Interleukins (from IL-1 to IL-38), interferons, transforming growth factor β, and TNF-α: Receptors, functions, and roles in diseases

Multifocal motor neuropathy is not associated with altered innate immune responses to endotoxin

OBJECTIVE

Antibody- and complement-mediated peripheral nerve inflammation are central in the pathogenesis of MMN. Here, we studied innate immune responses to endotoxin in patients with MMN and controls to further our understanding of MMN risk factors and disease modifiers.

METHODS

We stimulated whole blood of 52 patients with MMN and 24 controls with endotoxin and collected plasma. With a multiplex assay, we determined levels of the immunoregulating proteins IL-1RA, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, IL-21, TNF-α, IL-8 and CD40L in unstimulated and LPS-stimulated plasma. We compared baseline and stimulated protein levels between patients and controls and correlated concentrations to clinical parameters.

RESULTS

Protein level changes after stimulation were comparable between groups (p > 0.05). IL-1RA, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-21 baseline concentrations showed a positive correlation with monthly IVIg dosage (all corrected p-values < 0.016). Patients with anti-GM1 IgM antibodies showed a more pronounced IL-21 increase after stimulation (p 0.048).

CONCLUSIONS

Altered endotoxin-induced innate immune responses are unlikely to be a susceptibility factor for MMN.

Systemic Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Intravenous Lidocaine in Surgical Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

There has recently been increasing evidence that the use of perioperative intravenous lidocaine infusion possesses analgesic, opioid-sparing and anti-inflammatory effects in surgical patients. Although opioid-sparing and analgesic properties have been strongly supported, the anti-inflammatory features are not well established in elective surgery. Therefore, the aim of this systematic review is to examine the effect of perioperative intravenous lidocaine infusion on postoperative anti-inflammatory status in patients undergoing elective surgery. A search strategy was created to identify suitable randomised clinical trials (RCTs) in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science and Clinicaltrials.gov databases until January 2023. RCTs that evaluated the effect of intravenous lidocaine infusion, compared with placebo, on adult patients who underwent elective surgery, in inflammatory markers response were included. Exclusion criteria consisted of paediatric patients, animal studies, non-RCT methodology, intervention without intravenous lidocaine, inadequate control group, duplicated samples, ongoing studies and lack of any relevant clinical outcome measures. The following inflammatory markers-interleukin (IL)-6, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, IL-1RA, IL-8, IL-10, C-reactive protein (CRP), IL-1, IL-1β, interferon (IFN)-γ, cortisol, IL-4, IL-17, high-mobility group protein B1 (HMGB1) and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β-were evaluated as outcomes in this review. A total of 21 studies, including 1254 patients, were identified. Intravenous lidocaine infusion significantly reduced the change from IL-6 baseline levels at the end of surgery compared to a placebo (standardised mean difference [SMD]: -0.647, 95% confidence interval [CI]: -1.034 to -0.260). Usage of lidocaine was associated with a significant reduction in other postoperative pro-inflammatory markers, such as TNF-α, IL-1RA, IL-8, IL-17, HMGB-1 and CRP. There was no significant difference in other markers, such as IL-10, IL-1β, IL-1, IFN-γ, IL-4, TGF-β and cortisol. This systematic review and meta-analysis provide support for the administration of perioperative intravenous lidocaine infusion as an anti-inflammatory strategy in elective surgery.

A systematic review of the effect of structured exercise on inflammation and body composition in inflammatory bowel disease

PURPOSE

Given the substantial risk of treatment failure in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), adjuvant therapies may play a role in disease management. We aim to carry out a systematic review to examine the effects of structured exercise on the inflammatory response in patients with IBD. Our secondary aim is to examine the effect of structured exercise programmes on body composition given both an increase in visceral obesity and the presence of sarcopenia have deleterious effects on outcomes in IBD.

METHODS

A systematic review was carried out following the Methodological Expectations of Cochrane Intervention Reviews (MECIR) manual and the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. Title/Abstract and MeSH Terms were used to search for relevant studies.

RESULTS

In total, 1516 records were screened for eligibility, and 148 records were reviewed for eligibility, of which 16 were included and a further 7 studies were identified from hand searching references. Four studies included body composition outcomes, and 14 studies reviewed the inflammatory response to exercise.

CONCLUSION

Further studies of adequate duration are required to include patients with more active disease to demonstrate an inflammatory response to exercise. Body composition measurements including muscle mass and visceral adiposity may play a key role in response to medical therapy in IBD and should be included as exploratory outcomes in future studies. A meta-analysis was not carried out due to the significant heterogeneity amongst studies.

Comprehensive analysis to construct a novel immune-related prognostic panel in aging-related gastric cancer based on the lncRNA‒miRNA-mRNA ceRNA network

Introduction: Gastric cancer (GC) is the fifth frequent malignancy and is responsible for the third leading cause of cancer-related deaths. Gastric cancer is an aging-related disease, with incidence and mortality rates increasing with aging. The development of GC is affected by lncRNAs, miRNAs, and mRNAs at the transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels. This study aimed to establish a prognostic panel for GC based on competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) networks. Methods: RNA sequences were obtained from the TCGA database. Different expressions of RNAs were scrutinized with the EdgeR package. The ceRNA network was built using the starBase database and the Cytoscape. The prognostic panel was constituted with the LASSO algorithm. We developed a nomogram comprising clinical characteristic and risk score. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) was used to evaluate the accuracy of the nomogram prediction. Hub RNAs expressions were detected by qPCR, immunohistochemistry and western blot respectively. Clinical relevance and survival analyses were analyzed. The relationship between RNAs and immune infiltrations, as well as immune checkpoints, was analyzed and evaluated using the CIBERSORT, TIMER and TISIDB databases. Results: Four DElncRNAs, 21 DEmiRNAs and 45 DEmRNAs were included in the ceRNA network. A 3-element panel (comprising lncRNA PVT1, hsa-miR-130a-3p and RECK) with poor overall survival (OS) was established and qPCR was applied to validate the expressions of hub RNAs. Hub RNAs were firmly associated with T, M, and N stage. The CIBERSORT database showed that the high lassoScore group exhibited a significantly high ratio of resting memory CD4⁺ T cells, M2 macrophages and a significantly low ratio of activated memory CD4⁺ T cells and M1 macrophages. According to the TIMER database, this panel was linked to immune infiltrations and immune cell gene markers. TISIDB database indicated that RECK was positively correlated with immune checkpoints (including CD160, CD244, PDCD1, and TGFBR1). Discussion: A novel triple prognostic panel of GC constructed based on the ceRNA network was associated with clinical prognostic, clinicopathological features, immune infiltrations, immune checkpoints and immune gene markers. This panel might provide potential therapeutic targets for GC and more experimental verification research is needed.

Alterations in inflammasome-related immunometabolites in individuals with severe psychiatric disorders

INTRODUCTION

Psychiatric disorders are common and significantly impact the quality of life. Inflammatory processes are proposed to contribute to the emergence of psychiatric disorders. In addition to inflammation, disturbances in metabolic pathways have been observed in individuals with different psychiatric disorders. A suggested key player in the interaction between inflammation and metabolism is the Nod-like receptor 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, and NLRP3 is known to react to a number of specific metabolites. However, little is known about the interplay between these immunometabolites and the NLRP3 inflammasome in mental health disorders.

AIM

To assess the interplay between immunometabolites and inflammasome function in a transdiagnostic cohort of individuals with severe mental disorders.

METHODS

Mass spectrometry-based analysis of selected immunometabolites, previously known to affect inflammasome function, were performed in plasma from low-functioning individuals with severe mental disorders (n = 39) and sex and aged-matched healthy controls (n = 39) using a transdiagnostic approach. Mann Whitney U test was used to test differences in immunometabolites between psychiatric patients and controls. To assess the relationship between inflammasome parameters, disease severity, and the immunometabolites, Spearman's rank-order correlation test was used. Conditional logistic regression was used to control for potential confounding variables. Principal component analysis was performed to explore immunometabolic patterns.

RESULTS

Among the selected immunometabolites (n = 9), serine, glutamine, and lactic acid were significantly higher in the patient group compared to the controls. After adjusting for confounders, the differences remained significant for all three immunometabolites. No significant correlations were found between immunometabolites and disease severity.

CONCLUSION

Previous research on metabolic changes in mental disorders has not been conclusive. This study shows that severely ill patients have common metabolic perturbations. The changes in serine, glutamine, and lactic acid could constitute a direct contribution to the low-grade inflammation observed in severe psychiatric disorders.

Retinoic Acid-Induced Regulation of Inflammatory Pathways Is a Potential Sepsis Treatment

Sepsis is among the most dangerous known diseases, resulting from the dysregulation of the innate immune system in a process that is characterized largely by proinflammatory cytokines. It manifests as an excessive immune response to a pathogen and often leads to life-threatening complications such as shock and multiple-organ failure. Within the past several decades, much progress has been made to better understand the pathophysiology of sepsis and improve treatment. However, the average case-fatality rate for sepsis remains high. Current anti-inflammatory therapeutics for sepsis are not effective for use as first-line treatments. Focusing on all-trans-retinoic acid (RA), or activated vitamin A, as a novel anti-inflammatory agent, we have shown both in vitro and in vivo that RA decreases the production of proinflammatory cytokines. In vitro studies using mouse RAW 264.7 macrophages show that RA decreases tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and increases mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase 1 (MKP-1). RA treatment was also associated with the reduced phosphorylation of key inflammatory signaling proteins. Using a lipopolysaccharide and cecal slurry sepsis model, we found that RA significantly reduced mortality rates in mice, downregulated proinflammatory cytokine production, decreased neutrophil infiltration into lung tissue, and reduced the destructive lung histopathology typically seen in sepsis. We propose that RA may increase the function of native regulatory pathways and serve as a novel treatment for sepsis.

Salvia miltiorrhiza polysaccharide and its related metabolite 5-methoxyindole-3-carboxaldehyde ameliorate experimental colitis by regulating Nrf2/Keap1 signaling pathway

The roots of Salvia miltiorrhiza have been used in Traditional Chinese Medicine for thousands of years. However, tons of aerial parts of this plant are usually discarded in the production of roots preparation. To make better use of these plant resources, the polysaccharide isolated from the aerial part of S. miltiorrhiza was investigated for its potential protection against intestinal diseases. A pectic polysaccharide (SMAP-1) was isolated and characterized being composed of homogalacturonan as the main chain and rhamnogalacturonan type I as ramified region, with side chains including arabinans and possible arabinogalactan type I and II. SMAP-1 exhibited robust protective effects against dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis and restored colitis symptoms, colonic inflammation, and barrier functions. Anti-oxidative effects were also observed by up-regulating Nrf2/Keap1 signaling pathway. Additionally, the level of serum 5-methoxyindole-3-carboxaldehyde (5-MC) was restored by SMAP-1 identified in metabolomic analysis, being correlated with the aforementioned effects. Protection against oxidative stress on intestinal porcine enterocyte cells (IPEC-J2) by 5-MC was observed through the activation of Nrf2/Keap1 system, as also shown by SMAP-1. In conclusion, SMAP-1 could be a promising candidate for colitis prevention, and 5-MC could be the signal metabolite of SMAP-1 in protecting against oxidative stress in the intestine.

Aqueous humor cytokine levels are associated with the severity of visual field defects in patients with primary open-angle glaucoma

BACKGROUND

To evaluate the aqueous humor (AH) levels of cytokines in primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) patients and cataract patients.

METHODS

Thirty-eight POAG patients and 26 cataract patients were recruited. Peripheral blood (PB) was collected from each subject. The POAG group was divided into 2 subgroups according to the severity of visual field defects. The cutoff point of the mean deviation (MD) of the visual field was -12 dB. AH was obtained at the time of anterior chamber puncture during cataract or glaucoma surgery by using a 27-gauge needle attached to a microsyringe. AH and PB levels of interleukin-2 (IL-2), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), transforming growth factor-beta2 (TGF-β2) and IL-4 were assayed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Postoperative intraocular pressures (IOPs) of POAG patients were recorded during the follow-up period.

RESULTS

TNF-α and TGF-β2 showed significantly higher AH levels in the POAG group than in the cataract group (P < 0.001 and P = 0.001, respectively). For the POAG group, preoperative IOPs were significantly positively correlated with AH levels of TNF-α (r² = 0.129, P = 0.027) and TGF-β2 (r² = 0.273, P = 0.001). AH levels of TGF-β2 were significantly different among cataract patients, POAG patients with MD> -12 dB and POAG patients with MD≤ -12 dB (P = 0.001). AH levels of TNF-α were significantly positively associated with IOP reduction after trabeculectomy (P = 0.025). AH and PB levels of cytokines were not related to the long-term success of trabeculectomy.

CONCLUSION

The levels of TNF-α and TGF-β2 showed different profiles in POAG patients and cataract patients. AH levels of TGF-β2 were correlated with the severity of glaucomatous neuropathy in POAG patients. The findings suggest possible roles for cytokines in the pathogenesis and development of POAG.

Role of CD19+ CD5+ CD1d+ Bregs in maintaining the Th17/Treg balance in mice with systemic lupus erythematosus complicated with atherosclerosis

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we aimed to investigate Bregs, their regulatory effects on Th17/Treg cell balance, and the release of downstream inflammatory factors in a mouse model of low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLr)^-/-  + Pristane.

METHODS

After the establishment of the mouse model of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) complicated with atherosclerosis (AS), 8-week-old LDLr^-/-  + Pristane mice (n = 10) were included in the SLE + AS group. Furthermore, 8-week-old MRL/lpr and C57 mice were used as the SLE and normal control groups, respectively (n = 10 per group). After feeding the mice a high-fat diet for 14 weeks, peripheral blood and spleen of mice were collected, and Bregs, Th17, and Treg cells and related inflammatory factors were detected by flow cytometry, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

The number of Bregs and Tregs in spleen lymphocytes of SLE + AS mice significantly decreased compared with the C57 group (p < .05), whereas the number of Th17 cells significantly increased (p = .000). Furthermore, the proportion of Bregs showed a negative correlation with the Th17/Treg ratio (p = .03). Mice in the SLE + AS group showed higher serum interleukin (IL)-10, IL-17, and tumor necrosis factor-α levels than those in the SLE and C57 groups (p < .05). Furthermore, IL-35 and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β expression was reduced in the SLE + AS group compared with the C57 group (p < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

The proportion of Breg decreases was negatively associated with increased Th17/Treg which was increased in SLE + AS mice, indicating that Bregs may regulate Th17/Treg cell homeostasis and cytokine release via IL-35 and TGF-β production.

Biological testing during acute psychological stress: A hindrance or an opportunity?

All humans deal with acute psychological stress periodically. Some individuals are affected by needle phobia in which a heightened sense of arousal is precipitated by venepuncture. Acute psychological stress invokes a range of physiological changes including activation of the sympathetic-adrenal-medullary and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axes. In this review article, we first examine the human response to acute stress. We then provide an overview of how psychological stress in a subject is likely to be a source of pre-analytical variability for certain measurands, and the major biochemical markers that have been studied in research aiming to quantify stress. As such, we highlight how stress can be a hindrance to the accurate interpretation of certain laboratory results (particularly cortisol, prolactin, metanephrines and growth hormone), and point out the role that biochemical analysis might play in future studies looking at the effects of stress on human behaviour.

Alteration patterns of peripheral concentrations of cytokines and associated inflammatory proteins in acute and chronic stages of schizophrenia: a systematic review and network meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Immune system dysfunction is considered to play an aetiological role in schizophrenia spectrum disorders, with substantial alterations in the concentrations of specific peripheral inflammatory proteins, such as cytokines. However, there are inconsistencies in the literature over which inflammatory proteins are altered throughout the course of illness. Through conducting a systematic review and network meta-analysis, this study aimed to investigate the patterns of alteration that peripheral inflammatory proteins undergo in both acute and chronic stages of schizophrenia spectrum disorders, relative to a healthy control population.

METHODS

In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we searched PubMed, PsycINFO, EMBASE, CINAHL, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials from inception to March 31, 2022, for published studies reporting peripheral inflammatory protein concentrations in cases of people with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders and healthy controls. Inclusion criteria were: (1) observational or experimental design; (2) a population consisting of adults diagnosed with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders with a specified indicator of acute or chronic stage of illness; (3) a comparable healthy control population without mental illness; (4) a study outcome measuring the peripheral protein concentration of a cytokine, associated inflammatory marker, or C-reactive protein. We excluded studies that did not measure cytokine proteins or associated biomarkers in blood. Mean and SDs of inflammatory marker concentrations were extracted directly from full-text publshed articles; articles that did not report data as results or supplementary results were excluded (ie, authors were not contacted) and grey literature and unpublished studies were not sought. Pairwise and network meta-analyses were done to measure the standardised mean difference in peripheral protein concentrations between three groups: individuals with acute schizophrenia-spectrum disorder, individuals with chronic schizophrenia-spectrum disorder, and healthy controls. This protocol was registered on PROSPERO, CRD42022320305.

FINDINGS

Of 13 617 records identified in the database searches, 4492 duplicates were removed, 9125 were screened for eligibility, 8560 were excluded after title and abstract screening, and three were excluded due to limited access to the full-text article. 324 full-text articles were then excluded due to inappropriate outcomes, mixed or undefined schizophrenia cohorts, or duplicate study populations, five were removed due to concerns over data integrity, and 215 studies were included in the meta-analysis. 24 921 participants were included, with 13 952 adult cases of schizophrenia-spectrum disorder and 10 969 adult healthy controls (descriptive data for the entire cohort were not available for age, numbers of males and females, and ethnicity). Concentration of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA), soluble interleukin-2 receptor (sIL-2R), IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and C-reactive protein were consistently elevated in both individuals with acute schizophrenia-spectrum disorder and chronic schizophrenia-spectrum disorder, relative to healthy controls. IL-2 and interferon (IFN)-γ were significantly elevated in acute schizophrenia-spectrum disorder, while IL-4, IL-12, and IFN-γ were significantly decreased in chronic schizophrenia-spectrum disorder. Sensitivity and meta-regression analyses revealed that study quality and a majority of the evaluated methodological, demographic, and diagnostic factors had no significant impact on the observed results for most of the inflammatory markers. Specific exceptions to this included: methodological factors of assay source (for IL-2 and IL-8), assay validity (for IL-1β), and study quality (for transforming growth factor-β1); demographic factors of age (for IFN-γ, IL-4, and IL-12), sex (for IFN-γ and IL-12), smoking (for IL-4), and BMI (for IL-4); and diagnostic factors including diagnostic composition of schizophrenia-spectrum cohort (for IL-1β IL-2, IL-6, and TNF-α), antipsychotic-free cases (for IL-4 and IL-1RA), illness duration (for IL-4), symptom severity (for IL-4), and subgroup composition (for IL-4).

INTERPRETATION

Results suggest that people with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders have a baseline level of inflammatory protein alteration throughout the illness, as reflected by consistently elevated pro-inflammatory proteins, hypothesised here as trait markers (eg, IL-6), while those with acute psychotic illness might have superimposed immune activity with increased concentrations of hypothesised state markers (eg, IFN-γ). Further research is required to determine whether these peripheral alterations are reflected within the central nervous system. This research facilitates an entry point in understanding how clinically relevant inflammatory biomarkers might one day be useful to the diagnosis and prognostication of schizophrenia-spectrum disorders.

FUNDING

None.

Mmu_circ_0000037 inhibits the progression of acute pancreatitis by miR-92a-3p/Pias1 axis

BACKGROUND

Acute pancreatitis (AP) is an inflammatory disease with high mortality. Previous study has suggested that circular RNAs are dysregulated and involved in the regulation of inflammatory responses in AP. This study aimed to investigate the function and regulatory mechanism underlying mmu_circ_0000037 in caerulein-induced AP cellular model.

METHODS

Caerulein-treated MPC-83 cells were used as an in vitro cellular model for AP. The expression levels of mmu_circ_0000037, microRNA (miR)-92a-3p, and protein inhibitor of activated STAT1 (Pias1) were detected by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Cell viability, amylase activity, apoptosis, and inflammatory response were detected by 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide, Amylase Assay Kit, flow cytometry, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. The protein level was quantified by western blot analysis. The target interaction between miR-92a-3p and mmu_circ_0000037 or Pias1 were predicted by StarbaseV3.0 and validated by dual-luciferase reporter assay and RNA immunoprecipitation assay.

RESULTS

Mmu_circ_0000037 and Pias1 levels were decreased, whereas miR-92a-3p expression was elevated in caerulein-induced MPC-83 cells. Overexpression of mmu_circ_0000037 protected MPC-83 cells from caerulein-induced the decrease of cell viability, as well as the promotion of amylase activity, apoptosis and inflammation. MiR-92a-3p was targeted by mmu_circ_0000037, and miR-92a-3p overexpression rescued the effect of mmu_circ_0000037 on caerulein-induced MPC-83 cell injury. Pias1 was confirmed as a target of miR-92a-3p and mmu_circ_0000037 regulated the expression of Pias1 by sponging miR-92a-3p.

CONCLUSION

Mmu_circ_0000037 relieves caerulein-induced inflammatory injury in MPC-83 cells by targeting miR-92a-3p/Pias1 axis, providing a theoretical basis for the treatment of AP.

Cytokine-mediated STAT-dependent pathways underpinning human B-cell differentiation and function

B cells are fundamental to host defence against infectious diseases; indeed, the ability of humans to elicit robust antibody responses following exposure to foreign antigens underpins long-lived humoral immunity and serological memory, as well as the success of most currently administered vaccines. However, B cells also have a dark side - they can cause myriad diseases, including autoimmunity, atopy, allergy and malignancy. Thus, it is critical to understand the molecular requirements for generating effective, high-affinity, specific immune responses following natural infection or vaccination, as well as for constraining B-cell function to mitigate B-cell-mediated immune dyscrasias. In this review, we discuss recent developments that have been derived from the identification and detailed analysis of individuals with inborn errors of immunity that disrupt cytokine signalling, resulting in immune dysregulatory conditions. These studies have defined fundamental cytokine/cytokine receptor/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) signalling pathways that are critical for the generation and maintenance of human memory B-cell and plasma cell subsets during host defence, as well as revealed mechanisms of disease pathogenesis causing immune deficiency, autoimmunity and atopy. More importantly, these studies have identified molecules that could be targeted to either enhance humoral immunity in the settings of infection or vaccination, or attenuate humoral immunity that contributes to antibody-mediated autoimmunity or allergy.

International consensus statement on allergy and rhinology: Allergic rhinitis - 2023

BACKGROUND

In the 5 years that have passed since the publication of the 2018 International Consensus Statement on Allergy and Rhinology: Allergic Rhinitis (ICAR-Allergic Rhinitis 2018), the literature has expanded substantially. The ICAR-Allergic Rhinitis 2023 update presents 144 individual topics on allergic rhinitis (AR), expanded by over 40 topics from the 2018 document. Originally presented topics from 2018 have also been reviewed and updated. The executive summary highlights key evidence-based findings and recommendation from the full document.

METHODS

ICAR-Allergic Rhinitis 2023 employed established evidence-based review with recommendation (EBRR) methodology to individually evaluate each topic. Stepwise iterative peer review and consensus was performed for each topic. The final document was then collated and includes the results of this work.

RESULTS

ICAR-Allergic Rhinitis 2023 includes 10 major content areas and 144 individual topics related to AR. For a substantial proportion of topics included, an aggregate grade of evidence is presented, which is determined by collating the levels of evidence for each available study identified in the literature. For topics in which a diagnostic or therapeutic intervention is considered, a recommendation summary is presented, which considers the aggregate grade of evidence, benefit, harm, and cost.

CONCLUSION

The ICAR-Allergic Rhinitis 2023 update provides a comprehensive evaluation of AR and the currently available evidence. It is this evidence that contributes to our current knowledge base and recommendations for patient evaluation and treatment.

Diagnostic Evaluation Using Salivary Gland Ultrasonography in Primary Sjögren's Syndrome

The purpose of this study is to investigate the clinical manifestations in patients with early primary Sjögren's syndrome (pSS) based on the severity score found by salivary gland ultrasonography. Thirty-five newly diagnosed patients with early pSS were enrolled and divided into mild (score 0-1) and severe (score 2-3) groups according to the salivary gland ultrasonography grade (SGUS) scores at baseline. Clinical evaluation, ESSPRI and ESSDAI index values, sicca symptoms of the mouth, salivary capacity, and serum autoantibodies and cytokines were investigated. The mean age of pSS patients at diagnosis was 49.9 ± 11.9 years, and the mean duration of sicca symptoms was 0.58 years. ESSPRI (EULAR Sjögren's syndrome patient report index) and ESSDAI (EULAR Sjögren's syndrome disease index) scores were 15.97 and 4.77, respectively. Clinical manifestations, including the low production of saliva and autoantibody production, such as antinuclear antibodies, rheumatoid factor, and anti-SSA antibody, were found. A higher prevalence of rheumatoid factor (p = 0.0365) and antinuclear antibody (p = 0.0063) and a higher elevation of total IgG (p = 0.0365) were found in the severe group than in the mild group. In addition, the elevated titer of IL-25 was detected in the severe group than in the mild group. This observation indicated that salivary gland ultrasonography grade (SGUS) scans may help physicians diagnose pSS and the elevated titer of IL-25 in patients may be implicated in the pathogenesis of pSS.

Theroleofinterleukin-1familyinfibroticdiseases

Fibrosis refers to the phenomenon that fibrous connective tissues are increased and parenchymal cells are decreased in organs or tissues such as lung, heart, liver, kidney, skin and so on. It usually occurs at the late stage of repair of chronic or recurrent tissue damage. Fibrotic disease is the main factor for the morbidity and mortality of all tissues and organ systems. Long-term fibrosis can lead to organ and tissue dysfunction and even failure. Interleukin -1 family cytokines are a series of classical inflammatory factors and involved in the occurrence and development process of multiple fibrotic diseases, its biological function, relationship with diseases and application are more and more favored by scientists from various countries. So far, 11 cytokines and 10 receptors of IL-1 family have been identified. In this paper, the cytokines, receptors, signaling pathways and biological functions of IL-1 family are summarized, and the correlation with fibrosis diseases is analyzed.

Injectable Temperature-Sensitive Hydrogel Loaded with IL-36Ra for the Relief of Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA) is an inflammatory disease accompanied by synovial joint inflammation, and IL-36 plays an important role in this process. Local application of IL-36 receptor antagonist (IL-36Ra) can effectively control the inflammatory response, thereby protecting cartilage and slowing down the development of OA. However, its application is limited by the fact that it is rapidly metabolized locally. We designed and prepared a temperature-sensitive poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)-poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA-PEG-PLGA) hydrogel (IL-36Ra@Gel) system carrying IL-36Ra and evaluated its basic physicochemical characteristics. The drug release curve of IL-36Ra@Gel indicated that this system could slowly release the drug over a longer period. Furthermore, degradation experiments showed that it could be largely degraded from the body within 1 month. The biocompatibility-related results showed that it had no significant effect on cell proliferation compared to the control group. In addition, the expression of MMP-13 and ADAMTS-5 was lower in IL-36Ra@Gel-treated chondrocytes than in the control group, and the opposite results appeared in aggrecan and collagen X. After 8 weeks of treatment with IL-36Ra@Gel by joint cavity injection, HE and Safranin O/Fast green staining showed that the degree of cartilage tissue destruction in the IL-36Ra@Gel-treated group was less than those in other groups. Meanwhile, the joints of mice in the IL-36Ra@Gel group had the most intact cartilage surface, the smallest thickness of cartilage erosion, and the lowest OARSI and Mankins score among all groups. Consequently, the combination of IL-36Ra and PLGA-PLEG-PLGA temperature-sensitive hydrogels can greatly improve the therapeutic effect and prolong the drug duration time, thus effectively delaying the progression of degenerative changes in OA, providing a new feasible nonsurgical treatment for OA.

Molecular characterization, expression analysis and function identification of TNFα in black rockfish (Sebastes schlegelii)

TNFα, as a pro-inflammatory cytokine, plays an important role in inflammation and immune homeostasis maintaining. However, the knowledge about the immune functions of teleost TNFα against bacterial infections is still limited. In this study, the TNFα was characterized from black rockfish (Sebastes schlegelii). The bioinformatics analyses showed the evolutionary conservations in sequence and structure. The expression levels of Ss_TNFα mRNA were significantly up-regulated in the spleen and intestine after Aeromonas salmonicides and Edwardsiella tarda infections, and dramatically down-regulated in PBLs after LPS and poly I:C stimulations. Meanwhile, the extremely up-regulated expressions of other inflammatory cytokines (especially for IL-1β and IL17C) were observed in the intestine and spleen after bacterial infection and down-regulations were obtained in PBLs. The significant regulation with expression patterns of Ss_TNFα and other inflammatory cytokine mRNAs illustrated the variations of immunity in different tissues and cells of black rockfish. The regulated functions of Ss_TNFα in the up/downstream signaling pathways were preliminarily verified on the transcription and translation levels. Subsequently, in vitro knockdown of Ss_TNFα in the intestine cells of black rockfish confirmed the important immune roles of Ss_TNFα. Finally, the apoptotic analyses were conducted in PBLs and intestine cells of black rockfish. The rapid increases of the apoptotic rates were obtained in both PBLs and intestine cells after treatment with rSs_TNFα, but distinct apoptotic rates at the early and late stages of apoptosis were observed between these two types of cells. The results of apoptotic analyses suggested that Ss_TNFα could trigger apoptosis of different cells in different strategies in black rockfish. Overall, the findings in this study indicated the important roles of Ss_TNFα in the immune system of black rockfish during pathogenic infection, as well as the potential function on biomarker for monitoring the health status.

Dipotassium Glycyrrhizininate Improves Skin Wound Healing by Modulating Inflammatory Process

Wound healing is characterized by a systemic and complex process of cellular and molecular activities. Dipotassium Glycyrrhizinate (DPG), a side product derived from glycyrrhizic acid, has several biological effects, such as being antiallergic, antioxidant, antibacterial, antiviral, gastroprotective, antitumoral, and anti-inflammatory. This study aimed to evaluate the anti-inflammatory effect of topical DPG on the healing of cutaneous wounds by secondary intention in an in vivo experimental model. Twenty-four male Wistar rats were used in the experiment, and were randomly divided into six groups of four. Circular excisions were performed and topically treated for 14 days after wound induction. Macroscopic and histopathological analyses were performed. Gene expression was evaluated by real-time qPCR. Our results showed that treatment with DPG caused a decrease in the inflammatory exudate as well as an absence of active hyperemia. Increases in granulation tissue, tissue reepithelization, and total collagen were also observed. Furthermore, DPG treatment reduced the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (Tnf-α, Cox-2, Il-8, Irak-2, Nf-kB, and Il-1) while increasing the expression of Il-10, demonstrating anti-inflammatory effects across all three treatment periods. Based on our results, we conclude that DPG attenuates the inflammatory process by promoting skin wound healing through the modulation of distinct mechanisms and signaling pathways, including anti-inflammatory ones. This involves modulation of the expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine expression; promotion of new granulation tissue; angiogenesis; and tissue re-epithelialization, all of which contribute to tissue remodeling.

Detecting early-warning signals for influenza by dysregulated dynamic network biomarkers

As a dynamical system, complex disease always has a sudden state transition at the tipping point, which is the result of the long-term accumulation of abnormal regulations. This paper proposes a novel approach to detect the early-warning signals of influenza A (H3N2 and H1N1) outbreaks by dysregulated dynamic network biomarkers (dysregulated DNBs) for individuals. The results of cross-validation show that our approach can detect early-warning signals before the symptom appears successfully. Unlike the traditional DNBs, our dysregulated DNBs are anchored and very few, which is essential for disease early diagnosis in clinical practice. Moreover, the genes of dysregulated DNBs are significantly enriched in the influenza-related pathways. The source code of this paper can be freely downloaded from https://github.com/YanhaoHuo/dysregulated-DNBs.git.

The Molecular Mechanisms of Systemic Sclerosis-Associated Lung Fibrosis

Systemic sclerosis (SSc), also known as scleroderma, is an autoimmune disorder that affects the connective tissues and has the highest mortality rate among the rheumatic diseases. One of the hallmarks of SSc is fibrosis, which may develop systemically, affecting the skin and virtually any visceral organ in the body. Fibrosis of the lungs leads to interstitial lung disease (ILD), which is currently the leading cause of death in SSc. The identification of effective treatments to stop or reverse lung fibrosis has been the main challenge in reducing SSc mortality and improving patient outcomes and quality of life. Thus, understanding the molecular mechanisms, altered pathways, and their potential interactions in SSc lung fibrosis is key to developing potential therapies. In this review, we discuss the diverse molecular mechanisms involved in SSc-related lung fibrosis to provide insights into the altered homeostasis state inherent to this fatal disease complication.

Exacerbation of allergic rhinitis by the commensal bacterium Streptococcus salivarius

Allergic rhinitis (AR)-commonly called hay fever-is a widespread condition that affects the quality of life of millions of people. The pathophysiology of AR remains incompletely understood. In particular, it is unclear whether members of the colonizing nasal microbiota contribute to AR. Here, using 16S ribosomal RNA sequencing, we show that the nasal microbiome of patients with AR (n = 55) shows distinct differences compared with that from healthy individuals (n = 105), including decreased heterogeneity and the increased abundance of one species, Streptococcus salivarius. Using ex vivo and in vivo models of AR, we demonstrate that this commensal bacterium contributes to AR development, promoting inflammatory cytokine release and morphological changes in the nasal epithelium that are characteristic of AR. Our data indicate that this is due to the ability of S. salivarius to adhere to the nasal epithelium under AR conditions. Our study indicates the potential of targeted antibacterial approaches for AR therapy.

Type 2 Immunity and Its Impact on COVID-19 Infection in the Airways

Type 2 immune responses are characterized by elevated type 2 cytokines and blood eosinophilia. Emerging evidence suggests that people with chronic type 2 inflammatory lung diseases are not particularly susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Intriguingly, recent in vitro, ex vivo research demonstrates type 2 cytokines, particularly IL-13, reduce the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection in the airway epithelium. IL-13 treatment in airway epithelial cells followed by SARS-CoV-2 diminished viral entry, replication, spread, and cell death. IL-13 reduces the expression of the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor in the airway epithelium and transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2), particularly in ciliated cells. It also alters the cellular composition toward a secretory-cell-rich phenotype reducing total ciliated cells and, thus, reducing viral tropism. IL-13 enhances Muc5ac mucin and glycocalyx secretion in the periciliary layer, which acts as a physical barrier to restrict virus attachment. Moreover, type 2 airway immune cells, such as M2 alveolar macrophages, CD4+ tissue-resident memory T cells, and innate lymphoid 2 cells, may also rescue type 2 airways from SARS-CoV-2-induced adverse effects. In this review, we discuss recent findings that demonstrate how type 2 immunity alters immune responses against SARS-CoV-2 and its consequences on COVID-19 pathogenesis.

Additive Effects of Dietary Supplementation with Zeolite and Methyl-Sulfonyl-Methane on Growth Performance and Interleukin Levels of Broiler Chickens

Silicate minerals are common additives in poultry feed. To assess their effects, we added zeolite (ZEO) and methyl-sulfonyl-methane (MSM) to broiler chicken diets. A total of 960 one-day-old Ross broiler chicks were randomly divided into four dietary groups with six replicates. Each broiler was maintained until it reached 35 days of age. A completely randomized 2 × 2 experimental design was used, with two ZEO (0 and 1.0%) and two MSM (0 and 0.10%) levels. We observed an additive effect (P<0.05) on interleukin-2 (IL-2) concentrations in broiler bursa and serum when both ZEO and MSM were present. Both ZEO or MSM produced significant (P<0.05) increases in body weight, weight gain, and feed intake. Both increased IL-2 and IL-6 levels in the bursa and serum. Neither affected the serum concentrations of albumin, AST, cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, glucose, total protein, or triglycerides. In summary, these results support supplementation with ZEO and MSM in broiler diets, both separately and in combination.

Network-Based Assessment of Minimal Change Disease Identifies Glomerular Response to IL-7 and IL-12 Pathways Activation as Innovative Treatment Target

Background: Minimal change disease (MCD), a major cause of nephrotic syndrome, is usually treated by corticosteroid administration. MCD unresponsiveness to therapy and recurrences are nonetheless frequently observed, particularly in adults. To explore MCD-related pathogenetic mechanisms and to identify novel drug targets ultimately contributing to novel therapeutic avenues with a certain specificity for MCD, we compared glomerular transcriptomes from MCD with membranous nephropathy (MN) patients and healthy controls. Methods: Renal biopsies from adult patients with MCD (n = 14) or MN (n = 12), and non-diseased controls (n = 8) were selected from the Norwegian Kidney Biopsy Registry. RNA for 75 base-pair paired-end RNASeq were obtained from laser capture micro-dissected (LCM) glomeruli from FFPE sections. Transcriptional landscapes were computed by combining pathway-centered analyses and network science methodologies that integrate multiple bioinformatics resources. Results: Compared to normal glomeruli, cells from MCD displayed an inflammatory signature apparently governed by the IL1 and IL7 systems. While enrichment of IL1 production and secretion was a shared feature of MCD and MN compared to normal tissue, responses involving IL7 pathway activation were unique to MCD. Indeed, IL7R expressed by glomeruli was the most upregulated gene of the interleukin family in MCD versus normal controls. IL7 pathway activation was paralleled by significant enrichment in adaptive immune system processes and transcriptional regulation and depletion in pathways related to energy metabolism and transcription. Downregulation of these organ function-related themes again occurred predominately in MCD and was significantly less pronounced in MN. Immunofluorescence and immunohistochemistry, respectively, confirmed the expression of phosphorylated IL-7 receptor alpha (IL7RA, CD127) and IL12 receptor beta 1 (IL12RB1) proteins. Conclusions: Gene expression profiling of archival FFPE-biopsies identifies MCD-specific signatures with IL7RA and IL12RB1 as novel targets for MCD treatment.

Evaluation of inflammatory cytokines in drug-naïve major depressive disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Objective: Altered levels of peripheral inflammatory and proinflammatory cytokine markers affect the different clinical stages of major depressive disorder (MDD). A concrete understanding of the causal mechanism of MDD is a prerequisite in developing treatment strategies and preventive plans. Here we aimed to conduct an updated systematic review and meta-analysis of studies assessing the association of C-reactive protein (CRP), INF-γ, MCP-1, and TNF-α in the peripheral fluid of drug-naïve MDD patients and healthy controls (HCs). Methods: We extracted articles from PubMed, ProQuest, PsycINFO, Web of Science, and Scopus databases from inception until 14 February 2021, to find relevant studies. In this meta-analysis, we included a total of 23 eligible studies (1,366 MDD patients and 1,342 controls) in the final meta-analysis. The Cochran's chi-square Q-test and I2-index were applied to measure the heterogeneity and inconsistency of all combined results. We selected a random-effect model during the analysis and measured publication biases using the funnel plot. We performed Bonferroni adjustment for multiple testing. Results: We found a high level of TNF-α in MDD patients than in control subjects Standardized Mean Difference (SMD) with a random-effects model: 1.04, 95% CI: 0.69-1.39, z = 5.84, p < 0.001). The levels of CRP (SMD with a random-effects model: 0.18, 95% CI: -0.85-1.23, z = 0.35, p = 0.73), INF-ɤ (SMD with a random-effects model: -0.05, 95% CI: -2.72-2.62, z = 0.03, p = 0.97), and MCP-1 (SMD with a random-effects model: 0.70, 95% CI: -0.09-1.49, z = 1.73, p = 0.08) were not significantly varies between MDD patients and HCs. Conclusion: The present study findings suggest the upregulated level of peripheral TNF-α but not CRP, INF-γ, and MCP-1 involve in depression. The elevated inflammatory cytokines confirmed the inflammatory state of depression. Therefore, inflammatory cytokines might serve as potential risk assessment markers in MDD.

Do CCR5 (CCR5Δ32) and TLR3 (RS5743313) gene polymorphisms prevent chronic hepatitis B infection?

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is still a significant health problem in human. HBV severity or sensitivity of patients may be based on the individual genetic factors significantly. The aim of this study is to investigate the association of CCR5 (CCR5Δ32), TLR3 (rs5743313) functional gene polymorphisms, interferon-gamma (IFN-ɣ) level in HBV infection, which are thought to play an important role in innate and acquired immunity in patients who have undergone HBV seroconversion and those who have chronic hepatitis B disease and receive treatment. One hundred patients who are became naturally immune against HBV infection (HBsAg negative, anti-HBc IgG, and anti-HBs IgG positive), and 100 patients with chronic hepatitis B infection (>6 months HBsAg positive) who are receiving oral antiviral therapy were compared for CCR5Δ32, TLR3 (rs5743313) genotypes and serum IFN-ɣ level. It was found that CCR5Δ32 polymorphism (Wt/Δ32 and Δ32/Δ32) was significantly higher in the chronic hepatitis B group (p = 0.048) but not for TLR3 gene polymorphism. However, serum IFN-ɣ level was significantly higher in the HBV seroconversion group (75 ± 89 ng/ml) than in the chronic hepatitis B group (4.35 ± 17.27 ng/ml) (p < 0.001). In conclusion, a higher CCR5Δ32 allele frequency in patients with chronic hepatitis B might be considered as a marker of progression to chronic hepatitis.

Impact of Childhood Adversity, as Early Life Distress, on Cytokine Alterations in Schizophrenia

Even though inflammation theory has been introduced in the pathophysiology of psychosis almost a century ago, many of its aspects have remained unelucidated. Numerous studies have shown cytokine dysregulation in schizophrenia and a predominance of pro-inflammatory cytokines, but on another side, various cytokines in a pro-inflammatory group have different trends in all subtypes of schizophrenia. Alterations are also present in anti-inflammatory and regulatory cytokines, but findings are still not consistent. On the other hand, it is well known that abuse and neglect in childhood may be predictors of psychotic disorders, and childhood adversity is also associated with alterations of the immune and inflammatory response (through various mechanisms including HPA dysregulation as well). This review aims to analyze conducted studies and elucidate the link between childhood abuse, schizophrenia, and cytokine alterations. Putting together this complex psycho-immunological puzzle for the subgroup of schizophrenia-diagnosed patients with distinct immunological abnormalities and a history of childhood abuse can help us to answer the question about the future treatment of these patients.

Molecular cloning, expression analysis and immune-related functional identification of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) in Sepiella japonica under bacteria stress

Tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), a cytokine mainly secreted by active macrophages and monocytes, causes hemorrhagic necrosis of tumor tissues, kills tumor cells, regulates inflammatory responses, and plays a crucial role in innate immunity. In this study, TNFα of Sepiella japonica (named as SjTNFα) was acquired, whose full-length cDNA was 1206 bp (GenBank accession no. ON357428), containing a 5' UTR of 185 bp, a 3' UTR of 137 bp and an open reading frame (ORF) of 1002bp to encode a putative peptide of 333 amino acids for constructing the transmembrane domain and the cytoplasmic TNF domain. Its predicted pI was 8.69 and the theoretical molecular weight was 44.72 KDa. Multiple sequence alignment and phylogenetic analysis showed that SjTNFα had the highest homology to Octopus sinensis, they fell into a unified branch and further clustered with other animals. Real-time PCR indicated that SjTNFα was widely expressed in all subject tissues, including spleen, pancreas, gill, heart, brain, optic lobe, liver and intestine, and exhibited the highest in the liver and the lowest in the brain. The relative expression of SjTNFα varied at the developmental period of juvenile stage, pre-spawning and oviposition in the squid, with the highest in the liver at the juvenile stage and oviposition, and in the optic lobe of pre-spawning. After being infected with Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Aeromonas hydrophila, the expression of SjTNFα in liver and gill were both upregulated with time, and the highest expression appeared at 24 h and 8 h in liver for different infection, and at 4 h in gill consistently. Cell localization showed that SjTNFα distributed on membrane of HEK293 cells because it was a type II soluble transmembrane protein. When HEK293 cells were stimulated with LPS of different concentrations, the NF-κB pathway was activated in the nucleus and the corresponding mRNA was transferred through the intracellular signal transduction pathway, resulting in the synthesis and release of TNFα, which made the expression of SjTNFα was up-regulated obviously. These findings showed that SjTNFα might play an essential role in the defense of S. japonica against bacteria challenge, which contributed to the understanding of the intrinsic immune signaling pathway of Cephalopoda and the further study of host-pathogen interactions.

Cytokines as Potential Therapeutic Targets and their Role in the Diagnosis and Prediction of Cancers

The death rate from cancer is declining as a result of earlier identification and more advanced treatments. Nevertheless, a number of unfavourable adverse effects, including prolonged, long-lasting inflammation and reduced immune function, usually coexist with anti-cancer therapies and lead to a general decline in quality of life. Improvements in standardized comprehensive therapy and early identification of a variety of aggressive tumors remain the main objectives of cancer research. Tumor markers in those with cancer are tumor- associated proteins that are clinically significant. Even while several tumor markers are routinely used, they don't always provide reliable diagnostic information. Serum cytokines are promising markers of tumor stage, prognosis, and responsiveness to therapy. In fact, several cytokines are currently proposed as potential biomarkers in a variety of cancers. It has actually been proposed that the study of circulatory cytokines together with biomarkers that are particular to cancer can enhance and accelerate cancer diagnosis and prediction, particularly via blood samples that require minimal to the absence of invasion. The purpose of this review was to critically examine relevant primary research literature in order to elucidate the role and importance of a few identified serum cytokines as prospective therapeutic targets in oncological diseases.

Liver vs. spleen: Time course of organ-dependent immune gene expression in an LPS-stimulated toad (Rhinella diptycha)

The inflammatory response comprises highly orchestrated events that are conserved amongst vertebrate groups. Hepatic and splenic cytokines are major mediators of the systemic inflammatory processes. However, the liver is still neglected as an immune organ in amphibians. This study reports organ-dependent gene expression using an anuran model. We tracked mRNA levels of immune proteins [C1s (subcomponent S of the complement protein 1), IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10] at four time-points (1 h, 3 h, 6 h, and 18 h post-injection) in spleens and livers of intraperitoneal LPS-challenged (2 mg/kg) adult male toads (Rhinella diptycha) using independent samples. We found acute C1s up-regulation in the liver 1 h post-injection, with no treatment effect in the spleen. The LPS injection did not show any effect in splenic IFN-γ gene expression while eliciting only a marginal effect in the hepatic tissue. IL-1β was up-regulated in both organs, with the liver initially displaying early expression (1 h and 3 h) and the spleen taking over late expression (18 h). Both organs exhibited similar patterns for IL-6, with early up-regulation (1 h and 3 h) and late peak (18 h). Although IL-10 was early detected and up-regulated only in the liver, both organs showed up-regulation in 6 h and 18 h post-injection. Our results show an exclusive hepatic prominence in complement protein expression during the acute-phase response. Furthermore, hepatic pro-inflammatory cytokine expression was more pronounced in earliest time-points, while the spleen offers a slower and more consistent response overall. Our data provide an organ-integrative outlook into the initial hours of the inflammation in amphibians, confirming the liver's pivotal role as a regulator in the acute-phase of the inflammatory response in amphibians.

Analysis of the transcriptomic profiles of Mandarin fish (Siniperca chuatsi) infected with red sea bream iridovirus (RSIV)

Red sea bream iridovirus (RSIV) belongs to the family Iridoviridae, genus Megalocytivirus, which could widely infect marine fish, causing diseases and huge economic losses. Now it has been reported that RSIV was also detected in diseased mandarin fish. Transmission electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry showed that spleen was the main target organ in mandarin fish infected with RSIV. To investigate the immune response mechanism of mandarin fish to RSIV infection, transcriptomics of RSIV-infected mandarin fish was analyzed. A total of 53,040 unigenes were obtained, and there were 21,576 and 17,904 unigenes had significant hit the Nr and SwissProt databases, respectively. In RSIV-infected and non-infected spleen tissues, there were 309 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), including 100 up-regulated genes and 209 down-regulated genes. Gene Ontology database (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways analysis were performed to reveal the function information and give a better understanding of the signal transduction pathways of DEGs. Further analysis of the cytokine-cytokine receptor interactions pathway exhibited that the expression of cytokines was widely activated after viral infection. In addition, ten DEGs were randomly selected and verified by quantitative real-time PCR, which revealed a similar expression tendency as the high-throughput sequencing data. These findings present valuable information that will benefit for better understanding of RSIV infection in mandarin fish.

Time Course of Splenic Cytokine mRNA and Hormones during a Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammation in Toads

Inflammation comprises alterations in glucocorticoids (in amphibians, corticosterone-CORT) and melatonin (MEL) levels, two hormones with immunomodulatory effects on cytokine production in several vertebrates. Cytokines mediate inflammation progress differently depending on their function. While some are secreted during the acute phase of the immune response, others prevail during the resolution phase. Major efforts have been made to understand the interaction of endocrine mediators and cytokine production in endotherms, but little is known for ectotherms so far. Characterizing the stages of inflammation and their interplay with endocrine mediators is crucial for an assertive and integrative approach to amphibian physiology and ecoimmunology. Herein, we investigated CORT and MEL plasma levels as well as splenic cytokine (IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10) mRNA levels during the progression of the inflammatory response in toads (Rhinella diptycha) in four time-points (1, 3, 6, and 18 h) after an immune challenge with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) using independent samples. Toads were responsive to LPS, with all hormones and cytokines affected by LPS. IL-1β and IL-6 were up-regulated after 1 h, but IL-1β decreased right after 3 h, while IL-6 sustained up-regulation throughout all time-points. IL-10 had not been detected until 6 h post-LPS-stimulation, when it showed up-regulation, along with a CORT increase at the same time-point. After 18 h, CORT levels were still high, and IL-1β was up-regulated again, along with up-regulated IL-6 and an IL-10 decrease. We also found positive correlations between IL-1β with IL-6 for LPS and saline groups. LPS-treated individuals showed an overall decrease in MEL plasma levels compared to saline counterparts. Our results showcase the early endocrine and molecular events of the amphibian immune response. We also report activation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-interrenal (HPI) axis during inflammation and increasing evidence for an immune-pineal axis to be described in amphibians.

STAT6 gain-of-function variant exacerbates multiple allergic symptoms

BACKGROUND

Allergic diseases were long considered to be complex multifactorial disorders. However, recent findings indicate that severe allergic inflammation can be caused by monogenic immune defects.

OBJECTIVES

We sought to clarify the molecular pathogenesis of a patient with early-onset multiple allergic diseases, a high serum IgE level, hypereosinophilia, treatment-resistant severe atopic dermatitis with increased dermal collagen fiber deposition, and eosinophilic gastrointestinal disorder with numerous polypoid nodules.

METHODS

A missense variant in STAT6 was identified, and its function was examined using peripheral blood, transfected HEK293 cells, lymphoblastoid cell lines, and knock-in mice with the corresponding mutation.

RESULTS

Whole-exome sequencing identified a de novo heterozygous missense variant in signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 (STAT6) (p.Asp419Asn). Luciferase reporter assay revealed that the transcriptional activity of this STAT6 mutant was upregulated even without IL-4 stimulation. Phosphorylation of STAT6 was not observed in either the patient's T_H2 cells or lymphoblastoid cell lines without stimulation, whereas it was induced more strongly in both by IL-4 stimulation compared with healthy controls. STAT6 protein was present in the nuclear fraction of the lymphoblastoid cell lines of the patient even in the absence of IL-4 stimulation. The patient's gastric mucosa showed upregulation of STAT6-, fibrosis-, and germinal center formation-related molecules. Some of the knock-in mice with the corresponding mutation spontaneously developed dermatitis with skin thickening and eosinophil infiltration. Moreover, serum IgE levels and mRNA expression of type 2 cytokines were increased in the knock-in mice-with or without development of spontaneous dermatitis-compared with the wild-type mice.

CONCLUSIONS

A novel STAT6 gain-of-function variant is a potential cause of primary atopic disorders.

Combination of IL-17A/F and TNF-α uniquely alters the bronchial epithelial cell proteome to enhance proteins that augment neutrophil migration

Background

The heterodimer interleukin (IL)-17A/F is elevated in the lungs in chronic respiratory disease such as severe asthma, along with the pro-inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). Although IL-17A/F and TNF-α are known to functionally cooperate to exacerbate airway inflammation, proteins altered by their interaction in the lungs are not fully elucidated.

Results

We used Slow Off-rate Modified Aptamer-based proteomic array to identify proteins that are uniquely and/or synergistically enhanced by concurrent stimulation with IL-17A/F and TNF-α in human bronchial epithelial cells (HBEC). The abundance of 38 proteins was significantly enhanced by the combination of IL-17A/F and TNF-α, compared to either cytokine alone. Four out of seven proteins that were increased > 2-fold were those that promote neutrophil migration; host defence peptides (HDP; Lipocalin-2 (LCN-2) and Elafin) and chemokines (IL-8, GROα). We independently confirmed the synergistic increase of these four proteins by western blots and ELISA. We also functionally confirmed that factors secreted by HBEC stimulated with the combination of IL-17A/F and TNF-α uniquely enhances neutrophil migration. We further showed that PI3K and PKC pathways selectively control IL-17A/F + TNF-α-mediated synergistic production of HDPs LCN-2 and Elafin, but not chemokines IL-8 and GROα. Using a murine model of airway inflammation, we demonstrated enhancement of IL-17A/F, TNF-α, LCN-2 and neutrophil chemokine KC in the lungs, thus corroborating our findings in-vivo.

Conclusion

This study identifies proteins and signaling mediated by concurrent IL-17A/F and TNF-α exposure in the lungs, relevant to respiratory diseases characterized by chronic inflammation, especially neutrophilic airway inflammation such as severe asthma.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12950-022-00323-w.

Gene polymorphisms of interleukin 10 (− 819 C/T and − 1082 G/A) in women with ovarian cancer

Background

Ovarian cancer (OC) is the leading cause of death associated with gynecologic cancer. IL-10 plays an important role in tumorigenesis. We investigated IL-10 gene polymorphisms in OC patients. The current case–control study screened forty-eight women with OC and forty-eight healthy women who did not have OC. The genotyping of SNPs (− 1082 G > A; rs1800896 and − 819 C > T; rs1800871) of the IL-10 gene was done by tetra primers sequence-specific primer polymerase chain reaction (SSP-PCR) technique. The plasma levels of IL-10 were measured using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

Results

For IL-10 (− 1082 G/A) polymorphism, the G (wild allele) was significantly associated with increasing the risk of OC (OR = 2.054 with CI = 1.154–3.657; P < 0.05), while the A (variant allele) and AA genotype was significantly associated with decreasing the risk of OC (OR = 0.487 with CI = 0.273–0.867; P < 0.05) and (OR = 0.15; 95% CI = 0.04–0.63; P < 0.05), respectively. For IL-10 (− 819C/T) polymorphisms, the T allele (variant allele) and (TT, CT genotypes) were significantly associated with increasing the risk of OC (OR = 2.800 with 95% CI = 1.577–5.037; P < 0.05), (OR = 18.33 with 95% CI = 3.46–97.20; P < 0.001), and (OR = 9.44 with 95% CI = 2.52–35.40; P < 0.001), respectively, while the C (wild allele) was significantly associated with decreasing the risk of OC (OR = 0.357 with 95% CI = 0.199–0.642; P < 0.05). The haplotype analysis for (− 1082 G > A and − 819 C > T shows the GT haplotype was significantly associated with increasing the risk of OC (OR = 50.09 with CI = 6.34–395.92; P < 0.001). OC was substantially correlated with IL-10 level (r = 0.457; p < 0.001). There is no linkage disequilibrium (LD) between IL 10 − 1082 G/A and IL 10 − 819 C/T (D′ = 0.1315, r2 = 0.016; P = NS). A statistically significant positive relationship existed between IL-10 and CA125 and ALT (P < 0.05). IL-10 and albumin showed a strong negative association (P < 0.05), whereas the correlation of IL10 plasma level with BUN, AST, T. Bil., TLC, PLT, Cr., and HB has not any significant value (P > 0.05).

Conclusions

Overall, this study supports an association of IL-10 (− 1082 G/A and − 819C/T) polymorphisms with the risk of ovarian cancer.

Dampening of cytotoxic innate lymphoid cells: A new tumour immune escape mechanism in B cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma

The role and regulation of innate immune cells is poorly understood in B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). As natural killer (NK) cells, helper innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are lymphocytes endowed with either anti- or pro-tumour activity and involved in inflammatory processes. In our ex vivo analysis of NK cells and ILCs from NHL patients, we observed that, in comparison to healthy donors (HD), the frequency of the cytotoxic subset of NK cells, the CD16⁺ NK, decreased in patients' peripheral blood. In general, circulating NK cells showed a pro-tumorigenic phenotype, while ILCs displayed a more activated/cytotoxic phenotype. Conversely, at the tumour site, in patients' lymph nodes, ILCs showed a low expression of granzyme.In vitromixed lymphocyte-tumour cell cultures with HD PBMCs and NHL cell lines demonstrated that ILC cytotoxic potential was lowered by the presence of tumour cells but, in the absence of T regulatory cells (Tregs), their cytolytic potential was recovered. Our data shed novel light on dysfunctional innate immunity in NHL. We suggest a new mechanism of tumour immuno-escape based on the reduction of cell cytotoxicity involving ILCs and likely controlled by Tregs.

Evaluation of a vaccine candidate isolated from Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst in mice

Background and Aim

Cryptosporidiosis is a leading cause of diarrheal disease worldwide and is an animal and public health burden. This study aimed to evaluate the protective potential of affinity-purified Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst antigen as a vaccine candidate according to fecal oocyst shedding, humoral and cellular immune responses, histopathological changes, and the number of parasite developmental stages in ileal and hepatic tissues.

Materials and Methods

We isolated oocysts from naturally infected buffalo calves and identified them molecularly as C. parvum isolates (GenBank: ON730707 and ON730708) by targeting the Cryptosporidium oocyst wall protein gene. We propagated the C. parvum oocysts in mice. In addition, we prepared crude antigen from the isolated oocysts by purification using cyanogen bromide-activated Sepharose-4B affinity chromatography coupled with rabbit hyperimmune serum. Then, we divided 81 parasite-free mice into three groups: (1) non-vaccinated non-infected mice, (2) mice orally infected with 1 × 10⁵ C. parvum oocysts on week 4 of the experiment, and (3) mice immunized twice with 40 μg/kg of the purified fraction at 2-week intervals. Then, we challenged the vaccinated group with C. parvum oocysts after 2 weeks, and the positive control group was infected at the same time.

Results

We observed a prolonged prepatent period and decreased oocyst shedding in the vaccinated infected mice compared with the non-vaccinated infected mice (t < 0.001). The vaccinated mice had significantly higher immunoglobulin G levels than those in the other two groups at all examined weeks. In addition, the production of cytokines interferon-gamma, interleukin (IL)-10, IL-12, and IL-15 was activated post-vaccination. After the challenge, all tested cytokines were significantly increased (p < 0.001) in the two infected groups compared with the non-vaccinated non-infected group, with the highest levels in the vaccinated infected group. Vaccinated infected mice exhibited significantly fewer pathological lesions in the ileum and liver than non-vaccinated infected mice, which showed prominent histopathological lesions. Endogenous developmental stages of C. parvum indicated that the ileum was more parasitized than the liver and that vaccination resulted in a lower number of oocysts in ileal and hepatic tissues (p < 0.05).

Conclusion

Our prepared affinity-purified vaccine candidate could be promising in protecting against cryptosporidiosis.

Comprehensive evaluation of breast cancer immunotherapy and tumor microenvironment characterization based on interleukin genes-related risk model

Breast cancer (BRCA) is the most prevalent malignancy and the leading cause of death in women. Interleukin (IL) genes are critical in tumor initiation and control. Nevertheless, the prognosis value of the IL in BRCA remains unclear. We collected data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO), and 94 IL genes were identified from GeneCard. Based on the random forest (RF), least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) analysis, and multivariate Cox regression analysis, we constructed an IL signature. GSE22219, GSE25065, and GSE21653 were derived as validation sets. The expression differences in the tumor microenvironment (TME), immunotherapy, and chemosensitivity of BRCA between the high- and low-risk groups were evaluated. Overall, 21 IL genes were selected to construct an IL risk model, of which IL18BP, IL17D, and IL23A were the first time identified as prognostic genes in BRCA. IL score could distinguish BRCA patients with inferior outcomes, and AUC of it was 0.70, 0.76, and 0.72 for 1-,3- and 5- years, respectively, which was also verified in GSE22219, GSE25065, and GSE21653 cohorts. Meanwhile, compared to luminal A and luminal B, HER2-positive and TNBC had significantly higher IL score. Besides, the high-risk group had a significantly higher prevalence of TP53 and TTN but a lower prevalence of PIK3CA, as well as higher tumor mutation burden (TMB) and neoantigen level. High- and low-risk groups exhibited notable differences in immunomodulators and tumor infiltrates immune cells (TIICs), and the high-risk group had significantly lower Tumor Immune Dysfunction and Exclusion (TIDE) score. Additionally, the high-risk group has more responders to immune or anti-HER2 combination therapy, whereas the low-risk group has higher sensitivity to docetaxel and paclitaxel. Consequently, we constructed a reliable risk model based on the IL genes, which can provide more information on both the risk stratification and personalizing management strategies for BRCA.

Screening of ulcerative colitis biomarkers and potential pathways based on weighted gene co-expression network, machine learning and ceRNA hypothesis

BACKGROUND

Ulcerative colitis (UC) refers to an intractable intestinal inflammatory disease. Its increasing incidence rate imposes a huge burden on patients and society. The UC etiology has not been determined, so screening potential biomarkers is critical to preventing disease progression and selecting optimal therapeutic strategies more effectively.

METHODS

The microarray datasets of intestinal mucosal biopsy of UC patients were selected from the GEO database, and integrated with R language to screen differentially expressed genes and draw proteins interaction network diagrams. GO, KEGG, DO and GSEA enrichment analyses were performed to explore their biological functions. Through machine learning and WGCNA analysis, targets that can be used as UC potential biomarkers are screened out. ROC curves were drawn to verify the reliability of the results and predicted the mechanism of marker genes from the aspects of immune cell infiltration, co-expression analysis, and competitive endogenous network (ceRNA).

RESULTS

Two datasets GSE75214 and GSE87466 were integrated for screening, and a total of 107 differentially expressed genes were obtained. They were mainly related to biological functions such as humoral immune response and inflammatory response. Further screened out five marker genes, and found that they were associated with M0 macrophages, quiescent mast cells, M2 macrophages, and activated NK cells in terms of immune cell infiltration. The co-expression network found significant co-expression relationships between 54 miRNAs and 5 marker genes. According to the ceRNA hypothesis, NEAT1-miR-342-3p/miR-650-SLC6A14, NEAT1-miR-650-IRAK3, and XIST-miR-342-3p-IRAK3 axes were found as potential regulatory pathways in UC.

CONCLUSION

This study screened out five biomarkers that can be used for the diagnosis and treatment of UC, namely SLC6A14, TIMP1, IRAK3, HMGCS2, and APOBEC3B. Confirmed that they play a role in the occurrence and development of UC at the level of immune infiltration, and proposed a potential RNA regulatory pathway that controls the progression of UC.

IL-31 and IL-33 in rheumatoid arthritis patients

Objective – to investigate clinical and diagnostic significance of IL-31 and IL-33 determination in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

Material and methods. 154 patients with a reliable diagnosis of RA were examined. Serum levels of IL-31 and IL-33 were studied using multiplex xMAP technology on Bio-PlexTM 200 System analyzer (BIO-RAD, USA). The upper limit of the norm in the study of 20 healthy donor sera was (M+3σ): IL-31 – 15.08 pg/ml, IL-33 – 3.40 pg/ml.

Results. IL-31 (Me (25th; 75th percentile) – 13.75 (5.63; 308.52) and 6.10 (2.87; 8.62) pg/ml (p<0.001), IL-33 – 18.86 (7.45; 65.95) and 0.52 (0.17; 0.78) pg/ml (p><0.001) levels were observed in RA patients in comparison with the control group. An increase in IL-33 concentration (more than 3.40 pg/ml) was observed in 87.0% of patients, and IL-31 (more than 15.08 pg/ml) in 48.1% of patients with RA. An increase in IL-33 alone was observed in 42.2% (65 of 154 patients) with RA, while an isolated increase in IL-31 concentration was observed in only 2 (1.3%) patients. Simultaneous hyperproduction of IL-33 and IL-31 occurred in 69 (44.9%) patients. We revealed positive correlation of clinical and laboratory parameters of RA with cytokine concentration: SDAI correlated with IL-33 (r=0.36; p><0.05); CRP – with IL-31 (r=0.49; p><0,05) and IL-33 (r=0.40; p><0.05). Conclusion. Concentrations of IL-31 and IL-33 are elevated in RA patients and correlate with the indices of inflammatory activity of the disease.>< 0.001), IL-33 – 18.86 (7.45; 65.95) and 0.52 (0.17; 0.78) pg/ml (p<0.001) levels were observed in RA patients in comparison with the control group. An increase in IL-33 concentration (more than 3.40 pg/ml) was observed in 87.0% of patients, and IL-31 (more than 15.08 pg/ml) in 48.1% of patients with RA. An increase in IL-33 alone was observed in 42.2% (65 of 154 patients) with RA, while an isolated increase in IL-31 concentration was observed in only 2 (1.3%) patients. Simultaneous hyperproduction of IL-33 and IL-31 occurred in 69 (44.9%) patients. We revealed positive correlation of clinical and laboratory parameters of RA with cytokine concentration: SDAI correlated with IL-33 (r=0.36; p><0.05); CRP – with IL-31 (r=0.49; p><0,05) and IL-33 (r=0.40; p><0.05). Conclusion. Concentrations of IL-31 and IL-33 are elevated in RA patients and correlate with the indices of inflammatory activity of the disease.>< 0.001) levels were observed in RA patients in comparison with the control group. An increase in IL-33 concentration (more than 3.40 pg/ml) was observed in 87.0% of patients, and IL-31 (more than 15.08 pg/ml) in 48.1% of patients with RA. An increase in IL-33 alone was observed in 42.2% (65 of 154 patients) with RA, while an isolated increase in IL-31 concentration was observed in only 2 (1.3%) patients. Simultaneous hyperproduction of IL-33 and IL-31 occurred in 69 (44.9%) patients. We revealed positive correlation of clinical and laboratory parameters of RA with cytokine concentration: SDAI correlated with IL-33 (r=0.36; p<0.05); CRP – with IL-31 (r=0.49; p><0,05) and IL-33 (r=0.40; p><0.05). Conclusion. Concentrations of IL-31 and IL-33 are elevated in RA patients and correlate with the indices of inflammatory activity of the disease.>< 0.05); CRP – with IL-31 (r=0.49; p< ,05) and IL-33 (r=0.40; p<0.05)

Conclusion. Concentrations of IL-31 and IL-33 are elevated in RA patients and correlate with the indices of inflammatory activity of the disease.

Single-cell transcriptomic characterization reveals the landscape of airway remodeling and inflammation in a cynomolgus monkey model of asthma

Monkey disease models, which are comparable to humans in terms of genetic, anatomical, and physiological characteristics, are important for understanding disease mechanisms and evaluating the efficiency of biological treatments. Here, we established an A.suum-induced model of asthma in cynomolgus monkeys to profile airway inflammation and remodeling in the lungs by single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq). The asthma model results in airway hyperresponsiveness and remodeling, demonstrated by pulmonary function test and histological characterization. scRNA-seq reveals that the model elevates the numbers of stromal, epithelial and mesenchymal cells (MCs). Particularly, the model increases the numbers of endothelial cells (ECs), fibroblasts (Fibs) and smooth muscle cells (SMCs) in the lungs, with upregulated gene expression associated with cell functions enriched in cell migration and angiogenesis in ECs and Fibs, and VEGF-driven cell proliferation, apoptotic process and complement activation in SMCs. Interestingly, we discover a novel Fib subtype that mediates type I inflammation in the asthmatic lungs. Moreover, MCs in the asthmatic lungs are found to regulate airway remodeling and immunological responses, with elevated gene expression enriched in cell migration, proliferation, angiogenesis and innate immunological responses. Not only the numbers of epithelial cells in the asthmatic lungs change at the time of lung tissue collection, but also their gene expressions are significantly altered, with an enrichment in the biological processes of IL-17 signaling pathway and apoptosis in the majority of subtypes of epithelial cells. Moreover, the ubiquitin process and DNA repair are more prevalent in ciliated epithelial cells. Last, cell-to-cell interaction analysis reveals a complex network among stromal cells, MCs and macrophages that contribute to the development of asthma and airway remodeling. Our findings provide a critical resource for understanding the principle underlying airway remodeling and inflammation in a monkey model of asthma, as well as valuable hints for the future treatment of asthma, especially the airway remodeling-characterized refractory asthma.

Effect of Different Levels of Niacin on Serum Biochemical Parameters, Antioxidant Status, Cytokine Levels, Inflammatory Gene Expression and Colonic Microbial Composition in Weaned Piglets

Niacin plays an important role in regulating the gut health of weaned piglets. In this study, 48 25-day-old weaned piglets (7.9 ± 0.20 kg) produced by 14 sows (3 to 4 piglets per sow) were randomly divided into 4 groups with 6 replicates in each group and 2 piglets in each replicate. Each group was fed diets supplemented with 22.5 (N1), 30 (N2), 45 (N3), and 75 (N4) mg/kg of niacin, respectively. Samples were taken at 7 and 14 d, respectively. The study shows that changes in niacin levels significantly affected the content of IgG and IgM in the serum (p < 0.05). Niacin had a significant effect on antioxidant parameters such as MDA, T-SOD, and CuZn-SOD in the jejunal mucosa of weaned piglets (p < 0.05). Moreover, significant differences were observed in the expression of cytokines such as TGF-β, TNF-α, and COX2 in the jejunal mucosa (p < 0.05). The 16S rRNA sequencing analysis showed that there were significant differences in the colonic species composition, which were also accompanied by changes in the isovaleric acid content (p < 0.05). In conclusion, an appropriate increase in niacin dose based on NRC (2012) has an important role in improving the antioxidant status of weaned piglets, alleviating intestinal inflammation in piglets, improving immunity, and regulating the structure of the microbiota.

Pigs' intestinal barrier function is more refined with aging

The high mortality upon enteric virus infection in piglets causes huge economic losses. To control these infections, potential causes for this high susceptibility for enteric virus infections in younger piglets were analyzed by comparing the intestinal barrier between 1-week, 2-week and 4-week-old piglets. In this study, histological staining was used to analyze morphological differences in intestinal villi, real-time qPCR was performed to assess mRNA expression levels of genes that were related to viral infection and differentiation of immune cells, and flow cytometry was utilized to measure the frequencies of T cells. According to the results obtained, 1-week-old piglets have intestinal villi with shallower crypts, less well developed epithelial cells and a more immature immune system compared to older pigs. Moreover, high amounts of enteric virus invasion-assisting proteins but low amounts of resistant proteins in 1-week piglets could also be a reason for the high susceptibility of 1-week-old piglets.

Metabolic regulation of type 2 immune response during tissue repair and regeneration

Type 2 immune responses are mediated by the cytokines interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5, IL-10, and IL-13 and associated cell types, including T helper (Th)2 cells, group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s), basophils, mast cells, eosinophils, and IL-4- and IL-13-activated macrophages. It can suppress type 1-driven autoimmune diseases, promote antihelminth immunity, maintain cellular metabolic homeostasis, and modulate tissue repair pathways following injury. However, when type 2 immune responses become dysregulated, they can be a significant pathogenesis of many allergic and fibrotic diseases. As such, there is an intense interest in studying the pathways that modulate type 2 immune response so as to identify strategies of targeting and controlling these responses for tissue healing. Herein, we review recent literature on the metabolic regulation of immune cells initiating type 2 immunity and immune cells involved in the effector phase, and talk about how metabolic regulation of immune cell subsets contribute to tissue repair. At last, we discuss whether these findings can provide a novel prospect for regenerative medicine.

Exploring Urinary Extracellular Vesicles and Immune Mediators as Biomarkers of Kidney Injury in COVID-19 Hospitalized Patients

Kidney injury is an important outcome associated with COVID-19 severity. In this regard, alterations in urinary extracellular vesicles (uEVs) could be detected in the early phases of renal injury and may be reflective of the inflammatory process. This is an observational study performed with a case series of COVID-19 hospitalized patients presenting mild-to-critical disease. Total and podocyte-derived uEVs were identified by nanoscale flow cytometry, and urinary immune mediators were assessed by a multiplex assay. We studied 36 patients, where 24 (66.7%) were considered as mild/moderate and 12 (33.3%) as severe/critical. Increased levels of total uEVs were observed (p = 0.0001). Importantly, total uEVs were significantly higher in severe/critical patients who underwent hemodialysis (p = 0.03) and were able to predict this clinical outcome (AUC 0.93, p = 0.02). Severe/critical patients also presented elevated urinary levels (p < 0.05) of IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, IL-7, IL-16, IL-17A, LIF, CCL-2, CCL-3, CCL-11, CXCL-10, FGFb, M-CSF, and CTAcK. Lastly, we observed that total uEVs were associated with urinary immune mediators. In conclusion, our results show that early alterations in urinary EVs could identify patients at higher risk of developing renal dysfunction in COVID-19. This could also be relevant in different scenarios of systemic and/or infectious disease.

The TLR-NF-kB axis contributes to the monocytic inflammatory response against a virulent strain of Lichtheimia corymbifera, a causative agent of invasive mucormycosis

Invasive mucormycosis (IM) is a life-threatening infection caused by the fungal order Mucorales, its diagnosis is often delayed, and mortality rates range from 40-80% due to its rapid progression. Individuals suffering from hematological malignancies, diabetes mellitus, organ transplantations, and most recently COVID-19 are particularly susceptible to infection by Mucorales. Given the increase in the occurrence of these diseases, mucormycosis has emerged as one of the most common fungal infections in the last years. However, little is known about the host immune response to Mucorales. Therefore, we characterized the interaction among L. corymbifera—one of the most common causative agents of IM—and human monocytes, which are specialized phagocytes that play an instrumental role in the modulation of the inflammatory response against several pathogenic fungi. This study covered four relevant aspects of the host-pathogen interaction: i) The recognition of L. corymbifera by human monocytes. ii) The intracellular fate of L. corymbifera. iii) The inflammatory response by human monocytes against the most common causative agents of mucormycosis. iv) The main activated Pattern-Recognition Receptors (PRRs) inflammatory signaling cascades in response to L. corymbifera. Here, we demonstrate that L. corymbifera exhibits resistance to intracellular killing over 24 hours, does not germinate, and inflicts minimal damage to the host cell. Nonetheless, viable fungal spores of L. corymbifera induced early production of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-1β, and late release of TNF-α and IL-6 by human monocytes. Moreover, we revealed that IL-1β production predominantly depends on Toll-like receptors (TLRs) priming, especially via TLR4, while TNF-α is secreted via C-type lectin receptors (CTLs), and IL-6 is produced by synergistic activation of TLRs and CTLs. All these signaling pathways lead to the activation of NF-kB, a transcription factor that not only regulates the inflammatory response but also the apoptotic fate of monocytes during infection with L. corymbifera. Collectively, our findings provide new insights into the host-pathogen interactions, which may serve for future therapies to enhance the host inflammatory response to L. corymbifera.