protect themselves against pathogens using sophisticated immune defenses. Functionally interconnected humoral and cellular facilities maintain immune homeostasis in the absence of overt infection and regulate the initiation and termination of immune responses directed against pathogens. Immune responses of invertebrates, such as flies, are innate and usually stereotyped; those of vertebrates, encompassing species as diverse as jawless fish and humans, are additionally adaptive, enabling more rapid and efficient immune reactivity upon repeated encounters with a pathogen. Many of the attributes historically defining innate and adaptive immunity are in fact common to both, blurring their functional distinction and emphasizing shared ancestry and co-evolution. These findings provide indications of the evolutionary forces underlying the origin of somatic diversification of antigen receptors and contribute to our understanding of the complex phenotypes of human immune disorders. Moreover, informed by phylogenetic considerations and inspired by improved knowledge of functional networks, new avenues emerge for innovative therapeutic strategies.
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113
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Cheng L, Jin XK, Li WW, Li S, Guo XN, Wang J, Gong YN, He L, Wang Q. Fatty acid binding proteins FABP9 and FABP10 participate in antibacterial responses in Chinese mitten crab, Eriocheir sinensis. PLoS One 2013; 8:e54053. [PMID: 23365646 PMCID: PMC3554701 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0054053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2012] [Accepted: 12/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Invertebrates rely solely on the innate immune system for defense against pathogens and other stimuli. Fatty acid binding proteins (FABP), members of the lipid binding proteins superfamily, play a crucial role in fatty acid transport and lipid metabolism and are also involved in gene expression induced by fatty acids. In the vertebrate immune system, FABP is involved in inflammation regulated by fatty acids through its interaction with peroxidase proliferator activate receptors (PPARs). However, the immune functions of FABP in invertebrates are not well characterized. For this reason, we investigated the immune functionality of two fatty acid binding proteins, Es-FABP9 and Es-FABP10, following lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge in the Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis). An obvious variation in the expression of Es-FABP9 and Es-FABP10 mRNA in E. sinensis was observed in hepatopancreas, gills, and hemocytes post-LPS challenge. Recombinant proteins rEs-FABP9 and rEs-FABP10 exhibited distinct bacterial binding activity and bacterial agglutination activity against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Furthermore, bacterial growth inhibition assays demonstrated that rEs-FABP9 responds positively to the growth inhibition of Vibrio parahaemolyticuss and S. aureus, while rEs-FABP10 responds positively to the growth inhibition of Aeromonas hydrophila and Bacillus subtilis. Coating of agarose beads with recombinant rEs-FABP9 and rEs-FABP10 dramatically enhanced encapsulation of the beads by crab hemocytes in vitro. In conclusion, the data presented here demonstrate the participation of these two lipid metabolism-related proteins in the innate immune system of E. sinensis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Shuang Li
- School of Life Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiao-Nv Guo
- School of Life Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Juan Wang
- School of Life Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ya-Nan Gong
- School of Life Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lin He
- School of Life Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qun Wang
- School of Life Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
- * E-mail:
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114
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Abstract
Leucine-rich repeats (LRRs) are versatile motifs present in more than 6000 proteins throughout the phylogenetic kingdom. Tandem LRRs generate a characteristic horseshoe with a diverse range of functions. Fulfilling a key role in the innate immune system, LRRs form the TLR and NOD-like receptor (NLR) pathogen-recognition domain. Host–pathogen interactions mediated by LRRs drive those involved in ligand recognition to become distinct from their consensus motif. Most LRRs range between 21 and 30 residues; however, large insertions in certain TLRs can generate repeats of over 60 amino acids. LRR variability makes them ideal for species-specific mediation of host-pathogen interactions. Teleost TLRs show large insertions, making cross-species alignments difficult without prior demarcation of their LRR motifs. We present LRRfinder2.0, a webserver for LRR prediction. LRRfinder2.0 utilizes scoring matrices comprising more than 60,000 LRR motifs from more than 200 species. The underlying TLR database tLRRdb contains more than 3500 manually annotated sequences, augmenting identification of irregular LRR motifs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Offord
- Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
| | - Dirk Werling
- Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
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115
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Yao F, Li Z, Zhang Y, Zhang S. A novel short peptidoglycan recognition protein in amphioxus: identification, expression and bioactivity. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 38:332-341. [PMID: 22885632 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2012.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2012] [Revised: 07/21/2012] [Accepted: 07/22/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Peptidoglycan recognition proteins (PGRPs) are widely distributed in invertebrates and vertebrates, and structure-activity relationship of insect and mammalian PGRPs has been well characterized, but functional and structural insights into PGRPs in other species are rather limited. Here we identified a novel short PGRP gene from the amphioxus Branchiostoma japonicum, named pgrp-s, which possesses a domain combination of ChtBD1 domain-PGRP domain, which is unique to all known PGRPs. Amphioxus pgrp-s was predominantly expressed in the hepatic caecum, hind-gut and muscle in a tissue-specific manner. Recombinant PGRP-S, rPGRP-S, and truncated protein with ChtBD1 domain deleted, rP86/250, both showed affinity to Dap-type PGN, Lys-type PGN and chitin. Consistently, they were also able to bind to Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Pichia pastoris. Moreover, both rPGRP-S and rP86/250 had amidase enzymatic activity, capable of hydrolyzing Dap-type and Lys-type PGNs. Like vertebrate PGRPs, rPGRP-S was directly microbicidal, capable of killing E. coli, S. aureus and P. pastoris, whereas rP86/250 only inhibited the growth of E. coli and S. aureus, and its anti-P. pastoris activity was significantly reduced. It is clear that neither the binding of amphioxus PGRP-S nor its amidase enzymatic activity depend on the N-terminal ChtBD1 domain, but its antifungal activity does. Collectively, these data suggested that amphioxus PGRP-S may function as a multivalent pattern recognition receptor, capable of recognizing PGN and chitin, a microbicidal agent, capable of killing bacteria such as E. coli and S. aureus and fungus like P. pastoris, and probably a PGN scavenger, capable of hydrolyzing PGN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Yao
- Laboratory for Evolution & Development, Institute of Evolution & Marine Biodiversity and Department of Marine Biology, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China
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116
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Adaptive evolution of crustin antimicrobial peptides in decapods. Genetica 2012; 140:197-203. [DOI: 10.1007/s10709-012-9671-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2012] [Accepted: 08/07/2012] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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117
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Shelby KS, Popham HJR. RNA-Seq Study of Microbially Induced Hemocyte Transcripts from Larval Heliothis virescens (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). INSECTS 2012; 3:743-62. [PMID: 26466627 PMCID: PMC4553588 DOI: 10.3390/insects3030743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2012] [Revised: 07/13/2012] [Accepted: 08/02/2012] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Larvae of the tobacco budworm are major polyphagous pests throughout the Americas. Development of effective microbial biopesticides for this and related noctuid pests has been stymied by the natural resistance mediated innate immune response. Hemocytes play an early and central role in activating and coordinating immune responses to entomopathogens. To approach this problem we completed RNA-seq expression profiling of hemocytes collected from larvae following an in vivo challenge with bacterial and fungal cell wall components to elicit an immune response. A de novo exome assembly was constructed by combination of sequence tags from all treatments. Sequence tags from each treatment were aligned separately with the assembly to measure expression. The resulting table of differential expression had >22,000 assemblies each with a distinct combination of annotation and expression. Within these assemblies >1,400 were upregulated and >1,500 downregulated by immune activation with bacteria or fungi. Orthologs to innate immune components of other insects were identified including pattern recognition, signal transduction pathways, antimicrobial peptides and enzymes, melanization and coagulation. Additionally orthologs of components regulating hemocytic functions such as autophagy, apoptosis, phagocytosis and nodulation were identified. Associated cellular oxidative defenses and detoxification responses were identified providing a comprehensive snapshot of the early response to elicitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kent S Shelby
- Biological Control of Insects Research Laboratory, USDA Agricultural Research Service, 1503 S. Providence Road, Columbia, MO 65203, USA.
| | - Holly J R Popham
- Biological Control of Insects Research Laboratory, USDA Agricultural Research Service, 1503 S. Providence Road, Columbia, MO 65203, USA.
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118
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Adamo SA. The effects of the stress response on immune function in invertebrates: an evolutionary perspective on an ancient connection. Horm Behav 2012; 62:324-30. [PMID: 22381405 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2011] [Revised: 02/04/2012] [Accepted: 02/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Stress-induced changes in immune function occur in animals across phyla, and these effects are usually immunosuppressive. The function of this immunomodulation remains elusive; however, the existence of specialized receptors on immune cells suggests that it is adaptive. A comparative approach may provide a useful perspective. Although invertebrates have simpler endocrine/neuroendocrine systems and immune systems than vertebrates, they have robust stress responses that include the release of stress hormones/neurohormones. Stress hormones modify immune function in mollusks, insects, and crustaceans. As in vertebrates, the effects of stress hormones/neurohormones on invertebrate immune function are complex, and are not always immunosuppressive. They are context-, stressor-, time- and concentration-dependent. Stress hormone effects on invertebrate immune function may help to re-align resources during fight-or-flight behavior. The data are consistent with the hypothesis that stress hormones induce a reconfiguration of networks at molecular, cellular and physiological levels that allow the animal to maintain optimal immunity as the internal environment changes. This reconfiguration enhances some immune functions while suppressing others. Knowing the molecular details of these shifts will be critical for understanding the adaptive function of stress hormones on immune function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelley A Adamo
- Dept. of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie Univ., Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada.
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119
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Deleury E, Dubreuil G, Elangovan N, Wajnberg E, Reichhart JM, Gourbal B, Duval D, Baron OL, Gouzy J, Coustau C. Specific versus non-specific immune responses in an invertebrate species evidenced by a comparative de novo sequencing study. PLoS One 2012; 7:e32512. [PMID: 22427848 PMCID: PMC3299671 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0032512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2011] [Accepted: 01/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Our present understanding of the functioning and evolutionary history of invertebrate innate immunity derives mostly from studies on a few model species belonging to ecdysozoa. In particular, the characterization of signaling pathways dedicated to specific responses towards fungi and Gram-positive or Gram-negative bacteria in Drosophila melanogaster challenged our original view of a non-specific immunity in invertebrates. However, much remains to be elucidated from lophotrochozoan species. To investigate the global specificity of the immune response in the fresh-water snail Biomphalaria glabrata, we used massive Illumina sequencing of 5′-end cDNAs to compare expression profiles after challenge by Gram-positive or Gram-negative bacteria or after a yeast challenge. 5′-end cDNA sequencing of the libraries yielded over 12 millions high quality reads. To link these short reads to expressed genes, we prepared a reference transcriptomic database through automatic assembly and annotation of the 758,510 redundant sequences (ESTs, mRNAs) of B. glabrata available in public databases. Computational analysis of Illumina reads followed by multivariate analyses allowed identification of 1685 candidate transcripts differentially expressed after an immune challenge, with a two fold ratio between transcripts showing a challenge-specific expression versus a lower or non-specific differential expression. Differential expression has been validated using quantitative PCR for a subset of randomly selected candidates. Predicted functions of annotated candidates (approx. 700 unisequences) belonged to a large extend to similar functional categories or protein types. This work significantly expands upon previous gene discovery and expression studies on B. glabrata and suggests that responses to various pathogens may involve similar immune processes or signaling pathways but different genes belonging to multigenic families. These results raise the question of the importance of gene duplication and acquisition of paralog functional diversity in the evolution of specific invertebrate immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emeline Deleury
- INRA/CNRS/UNS, Institut Sophia Agrobiotech, Sophia Antipolis, France
| | | | | | - Eric Wajnberg
- INRA/CNRS/UNS, Institut Sophia Agrobiotech, Sophia Antipolis, France
| | | | - Benjamin Gourbal
- CNRS, UMR 5244, Ecologie et Evolution des Interactions (2EI), Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, Perpignan, France
| | - David Duval
- CNRS, UMR 5244, Ecologie et Evolution des Interactions (2EI), Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, Perpignan, France
| | - Olga Lucia Baron
- INRA/CNRS/UNS, Institut Sophia Agrobiotech, Sophia Antipolis, France
- UdS, UPR 9022 CNRS, IBMC, 15 rue Rene Descartes, Strasbourg, France
| | - Jérôme Gouzy
- INRA/CNRS, UMR441/2594, Laboratoire Interactions Plantes Micro-organismes, Chemin de Borde Rouge, Castanet Tolosan, France
| | - Christine Coustau
- INRA/CNRS/UNS, Institut Sophia Agrobiotech, Sophia Antipolis, France
- * E-mail:
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120
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Ou J, Meng Q, Li Y, Xiu Y, Du J, Gu W, Wu T, Li W, Ding Z, Wang W. Identification and comparative analysis of the Eriocheir sinensis microRNA transcriptome response to Spiroplasma eriocheiris infection using a deep sequencing approach. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 32:345-352. [PMID: 22166732 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2011.11.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2011] [Revised: 11/22/2011] [Accepted: 11/25/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis is one of the most important freshwater aquaculture crustacean species in China. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that are important effectors in the intricate host-pathogen interaction network. To increase the repertoire of miRNAs characterized in crustaceans and to examine the relationship between host miRNA expression and pathogen infection, we used the Illumina/Solexa deep sequencing technology to sequence two small RNA libraries prepared from haemocytes of E. sinensis under normal conditions and during infection with Spiroplasma eriocheiris. The high-throughput sequencing resulted in approximately 30,975,151 and 30,826,277 raw reads corresponding to 12,077,088 and 16,271,545 high-quality mappable reads for the normal and infected haemocyte samples, respectively. Bioinformatic analyses identified 735 unique miRNAs, including 36 that are conserved in crustaceans, 134 that are novel to crabs but are present in other arthropods (PN-type), and 565 that are completely new (PC-type). Two hundred twenty-eight unique miRNAs displayed significant differential expression between the normal and infected haemocyte samples (p < 0.0001). Of these, 133 (58%) were significantly up-regulated and 95 (42%) were significantly down-regulated upon challenge with S. eriocheiris. Real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) experiments were preformed for 10 miRNAs of the two samples, and agreement was found between the sequencing and RT-qPCR data. To our knowledge, this is the first report of comprehensive identification of E. sinensis miRNAs and of expression analysis of E. sinensis miRNAs after exposure to S. eriocheiris. Many miRNAs were differentially regulated when exposed to the pathogen, and these findings support the hypothesis that certain miRNAs might be essential in host-pathogen interactions. Our results suggest that elucidation of the molecular mechanisms responsible for miRNA regulation of the host's innate immune system should help with the development of new control strategies to prevent or treat S. eriocheiris infections in crustaceans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiangtao Ou
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity & Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, 1 Wenyuan Road, Nanjing 210046, China
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121
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Chevalier F, Herbinière-Gaboreau J, Charif D, Mitta G, Gavory F, Wincker P, Grève P, Braquart-Varnier C, Bouchon D. Feminizing Wolbachia: a transcriptomics approach with insights on the immune response genes in Armadillidium vulgare. BMC Microbiol 2012; 12 Suppl 1:S1. [PMID: 22375708 PMCID: PMC3287506 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2180-12-s1-s1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Wolbachia are vertically transmitted bacteria known to be the most widespread endosymbiont in arthropods. They induce various alterations of the reproduction of their host, including feminization of genetic males in isopod crustaceans. In the pill bug Armadillidium vulgare, the presence of Wolbachia is also associated with detrimental effects on host fertility and lifespan. Deleterious effects have been demonstrated on hemocyte density, phenoloxidase activity, and natural hemolymph septicemia, suggesting that infected individuals could have defective immune capacities. Since nothing is known about the molecular mechanisms involved in Wolbachia-A. vulgare interactions and its secondary immunocompetence modulation, we developed a transcriptomics strategy and compared A. vulgare gene expression between Wolbachia-infected animals (i.e., "symbiotic" animals) and uninfected ones (i.e., "asymbiotic" animals) as well as between animals challenged or not challenged by a pathogenic bacteria. RESULTS Since very little genetic data is available on A. vulgare, we produced several EST libraries and generated a total of 28 606 ESTs. Analyses of these ESTs revealed that immune processes were over-represented in most experimental conditions (responses to a symbiont and to a pathogen). Considering canonical crustacean immune pathways, these genes encode antimicrobial peptides or are involved in pathogen recognition, detoxification, and autophagy. By RT-qPCR, we demonstrated a general trend towards gene under-expression in symbiotic whole animals and ovaries whereas the same gene set tends to be over-expressed in symbiotic immune tissues. CONCLUSION This study allowed us to generate the first reference transcriptome ever obtained in the Isopoda group and to identify genes involved in the major known crustacean immune pathways encompassing cellular and humoral responses. Expression of immune-related genes revealed a modulation of host immunity when females are infected by Wolbachia, including in ovaries, the crucial tissue for the Wolbachia route of transmission.
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122
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Pope EC, Powell A, Roberts EC, Shields RJ, Wardle R, Rowley AF. Enhanced cellular immunity in shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) after 'vaccination'. PLoS One 2011; 6:e20960. [PMID: 21698190 PMCID: PMC3116845 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0020960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2011] [Accepted: 05/17/2011] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
It has long been viewed that invertebrates rely exclusively upon a wide variety of innate mechanisms for protection from disease and parasite invasion and lack any specific acquired immune mechanisms comparable to those of vertebrates. Recent findings, however, suggest certain invertebrates may be able to mount some form of specific immunity, termed ‘specific immune priming’, although the mechanism of this is not fully understood (see Textbox S1). In our initial experiments, either formalin-inactivated Vibrio harveyi or sterile saline were injected into the main body cavity (haemocoel) of juvenile shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei). Haemocytes (blood cells) from V. harveyi-injected shrimp were collected 7 days later and incubated with a 1∶1 mix of V. harveyi and an unrelated Gram positive bacterium, Bacillus subtilis. Haemocytes from ‘vaccinated’ shrimp showed elevated levels of phagocytosis of V. harveyi, but not B. subtilis, compared with those from saline-injected (non-immunised) animals. The increased phagocytic activity was characterised by a significant increase in the percentage of phagocytic cells. When shrimp were injected with B. subtilis rather than vibrio, there was no significant increase in the phagocytic activity of haemocytes from these animals in comparison to the non-immunised (saline injected) controls. Whole haemolymph (blood) from either ‘immunised’ or non-immunised’ shrimp was shown to display innate humoral antibacterial activity against V. harveyi that was absent against B. subtilis. However, there was no difference in the potency of antibacterial activity between V. harveyi-injected shrimp and control (saline injected) animals showing that ‘vaccination’ has no effect on this component of the shrimp's immune system. These results imply that the cellular immune system of shrimp, particularly phagocytosis, is capable of a degree of specificity and shows the phenomenon of ‘immune priming’ reported by other workers. However, in agreement with other studies, this phenomenon is not universal to all potential pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward C. Pope
- Centre for Sustainable Aquatic Research, Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea, United Kingdom
| | - Adam Powell
- Centre for Sustainable Aquatic Research, Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea, United Kingdom
| | - Emily C. Roberts
- Centre for Sustainable Aquatic Research, Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea, United Kingdom
| | - Robin J. Shields
- Centre for Sustainable Aquatic Research, Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea, United Kingdom
| | - Robin Wardle
- Intervet/Schering – Plough Animal Health (Aquaculture), Aquaculture Centre, Saffron Walden, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew F. Rowley
- Centre for Sustainable Aquatic Research, Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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