101
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Vassou D, Bakogeorgou E, Kampa M, Dimitriou H, Hatzoglou A, Castanas E. Opioids modulate constitutive B-lymphocyte secretion. Int Immunopharmacol 2008; 8:634-44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2008.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2007] [Revised: 12/17/2007] [Accepted: 01/03/2008] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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102
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Kapoor P, Greipp PT, Morice WG, Rajkumar SV, Witzig TE, Greipp PR. Anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody therapy in multiple myeloma. Br J Haematol 2008; 141:135-48. [PMID: 18318769 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2141.2008.07024.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
CD20 is a particularly appealing target that is expressed on the surface of almost all B cells, with no significant shedding, secretion or internalization. In contrast to the demonstrated efficacy of anti-CD20 strategies in various B-cell lymphoproliferative disorders, the role of such therapy in multiple myeloma is undetermined and controversial. The expression of CD20 by myeloma cells is heterogeneous, and can be detected only in 13-22% of patients. However, there is increasing interest in testing anti-CD20 therapy in myeloma because of recent studies suggesting the existence of clonogenic CD20-positive precursor B cells in the disease. This article reviews the rationale, preclinical and clinical activity of anti-CD20 therapy in myeloma. Clinical trials show that anti-CD20 therapy with rituximab elicits a partial response in approximately 10% of CD20+ patients with multiple myeloma. In addition, there is preliminary evidence of disease stabilization in 50-57% of CD20+ patients for a period of 10-27 months. Further large-scale clinical trials are therefore needed to establish the role of this promising strategy in the treatment of myeloma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prashant Kapoor
- Division of Hematology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
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103
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Differentiation of murine B cells induced by chondroitin sulfate B. Cell Immunol 2008; 250:14-23. [PMID: 18206137 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2007.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2007] [Revised: 11/19/2007] [Accepted: 12/10/2007] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
A two-step culture system was used to investigate the role of chondroitin sulfate (CS) B, which is mitogenic to B cells, in differentiation of B cells. Mouse spleen B cells were incubated for 3 days with CSB in the presence of interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-5. After washing, the cells were replated at 10(5) viable cells/well and recultured without CSB in the presence of IL-4 and IL-5. CSB dose-dependently increased IgM production, the greatest enhancement being 450%. Dextran sulfate had a similar effect, whereas other glycosaminoglycans, CSA, CSC, heparin and hyaluronic acid, were marginally effective. Treatment of B cells with CSB resulted in increases in the number of IgM-secreting cells and numbers of CD138-positive cells and CD45R/B220-negative cells. CSB-induced IgM production was inhibited by the protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor GF109203X but not by the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitor wortmannin. These results demonstrated that CSB promoted differentiation of B cells in the presence of IL-4 and IL-5 and suggested that PKC but not PI3K is crucial for CSB-induced IgM production.
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104
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Cerutti A, Qiao X, He B. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells and the regulation of immunoglobulin heavy chain class switching. Immunol Cell Biol 2008; 83:554-62. [PMID: 16174107 DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1711.2005.01389.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
By substituting the heavy chain constant region of IgM and IgD with that of IgG, IgA or IgE, immunoglobulin class switching endows antibodies with novel effector functions that enhance the ability of the immune system to effectively clear invading pathogens. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells critically link innate immunity with adaptive immunity by producing massive amounts of type 1 IFN in response to viruses. We have recently found that type 1 IFN triggers class switching by inducing myeloid dendritic cells to upregulate the expression of BAFF and APRIL, two powerful B cell-activating molecules. In this paper, we propose that IFN-producing plasmacytoid dendritic cells modulate class switching by activating B cells through both T cell-dependent and T cell-independent pathways. A better understanding of these pathways may facilitate the development of novel antiviral vaccine strategies and aid in identifying new therapies for antibody-mediated autoimmune disorders, such as lupus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Cerutti
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Weiil Medical College of Cornell University, New York, New York 10021, USA.
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105
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Kogan AN, von Andrian UH. Lymphocyte Trafficking. Microcirculation 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-374530-9.00012-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
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106
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Pellegrini A, Guinazu N, Aoki MP, Calero IC, Carrera-Silva EA, Girones N, Fresno M, Gea S. Spleen B cells from BALB/c are more prone to activation than spleen B cells from C57BL/6 mice during a secondary immune response to cruzipain. Int Immunol 2007; 19:1395-402. [DOI: 10.1093/intimm/dxm107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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107
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Peterson ML. Mechanisms controlling production of membrane and secreted immunoglobulin during B cell development. Immunol Res 2007; 37:33-46. [PMID: 17496345 DOI: 10.1007/bf02686094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/1999] [Revised: 11/30/1999] [Accepted: 11/30/1999] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The immunoglobulin gene which encodes both membrane-associated and secreted proteins through alternative RNA processing reactions has been a model system used for over 25 yr to better understand the regulatory mechanisms governing alternative RNA processing. This gene contains competing cleavage-polyadenylation and RNA splicing reactions and the relative use of the two pathways is differentially regulated between B cells and plasma cells. General cleavage-polyadenylation and RNA splicing reactions are both altered during B cell maturation to affect immunoglobulin expression. However, the specific factors involved in this regulation have yet to be identified clearly. As transcriptional regulators stimulate the developmental RNA processing switch, microarray analysis is a promising approach to identify candidate regulators of this complex RNA processing mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martha L Peterson
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, 800 Rose Street, Lexington, KY 40536, USA.
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108
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Park ES, Shaughnessy JD, Gupta S, Wang H, Lee JS, Woo HG, Zhan F, Owens JD, Potter M, Janz S, Mushinski JF. Gene expression profiling reveals different pathways related to Abl and other genes that cooperate with c-Myc in a model of plasma cell neoplasia. BMC Genomics 2007; 8:302. [PMID: 17764563 PMCID: PMC2040348 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-8-302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2006] [Accepted: 08/31/2007] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background To elucidate the genes involved in the neoplastic transformation of B cells, global gene expression profiles were generated using Affymetrix U74Av2 microarrays, containing 12,488 genes, for four different groups of mouse B-cell lymphomas and six subtypes of pristane-induced mouse plasma cell tumors, three of which developed much earlier than the others. Results Unsupervised hierarchical cluster analysis exhibited two main sub-clusters of samples: a B-cell lymphoma cluster and a plasma cell tumor cluster with subclusters reflecting mechanism of induction. This report represents the first step in using global gene expression to investigate molecular signatures related to the role of cooperating oncogenes in a model of Myc-induced carcinogenesis. Within a single subgroup, e.g., ABPCs, plasma cell tumors that contained typical T(12;15) chromosomal translocations did not display gene expression patterns distinct from those with variant T(6;15) translocations, in which the breakpoint was in the Pvt-1 locus, 230 kb 3' of c-Myc, suggesting that c-Myc activation was the initiating factor in both. When integrated with previously published Affymetrix array data from human multiple myelomas, the IL-6-transgenic subset of mouse plasma cell tumors clustered more closely with MM1 subsets of human myelomas, slow-appearing plasma cell tumors clustered together with MM2, while plasma cell tumors accelerated by v-Abl clustered with the more aggressive MM3-MM4 myeloma subsets. Slow-appearing plasma cell tumors expressed Socs1 and Socs2 but v-Abl-accelerated plasma cell tumors expressed 4–5 times as much. Both v-Abl-accelerated and non-v-Abl-associated tumors exhibited phosphorylated STAT 1 and 3, but only v-Abl-accelerated plasma cell tumors lost viability and STAT 1 and 3 phosphorylation when cultured in the presence of the v-Abl kinase inhibitor, STI-571. These data suggest that the Jak/Stat pathway was critical in the transformation acceleration by v-Abl and that v-Abl activity remained essential throughout the life of the tumors, not just in their acceleration. A different pathway appears to predominate in the more slowly arising plasma cell tumors. Conclusion Gene expression profiling differentiates not only B-cell lymphomas from plasma cell tumors but also distinguishes slow from accelerated plasma cell tumors. These data and those obtained from the sensitivity of v-Abl-accelerated plasma cell tumors and their phosphorylated STAT proteins indicate that these similar tumors utilize different signaling pathways but share a common initiating genetic lesion, a c-Myc-activating chromosome translocation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun Sung Park
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
- Molecular Therapeutics, University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030 USA
| | - John D Shaughnessy
- Donna and Donald Lambert Laboratory of Myeloma Genetics, Myeloma Institute for Research and Therapy, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, AR 72205 USA
| | - Shalu Gupta
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
| | - Hongyang Wang
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
- Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
| | - Ju-Seog Lee
- Laboratory of Experimental Carcinogenesis, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
- Molecular Therapeutics, University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030 USA
| | - Hyun Goo Woo
- Laboratory of Experimental Carcinogenesis, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
| | - Fenghuang Zhan
- Donna and Donald Lambert Laboratory of Myeloma Genetics, Myeloma Institute for Research and Therapy, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, AR 72205 USA
| | - James D Owens
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
| | - Michael Potter
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
| | - Siegfried Janz
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Iowa Roy J. and Lucille A. Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA 52242 USA
| | - J Frederic Mushinski
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
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109
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He B, Xu W, Santini PA, Polydorides AD, Chiu A, Estrella J, Shan M, Chadburn A, Villanacci V, Plebani A, Knowles DM, Rescigno M, Cerutti A. Intestinal bacteria trigger T cell-independent immunoglobulin A(2) class switching by inducing epithelial-cell secretion of the cytokine APRIL. Immunity 2007; 26:812-26. [PMID: 17570691 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2007.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 540] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2006] [Revised: 04/02/2007] [Accepted: 04/25/2007] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Bacteria colonize the intestine shortly after birth and thereafter exert several beneficial functions, including induction of protective immunoglobulin A (IgA) antibodies. The distal intestine contains IgA(2), which is more resistant to bacterial proteases than is IgA(1). The mechanism by which B cells switch from IgM to IgA(2) remains unknown. We found that human intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) triggered IgA(2) class switching in B cells, including IgA(1)-expressing B cells arriving from mucosal follicles, through a CD4(+) T cell-independent pathway involving a proliferation-inducing ligand (APRIL). IECs released APRIL after sensing bacteria through Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and further increased APRIL production by activating dendritic cells via thymic stromal lymphopoietin. Our data indicate that bacteria elicit IgA(2) class switching by linking lamina propria B cells with IECs through a TLR-inducible signaling program requiring APRIL. Thus, mucosal vaccines should activate IECs to induce more effective IgA(2) responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing He
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, 1300 York Avenue, New York, NY 10021, USA
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110
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Abstract
AbstractIn the past 36 months, new developments have occurred both in the understanding of the biology of Waldenström macroglobulinemia (WM) and in therapeutic options for WM. Here, we review the classification, clinical features, and diagnostic criteria of the disease. WM is a B-cell neoplasm characterized by lymphoplasmacytic infiltration of the bone marrow and a monoclonal immunoglobulin M (IgM) protein. The symptoms of WM are attributable to the extent of tumor infiltration and to elevated IgM levels. The most common symptom is fatigue attributable to anemia. The prognostic factors predictive of survival include the patient's age, β2-microglobulin level, monoclonal protein level, hemoglobin concentration, and platelet count. Therapy is postponed for asymptomatic patients, and progressive anemia is the most common indication for initiation of treatment. The main therapeutic options include alkylating agents, nucleoside analogues, and rituximab. Studies involving combination chemotherapy are ongoing, and preliminary results are encouraging. No specific agent or regimen has been shown to be superior to another for treatment of WM. Novel agents such as bortezomib, perifosine, atacicept, oblimersen sodium, and tositumomab show promise as rational targeted therapy for WM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arun Vijay
- Austin Medical Center-Mayo Health System, Austin, MN, USA
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111
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Xu W, He B, Chiu A, Chadburn A, Shan M, Buldys M, Ding A, Knowles DM, Santini PA, Cerutti A. Epithelial cells trigger frontline immunoglobulin class switching through a pathway regulated by the inhibitor SLPI. Nat Immunol 2007; 8:294-303. [PMID: 17259987 DOI: 10.1038/ni1434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 232] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2006] [Accepted: 12/21/2006] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Epithelial cells (ECs) transport class-switched immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IgA antibodies across mucous membranes. Whether ECs initiate class switching remains unknown. Here we found that ECs lining tonsillar crypts formed pockets populated by B cells expressing activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID), an enzyme associated with ongoing class switching. ECs released B cell-activating AID-inducing factors after sensing microbial products through Toll-like receptors. The resulting class switching was amplified by thymic stromal lymphopoietin, an epithelial interleukin 7-like cytokine that enhanced the B cell 'licensing' function of dendritic cells, and was restrained by secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor, an epithelial homeostatic protein that inhibited AID induction in B cells. Thus, ECs may function as mucosal 'guardians' orchestrating frontline IgG and IgA class switching through a Toll-like receptor-inducible signaling program regulated by secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor.NOTE: In the version of this article initially published online, the middle label above Figure 6c is incorrect. The correct label should be 'BAFF'. The error has been corrected for all versions of the article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weifeng Xu
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, New York 10021, USA
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112
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O'Connor BP, Vogel LA, Zhang W, Loo W, Shnider D, Lind EF, Ratliff M, Noelle RJ, Erickson LD. Imprinting the fate of antigen-reactive B cells through the affinity of the B cell receptor. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 177:7723-32. [PMID: 17114443 PMCID: PMC2819292 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.177.11.7723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Long-lived plasma cells (PCs) and memory B cells (B(mem)) constitute the cellular components of enduring humoral immunity, whereas short-lived PCs that rapidly produce Ig correspond to the host's need for immediate protection against pathogens. In this study we show that the innate affinity of the BCR for Ag imprints upon naive B cells their differentiation fate to become short- or long-lived PCs and B(mem). Using BCR transgenic mice with varying affinities for Ag, naive B cells with high affinity lose their capacity to form germinal centers (GCs), develop neither B(mem) nor long-lived PCs, and are destined to a short-lived PC fate. Moderate affinity interactions result in hastened GC responses, and differentiation to long-lived PCs, but B(mem) remain extinct. In contrast, lower affinity interactions show tempered GCs, producing B(mem) and affinity-matured, long-lived PCs. Thus, a continuum of elementary to comprehensive humoral immune responses exists that is controlled by inherent BCR affinity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian P. O'Connor
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dartmouth Medical School, Lebanon, NH 03756
| | - Laura A. Vogel
- Department of Biological Sciences, Illinois State University, Normal, IL 61790
| | - Weijun Zhang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dartmouth Medical School, Lebanon, NH 03756
| | - William Loo
- Department of Microbiology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
| | - Danielle Shnider
- Department of Microbiology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
| | - Evan F. Lind
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dartmouth Medical School, Lebanon, NH 03756
| | - Michelle Ratliff
- Department of Biological Sciences, Illinois State University, Normal, IL 61790
| | - Randolph J. Noelle
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dartmouth Medical School, Lebanon, NH 03756
| | - Loren D. Erickson
- Department of Microbiology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
- Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Loren D. Erickson, Department of Microbiology, University of Virginia, Jordan Hall, Room 7034, 1300 Jefferson Park Avenue, Charlottesville, VA 22908.
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113
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Abstract
The prevalence of immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated allergic diseases has been increasing for the last four decades. In this review determinants for an increased IgE synthesis are discussed on both an epidemiological and on an immunological level with special emphasis on the differentiation of the B cell to an IgE-producing plasma cell. Factors that favor an IgE immune response are low antigen doses and immunization via mucous membranes, but it is highly likely that other environmental factors besides exposure to the allergenic sources play a role. Important factors in the formation of the Thelper type 2 (Th2) T cell subset are the actions of thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) on dendritic cells and the OX40 ligand on CD4+ T cells. In order for a B lymphocyte to switch to IgE production it needs two signals provided by a Th2 cell in the form of the cytokines interleukin (IL-) 4/IL-13 and ligation of the CD40. In spite of a half-life of only a few days, there is evidence that the IgE response may last for years even without allergen stimulation. This is likely to be caused by long-lived IgE-producing plasma cells, and such cells may be difficult to target therapeutically thus emphasizing the need for more knowledge on preventable causes of IgE- and allergy development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars K Poulsen
- Laboratory of Medical Allergology, Allergy Clinic, National University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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114
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Bradshaw EM, Orihuela A, McArdel SL, Salajegheh M, Amato AA, Hafler DA, Greenberg SA, O'Connor KC. A Local Antigen-Driven Humoral Response Is Present in the Inflammatory Myopathies. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 178:547-56. [PMID: 17182595 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.178.1.547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The inflammatory myopathies are putative autoimmune disorders characterized by muscle weakness and the presence of intramuscular inflammatory infiltrates. Although inclusion body myositis and polymyositis have been characterized as cytotoxic CD8(+) T cell-mediated diseases, we recently demonstrated high frequencies of CD138(+) plasma cells in the inflamed muscle tissue of patients with these diseases. To gain a deeper understanding of the role these B cell family members play in the disease pathology, we examined the molecular characteristics of the H chain portion of the Ag receptor. Biopsies of muscle tissue were sectioned and tissue regions and individual cells were isolated through laser capture microdissection. Ig H chain gene transcripts isolated from the sections, regions, and cells were used to determine the variable region gene sequences. Analysis of these sequences revealed clear evidence of affinity maturation in that significant somatic mutation, isotype switching, receptor revision, codon insertion/deletion, and oligoclonal expansion had occurred within the B and plasma cell populations. Moreover, analysis of tissue regions isolated by laser capture microdissection revealed both clonal expansion and variation, suggesting that local B cell maturation occurs within muscle. In contrast, sequences from control muscle tissues and peripheral blood revealed none of these characteristics found in inflammatory myopathy muscle tissue. Collectively, these data demonstrate that Ag drives a B cell Ag-specific response in muscle in patients with dermatomyositis, inclusion body myositis, and polymyositis. These findings highlight the need for a revision of the current paradigm of exclusively T cell-mediated intramuscular Ag-specific autoimmunity in inclusion body myositis and polymyositis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth M Bradshaw
- Department of Neurology, Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Center for Neurologic Diseases and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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115
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Abstract
Long-term acceptance of solid organ allografts remains a challenge. While many acute rejection episodes can be treated, new mechanisms of allograft damage are now being defined especially in kidney transplantation. Unexpected clusters of CD20(+) cells have been discovered in renal biopsies performed for clinical rejection. C4d deposition is now routinely seen in refractory rejection. Despite the rapid introduction of new immunosuppressive agents in transplantation, the search for an efficacious anti-B-cell agent remains. With novel mechanisms of allograft damage now being defined, it is important to consider how an anti-B-cell agent might fit into an immunosuppressive regimen. Rituximab is a high-affinity CD20 specific antibody that depletes the B-cell compartment by inducing cellular apoptosis. Thus, it is a rational choice for therapy in transplantation to abrogate B-cell mediated events. In this review, we will discuss the mechanisms of action of rituximab, and its use in for a variety of indications in solid organ transplantation. There are emerging case reports that show that rituximab may be an effective agent to treat antibody-mediated rejection, and post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder. Rituximab has been frequently cited as an important adjunct therapy in desensitization protocols for highly sensitized transplant recipients as well as recipients of ABO incompatible transplants. Rituximab demonstrates promise in this regard and warrants additional consideration in prospective clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yolanda T Becker
- Division of Transplantation, Department of Surgery, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53792, USA.
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116
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Decker WK, Qiu J, Farhangfar F, Hester JH, Altieri DC, Lin AY. A retrogen plasmid-based vaccine generates high titer antibody responses against the autologous cancer antigen survivin and demonstrates anti-tumor efficacy. Cancer Lett 2006; 237:45-55. [PMID: 16019131 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2005.05.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2004] [Revised: 03/25/2005] [Accepted: 05/20/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We describe the use of retrogen plasmid-based vaccine technology to break tolerance and to generate a robust, dose-dependent antibody response against the self cancer antigen, survivin. We further demonstrate that this phenomenon is due to the incorporation of the survivin antigen into the retrogen system rather than to some peculiarity unique to survivin. In contrast to other genetic immunization methods designed to produce antibody responses, the retrogen system results in a broad range of antibody isotypes, indicative of both a Th-1 and a Th-2 CD4+ response. Additional evidence of a Th-1 response is demonstrated by tumor growth inhibition in a mouse model of colon cancer metastasis. We speculate that this cost-effective technology could one day bolster or even supplant the use of monoclonal antibodies in the targeting of cell surface cancer antigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- William K Decker
- Department of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Box 65, 1515 Holcombe Blvd., Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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117
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Montes CL, Acosta-Rodríguez EV, Mucci J, Zuniga EI, Campetella O, Gruppi A. ATrypanosoma cruzi antigen signals CD11b+ cells to secrete cytokines that promote polyclonal B cell proliferation and differentiation into antibody-secreting cells. Eur J Immunol 2006; 36:1474-85. [PMID: 16688679 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200535537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Microbial-induced polyclonal activation of B cells is a common event in several forms of infections, and is believed to play a crucial role both for enhancing the production of specific antibodies and for maintenance of B cell memory. Therefore, a major challenge in biomedical research is the identification of pathogen-derived products capable of rapidly mounting B cell expansion and differentiation. Here we report that glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) stimulates polyclonal proliferation and differentiation of naive B cells. This stimulation was found to be T cell independent, but to absolutely require CD11b(+) cells. Moreover, we demonstrate that stimulation of CD11b(+) cells by GDH leads to the production of IL-6, IL-10 and B cell-activating factor (BAFF), all of which combine to powerfully induce B cell expansion. Importantly, IL-6 and IL-10 further drive B cell terminal differentiation into plasma cells by up-regulating critical transcription factors and immunoglobulin secretion. Our data provide the first evidence that a protozoan antigen can induce BAFF production by accessory cells, which in concert with other cytokines trigger polyclonal B cell activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina L Montes
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemical Science, National University of Córdoba, Argentina
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118
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He B, Qiao X, Klasse PJ, Chiu A, Chadburn A, Knowles DM, Moore JP, Cerutti A. HIV-1 envelope triggers polyclonal Ig class switch recombination through a CD40-independent mechanism involving BAFF and C-type lectin receptors. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 176:3931-41. [PMID: 16547227 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.7.3931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Switching from IgM to IgG and IgA is essential for antiviral immunity and requires engagement of CD40 on B cells by CD40L on CD4(+) T cells. HIV-1 is thought to impair CD40-dependent production of protective IgG and IgA by inducing progressive loss of CD4(+) T cells. Paradoxically, this humoral immunodeficiency is associated with B cell hyperactivation and increased production of nonprotective IgG and IgA that are either nonspecific or specific for HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins, including gp120. Nonspecific and gp120-specific IgG and IgA are sensitive to antiretroviral therapy and remain sustained in infected individuals with very few CD4(+) T cells. One interpretation is that some HIV-1 Ags elicit IgG and IgA class switch DNA recombination (CSR) in a CD40-independent fashion. We show that a subset of B cells binds gp120 through mannose C-type lectin receptors (MCLRs). In the presence of gp120, MCLR-expressing B cells up-regulate the CSR-inducing enzyme, activation-induced cytidine deaminase, and undergo CSR from IgM to IgG and IgA. CSR is further enhanced by IL-4 or IL-10, whereas Ab secretion requires a B cell-activating factor of the TNF family. This CD40L-related molecule is produced by monocytes upon CD4, CCR5, and CXCR4 engagement by gp120 and cooperates with IL-4 and IL-10 to up-regulate MCLRs on B cells. Thus, gp120 may elicit polyclonal IgG and IgA responses by linking the innate and adaptive immune systems through the B cell-activating factor of the TNF family. Chronic activation of B cells through this CD40-independent pathway could impair protective T cell-dependent Ab responses by inducing immune exhaustion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing He
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY 10021, USA
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119
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Xu Y, Yang YG, Ohdan H, Ryan D, Harper D, Wu C, Kruger-Grey HS, Thall AD, Awwad M, Sykes M. Characterization of Anti-Gal Antibody-Producing Cells of Baboons and Humans. Transplantation 2006; 81:940-8. [PMID: 16570021 DOI: 10.1097/01.tp.0000203300.87272.a3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Anti-Gal antibodies cause hyperacute and delayed xenograft rejection in pig-to-primate transplantation. The cell populations producing anti-Gal and other natural antibodies in primates are unknown. METHODS Cells from different lymphoid compartments of naïve or sensitized baboons were examined for anti-Gal and total Ig production by ELISPOT. B and plasma cells from humans and baboons were purified by FACS sorting and characterized for anti-Gal and total Ig production and cytology. RESULTS In naïve baboons, the spleen was the major source of anti-Gal IgM-secreting cells. Two months after sensitization with porcine tissues, high frequencies of anti-Gal IgM- and IgG-secreting cells were detected in the spleen, lymph nodes, and bone marrow. Six months after antigen exposure, anti-Gal IgM- and IgG-secreting cells were preferentially localized in the bone marrow. Cells from human spleen, bone marrow, and blood were also analyzed and anti-Gal IgM-secreting cells were detected mainly in the spleen. Sorting of baboon and human cells showed that anti-Gal IgM-secreting cells were mainly splenic B cells (CD20+, CD138-, and Ig+). Although low in percentage, sorted CD20-CD138+ plasma cells in spleen and bone marrow secreted large quantities of anti-Gal IgM. Most anti-Gal IgG-secreting cells were plasma cells (CD138+) at both early (Ig+) and late (Ig-) stages of differentiation. CONCLUSIONS Similar to Gal knockout mice, natural anti-Gal IgM antibodies in primates are produced mainly by splenic B cells. After antigen exposure, anti-Gal IgM and IgG were secreted by both B and plasma cells. These results suggest strategies to remove xenoreactive antibody-secreting cells prior to transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanxin Xu
- Immerge BioTherapeutics, Cambridge, MA, USA
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120
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Treon SP, Hunter ZR, Aggarwal A, Ewen EP, Masota S, Lee C, Santos DD, Hatjiharissi E, Xu L, Leleu X, Tournilhac O, Patterson CJ, Manning R, Branagan AR, Morton CC. Characterization of familial Waldenström's macroglobulinemia. Ann Oncol 2006; 17:488-94. [PMID: 16357024 DOI: 10.1093/annonc/mdj111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Familial clustering of B-cell disorders among Waldenström's macroglobulinemia (WM) patients has been reported, though the frequency and any differences in disease manifestation for familial patients remain to be defined. PATIENTS AND METHODS We therefore analyzed clinicopathological data from 257 consecutive and unrelated WM patients. Forty-eight (18.7%) patients had at least one first-degree relative with either WM (n = 13, 5.1%), or another B-cell disorder including non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (n = 9, 3.5%), myeloma (n = 8, 3.1%), chronic lymphocytic leukemia (n = 7, 2.7%), monoclonal gammopathy of unknown significance (n = 5, 1.9%), acute lymphocytic leukemia (n = 3, 1.2%) and Hodgkin's disease (n = 3, 1.2%). Patients with a familial history of WM or a plasma cell disorder (PCD) were diagnosed at a younger age and with greater bone marrow involvement. RESULTS Deletions in 6q represented the only recurrent structural chromosomal abnormality and were found in 13% of patients, all non-familial cases. Interphase FISH analysis demonstrated deletions in 6q21-22.1 in nearly half of patients, irrespective of familial background. CONCLUSIONS The above results suggest a high degree of clustering for B-cell disorders among first-degree relatives of patients with WM, along with distinct clinical features at presentation based on familial disease cluster patterns. Genomic studies to delineate genetic predisposition to WM are underway.
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Affiliation(s)
- S P Treon
- Bing Center for Waldenström's Macroglobulinemia, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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121
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Jarman ER, Tan KAL, Lamb JR. Transgenic mice expressing the T cell antigen receptor specific for an immunodominant epitope of a major allergen of house dust mite develop an asthmatic phenotype on exposure of the airways to allergen. Clin Exp Allergy 2006; 35:960-9. [PMID: 16008685 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2005.02284.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Current studies on mechanisms underlying allergen-induced pulmonary inflammation and asthma are hampered by the lack of appropriate physiological in vivo models that reflect the natural route of allergen exposure and sensitization. OBJECTIVE To generate and phenotype a transgenic mouse strain expressing the T cell receptor (TCR) specific for an immunodominant domain of the major inhalant allergen Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus species of house dust mite (Der p 1), for the development of an in vivo model of allergic asthma. METHODS Der p 1 transgenic mice were generated using TCR-alphabeta derived from a CD4+ T cell hybridoma reactive with Der p 1 residues p 110-131. The frequency and functional activity of peripheral T cells were determined and parameters of airway inflammation assessed following allergen challenge of the airways with Der p 1. RESULTS CD4+ T cells are functionally active, exhibiting dose-dependent proliferation and IL-4 production on primary stimulation with Der p 1 or Der p 1, p 110-131 in vitro, independent of in vivo antigen priming. On sensitization of the airways with allergen, in the absence of systemic priming or the application of adjuvants, the TCR transgenic mice develop airway inflammation characterized by a marked lymphocytic and eosinophilic infiltrate with goblet cell hyperplasia and enhanced mucin production. CONCLUSION The Der p 1 TCR transgenic mice provide a model for investigating the pathophysiological mechanisms of pulmonary inflammation following sensitization by exposure of the airways to allergen and for investigating the mode of action and efficacy of novel immunotherapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- E R Jarman
- Immunobiology Group, MRC Centre for Inflammation Research, Respiratory Medicine Unit, University of Edinburgh Medical School, Edinburgh, UK
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122
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Ma CS, Pittaluga S, Avery DT, Hare NJ, Maric I, Klion AD, Nichols KE, Tangye SG. Selective generation of functional somatically mutated IgM+CD27+, but not Ig isotype-switched, memory B cells in X-linked lymphoproliferative disease. J Clin Invest 2006; 116:322-33. [PMID: 16424938 PMCID: PMC1332028 DOI: 10.1172/jci25720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2005] [Accepted: 11/15/2005] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Individuals with X-linked lymphoproliferative disease (XLP) display defects in B cell differentiation in vivo. Specifically, XLP patients do not generate a normal number of CD27 memory B cells, and those few that are present are IgM. Recent studies have suggested that IgMCD27 B cells are not true memory cells, but rather B cells that guard against T cell-independent pathogens. Here we show that human XLP IgMCD27 B cells resemble normal memory B cells both morphologically and phenotypically. Additionally, IgMCD27 B cells exhibited functional characteristics of normal memory B cells, including the ability to secrete more Ig than naive B cells in response to both T cell-dependent and -independent stimuli. Analysis of spleens from XLP patients revealed a paucity of germinal centers (GCs), and the rare GCs detected were poorly formed. Despite this, Ig variable region genes expressed by XLP IgMCD27 B cells had undergone somatic hypermutation to an extent comparable to that of normal memory B cells. These findings reveal a differential requirement for the generation of IgM and Ig isotype-switched memory B cells, with the latter only being generated by fully formed GCs. Production of affinity-matured IgM by IgMCD27 B cells may protect against pathogens to which a normal immune response is elicited in XLP patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy S Ma
- Lymphocyte Differentiation Laboratory, Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology, Newtown, New South Wales, Australia
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123
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Hoyer BF, Manz RA, Radbruch A, Hiepe F. Long-lived plasma cells and their contribution to autoimmunity. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2005; 1050:124-33. [PMID: 16014527 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1313.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The current view holds that chronic autoimmune diseases are driven by the continuous activation of autoreactive B and T lymphocytes. However, despite the use of potent immunosuppressants, the production of autoantibodies may persist and contribute to the autoimmune pathology. We recently demonstrated in autoimmune mice that both short-lived plasmablasts and long-lived plasma cells are involved in autoantibody production. While anti-proliferative immunosuppressive therapy and monoclonal anti-CD20 antibody deplete short-lived plasmablasts, long-lived plasma cells survive and continue to produce (auto)antibodies. Thus, strategies for targeting long-lived plasma cells may provide potent new treatment modalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bimba F Hoyer
- Department of Medicine (Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology), Charité-University Hospital Berlin, Schumannstr. 20/21, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
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124
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Dunussi-Joannopoulos K, Hancock GE, Kunz A, Hegen M, Zhou XX, Sheppard BJ, Lamothe J, Li E, Ma HL, Hamann PR, Damle NK, Collins M. B-cell depletion inhibits arthritis in a collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) model, but does not adversely affect humoral responses in a respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) vaccination model. Blood 2005; 106:2235-43. [PMID: 15947095 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2004-11-4547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractWe report the development of a mouse B cell-depleting immunoconjugate (anti-CD22 monoclonal antibody [mAb] conjugated to calicheamicin) and its in vivo use to characterize the kinetics of CD22+ B-cell depletion and reconstitution in murine primary and secondary lymphoid tissues. The effect of B-cell depletion was further studied in a murine collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) model and a respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) vaccination model. Our results show that (1) the immunoconjugate has B-cell-specific in vitro and in vivo cytotoxicity; (2) B-cell reconstitution starts in the bone marrow and spleen around day 30 after depletion and is completed in all tissues tested by day 50; (3) B-cell depletion inhibits the development of clinical and histologic arthritis in the CIA model; (4) depletion of type II collagen antibody levels is not necessary for clinical and histologic prevention of CIA; and (5) B-cell depletion does not adversely affect memory antibody responses after challenge nor clearance of infectious virus from lungs in the RSV vaccination model. These results demonstrate for the first time that only B-cell reduction but not type II collagen antibody levels correlate with the prevention of arthritis and represent key insights into the role of CD22-targeted B-cell depletion in mouse autoimmunity and vaccination models.
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125
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Skalet AH, Isler JA, King LB, Harding HP, Ron D, Monroe JG. Rapid B cell receptor-induced unfolded protein response in nonsecretory B cells correlates with pro- versus antiapoptotic cell fate. J Biol Chem 2005; 280:39762-71. [PMID: 16188879 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m502640200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The adaptive unfolded protein response (UPR) is essential for the development of antibody-secreting plasma cells. B cells induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to differentiate into plasma cells exhibit a nonclassical UPR reported to anticipate endoplasmic reticulum stress prior to immunoglobulin production. Here we demonstrate that activation of a physiologic UPR is not limited to cells undergoing secretory cell differentiation. We identify B cell receptor (BCR) signaling as an unexpected physiologic UPR trigger and demonstrate that in mature B cells, BCR stimulation induces a short lived UPR similar to the LPS-triggered nonclassical UPR. However, unlike LPS, BCR stimulation does not induce plasma cell differentiation. Furthermore, the BCR-induced UPR is not limited to cells in which BCR induces activation, since a UPR is also induced in transitional immature B cells that respond to BCR stimulation with a rapid apoptotic fate. This response involves sustained up-regulation of Chop mRNA indicative of a terminal UPR. Whereas sustained Chop expression correlates with the ultimate fate of the BCR-triggered B cell and not its developmental stage, Chop-/- B cells undergo apoptosis, indicating that CHOP is not required for this process. These studies establish a system whereby a terminal or adaptive UPR can be alternatively triggered by physiologic stimuli.
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MESH Headings
- Alleles
- Animals
- Apoptosis
- B-Lymphocytes/cytology
- B-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Blotting, Western
- CD40 Antigens/biosynthesis
- Cell Differentiation
- Cell Lineage
- Cell Membrane/metabolism
- Cytoplasm/metabolism
- Endoplasmic Reticulum/metabolism
- Exons
- Genes, Reporter
- Immunoglobulins/metabolism
- Lipopolysaccharides/chemistry
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Transgenic
- Microscopy, Electron
- Mutation
- Protein Denaturation
- Protein Folding
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Receptors, Antigen, B-Cell/metabolism
- Receptors, Interleukin-4/metabolism
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Signal Transduction
- Time Factors
- Toll-Like Receptor 4/metabolism
- Transcription Factor CHOP/metabolism
- Up-Regulation
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison H Skalet
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
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126
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Hiepe F, Dörner T. [Autoantibodies and antibody-secreting cells]. Z Rheumatol 2005; 64:389-95. [PMID: 16184346 DOI: 10.1007/s00393-005-0767-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2005] [Accepted: 07/25/2005] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Autoantibodies are a hallmark of systemic and organ-specific autoimmune diseases. They contribute both directly and indirectly to the pathogenesis of these diseases. There is now a rising interest in cells that secrete (auto)antibodies. Antibody-secreting cells are plasma blasts and plasma cells that differentiate from B cells following antigen encounter. The view held by the immunology community for decades was that (auto)antibodies are produced by short-lived cells arising from chronic (auto)antigen-mediated B cell stimulation. However, it was recently shown that plasma cells can survive in niches in the bone marrow and inflamed tissues for months to years. These long-lived plasma cells continuously secrete (auto)antibodies without the need for any additional antigen stimulation. They are resistant to immuno-suppressants and are not eliminated by B-cell depleting therapies. Depending on which antibodies are secreted, this plasma cell memory may play an important role in maintaining protective humoral immunity or in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases. Consequently, strategies targeting long-lived autoreactive plasma cells may provide new therapeutic options in the treatment of autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Hiepe
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Medizinische Klinik m. S. Rheumatologie und Klin. Immunologie, Schumannstr. 20/21, 10117 Berlin, Germany.
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127
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Takahashi Y, Inamine A, Hashimoto SI, Haraguchi S, Yoshioka E, Kojima N, Abe R, Takemori T. Novel Role of the Ras Cascade in Memory B Cell Response. Immunity 2005; 23:127-38. [PMID: 16111632 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2005.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2004] [Revised: 05/25/2005] [Accepted: 06/01/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Engagement of the B cell antigen receptor (BCR) triggers the Ras cascade, but the biological role of the latter in B cell response is unknown. Here, we report that in T cell-dependent response, the role of the Ras cascade is confined to memory B cells and possibly marginal zone B cells. When Ras-dependent BCR signaling was impaired, the generation of IgG germinal center B cells was unaffected but the recruitment of high-affinity cells into the memory compartment and terminal differentiation were inhibited. Furthermore, inhibition of MEK activity consistently impaired antibody production by IgG memory B cells (but not naïve B cells) in vitro. Notably, this impairment was countered by overexpression of Bcl-2. Thus, our data suggest that upon antigen stimulation, memory B cells are susceptible to apoptosis but can be rescued via an antiapoptotic effect mediated through the Ras cascade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshimasa Takahashi
- Department of Immunology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Shinjuku, Tokyo, Japan
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128
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Brighenti A, Andrulis M, Geissinger E, Roth S, Müller-Hermelink HK, Rüdiger T. Extrafollicular proliferation of B cells in the absence of follicular hyperplasia: a distinct reaction pattern in lymph nodes correlated with primary or recall type responses. Histopathology 2005; 47:90-100. [PMID: 15982328 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2559.2005.02173.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Extrafollicular activation of B cells is rarely observed in human lymph nodes. The aim of this study was to extensively analyse the expression of surface molecules and transcription factors in four such cases, comparing them with follicular B cells and medullary cord plasma cells. METHODS AND RESULTS Various combinations of B-cell-related surface markers and transcription factors were studied by triple immunofluorescence. While in the germinal centre, reactive immunoglobulin production occurred exclusively in non-proliferating cells, in extrafollicular activation proliferation of B cells and immunoglobulin production coexisted. In two of these cases proliferating cells were mainly IgG+CD27+, i.e. derived from class-switched postgerminal centre memory B cells. Some of these cells expressed CD30. In the other two cases, immunoglobulin-forming cells were non-class-switched IgM+CD27- B cells, representing a primary expansion of naive B cells. CONCLUSIONS Extrafollicular B-cell activation is the morphological correlate of rapid B-cell responses that do not involve the germinal centres. It is pathogenetically heterogeneous, comprising primary responses that occur prior to, or independent of, germinal centre reaction or memory cell activation in recall responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Brighenti
- Istituto di Anatomia Patologica, Università degli Studi di Verona, Verona, Italy
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129
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Avery DT, Ellyard JI, Mackay F, Corcoran LM, Hodgkin PD, Tangye SG. Increased expression of CD27 on activated human memory B cells correlates with their commitment to the plasma cell lineage. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 174:4034-42. [PMID: 15778361 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.174.7.4034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Plasma cells (PC) or Ig-secreting cells (ISC) are terminally differentiated B cells responsible for the production of protective Ig. ISC can be generated in vitro by culturing human B cells with the T cell-derived stimuli CD40L, IL-2, and IL-10. ISC have traditionally been identified by the increased expression of CD38, analogous to primary human PC, and the acquired ability to secrete Ig. By tracking the proliferation history of activated B cells, we previously reported that the differentiation of memory B cells into CD38(+) B cells is IL-10 dependent, and increases in frequency with cell division. However, <50% of CD38(+) cells secreted Ig, and there was a population of CD38(-) ISC. Thus, the PC phenotype of CD38(+) cells generated in vitro did not correlate with PC function. To address this, we have examined cultures of activated memory B cells to accurately identify the phenotype of ISC generated in vitro. We found that CD27 is also up-regulated on memory B cells in an IL-10-dependent and division-dependent manner, and that ISC segregated into the CD27(high) subset of activated memory B cells irrespective of the acquired expression of CD38. The ISC generated in these cultures expressed elevated levels of the transcription factors Blimp-1 and X box-binding protein-1 and reduced levels of Pax-5, and exhibited selective migration toward CXCL12, similar to primary PC. We propose that the differentiation of memory B cells into PC involves a transitional stage characterized by a CD27(high)CD38(-) phenotype with the acquired ability to secrete high levels of Ig.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle T Avery
- Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology, New South Wales, Australia
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130
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William J, Euler C, Shlomchik MJ. Short-Lived Plasmablasts Dominate the Early Spontaneous Rheumatoid Factor Response: Differentiation Pathways, Hypermutating Cell Types, and Affinity Maturation Outside the Germinal Center. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 174:6879-87. [PMID: 15905530 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.174.11.6879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We used a newly validated approach to identify the initiation of an autoantibody response to identify the sites and cell differentiation pathways at early and late stages of the rheumatoid factor response. The autoimmune response is mainly comprised of rapidly turning over plasmablasts that, according to BrdU labeling, TUNEL, and hypermutation data, derive from an activated B cell precursor. Surprisingly, few long-lived plasma cells were generated. The response most likely initiates at the splenic T-B zone border and continues in the marginal sinus bridging channels. Both activated B cells and plasmablasts harbor V gene mutations; large numbers of mutations in mice with long-standing response indicate that despite the rapid turnover of responding cells, clones can persist for many weeks. These studies provide insights into the unique nature of an ongoing autoimmune response and may be a model for understanding the response to therapies such as B cell depletion.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibody-Producing Cells/immunology
- Antibody-Producing Cells/metabolism
- Antibody-Producing Cells/pathology
- Antigens, CD/biosynthesis
- Antigens, Differentiation, B-Lymphocyte/biosynthesis
- Apoptosis/genetics
- Apoptosis/immunology
- B-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- B-Lymphocyte Subsets/metabolism
- B-Lymphocyte Subsets/pathology
- Binding Sites, Antibody/genetics
- Cell Adhesion Molecules/biosynthesis
- Cell Differentiation/genetics
- Cell Differentiation/immunology
- Cell Proliferation
- Flow Cytometry
- Germinal Center/immunology
- Germinal Center/metabolism
- Germinal Center/pathology
- Lectins/biosynthesis
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred MRL lpr
- Mice, Transgenic
- Plasma Cells/immunology
- Plasma Cells/metabolism
- Plasma Cells/pathology
- Receptors, Antigen, B-Cell/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Antigen, B-Cell/metabolism
- Rheumatoid Factor/biosynthesis
- Rheumatoid Factor/genetics
- Sialic Acid Binding Ig-like Lectin 2
- Somatic Hypermutation, Immunoglobulin
- Spleen/immunology
- Spleen/metabolism
- Spleen/pathology
- Stem Cells/immunology
- Stem Cells/metabolism
- Stem Cells/pathology
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline William
- Section of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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131
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Abbas AR, Baldwin D, Ma Y, Ouyang W, Gurney A, Martin F, Fong S, van Lookeren Campagne M, Godowski P, Williams PM, Chan AC, Clark HF. Immune response in silico (IRIS): immune-specific genes identified from a compendium of microarray expression data. Genes Immun 2005; 6:319-31. [PMID: 15789058 DOI: 10.1038/sj.gene.6364173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 286] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Immune cell-specific expression is one indication of the importance of a gene's role in the immune response. We have compiled a compendium of microarray expression data for virtually all human genes from six key immune cell types and their activated and differentiated states. Immune Response In Silico (IRIS) is a collection of genes that have been selected for specific expression in immune cells. The expression pattern of IRIS genes recapitulates the phylogeny of immune cells in terms of the lineages of their differentiation. Gene Ontology assignments for IRIS genes reveal significant involvement in inflammation and immunity. Genes encoding CD antigens, cytokines, integrins and many other gene families playing key roles in the immune response are highly represented. IRIS also includes proteins of unknown function and expressed sequence tags that may not represent genes. The predicted cellular localization of IRIS proteins is evenly distributed between cell surface and intracellular compartments, indicating that immune specificity is important at many points in the signaling pathways of the immune response. IRIS provides a resource for further investigation into the function of the immune system and immune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- A R Abbas
- Department of Bioinformatics, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
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132
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Zhang K, Wong HN, Song B, Miller CN, Scheuner D, Kaufman RJ. The unfolded protein response sensor IRE1alpha is required at 2 distinct steps in B cell lymphopoiesis. J Clin Invest 2005. [PMID: 15690081 DOI: 10.1172/jci200521848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 245] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
B lymphocyte differentiation is coordinated with the induction of high-level Ig secretion and expansion of the secretory pathway. Upon accumulation of unfolded proteins in the lumen of the ER, cells activate an intracellular signaling pathway termed the unfolded protein response (UPR). Two major proximal sensors of the UPR are inositol-requiring enzyme 1alpha (IRE1alpha), an ER transmembrane protein kinase/endoribonuclease, and ER-resident eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2alpha (eIF2alpha) kinase (PERK). To elucidate whether the UPR plays an important role in lymphopoiesis, we carried out reconstitution of recombinase-activating gene 2-deficient (rag2-/-) mice with hematopoietic cells defective in either IRE1alpha- or PERK-mediated signaling. IRE1alpha-deficient (ire1alpha-/-) HSCs can proliferate and give rise to pro-B cells that home to bone marrow. However, IRE1alpha, but not its catalytic activities, is required for Ig gene rearrangement and production of B cell receptors (BCRs). Analysis of rag2-/- mice transplanted with IRE1alpha trans-dominant-negative bone marrow cells demonstrated an additional requirement for IRE1alpha in B lymphopoiesis: both the IRE1alpha kinase and RNase catalytic activities are required to splice the mRNA encoding X-box-binding protein 1 (XBP1) for terminal differentiation of mature B cells into antibody-secreting plasma cells. Furthermore, UPR-mediated translational control through eIF2alpha phosphorylation is not required for B lymphocyte maturation and/or plasma cell differentiation. These results suggest specific requirements of the IRE1alpha-mediated UPR subpathway in the early and late stages of B lymphopoiesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kezhong Zhang
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Michigan Medical Center, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
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133
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Zhang K, Wong HN, Song B, Miller CN, Scheuner D, Kaufman RJ. The unfolded protein response sensor IRE1alpha is required at 2 distinct steps in B cell lymphopoiesis. J Clin Invest 2005; 115:268-81. [PMID: 15690081 PMCID: PMC546421 DOI: 10.1172/jci21848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2004] [Accepted: 11/16/2004] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
B lymphocyte differentiation is coordinated with the induction of high-level Ig secretion and expansion of the secretory pathway. Upon accumulation of unfolded proteins in the lumen of the ER, cells activate an intracellular signaling pathway termed the unfolded protein response (UPR). Two major proximal sensors of the UPR are inositol-requiring enzyme 1alpha (IRE1alpha), an ER transmembrane protein kinase/endoribonuclease, and ER-resident eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2alpha (eIF2alpha) kinase (PERK). To elucidate whether the UPR plays an important role in lymphopoiesis, we carried out reconstitution of recombinase-activating gene 2-deficient (rag2-/-) mice with hematopoietic cells defective in either IRE1alpha- or PERK-mediated signaling. IRE1alpha-deficient (ire1alpha-/-) HSCs can proliferate and give rise to pro-B cells that home to bone marrow. However, IRE1alpha, but not its catalytic activities, is required for Ig gene rearrangement and production of B cell receptors (BCRs). Analysis of rag2-/- mice transplanted with IRE1alpha trans-dominant-negative bone marrow cells demonstrated an additional requirement for IRE1alpha in B lymphopoiesis: both the IRE1alpha kinase and RNase catalytic activities are required to splice the mRNA encoding X-box-binding protein 1 (XBP1) for terminal differentiation of mature B cells into antibody-secreting plasma cells. Furthermore, UPR-mediated translational control through eIF2alpha phosphorylation is not required for B lymphocyte maturation and/or plasma cell differentiation. These results suggest specific requirements of the IRE1alpha-mediated UPR subpathway in the early and late stages of B lymphopoiesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kezhong Zhang
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Michigan Medical Center, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
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134
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Dooley H, Flajnik MF. Shark immunity bites back: affinity maturation and memory response in the nurse shark,Ginglymostoma cirratum. Eur J Immunol 2005; 35:936-45. [PMID: 15688348 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200425760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The cartilaginous fish are the oldest phylogenetic group in which all of the molecular components of the adaptive immune system have been found. Although early studies clearly showed that sharks could produce an IgM-based response following immunization, evidence for memory, affinity maturation and roles for the other isotypes (notably IgNAR) in this group remained inconclusive. The data presented here illustrate that the nurse shark (Ginglymostoma cirratum) is able to produce not only an IgM response, but we also show for the first time a highly antigen-specific IgNAR response. Additionally, under appropriate conditions, a memory response for both isotypes can be elicited. Analysis of the response shows differential expression of pentameric and monomeric IgM. Pentameric IgM provides the 'first line of defense' through high-avidity, low-affinity interaction with antigen. In contrast, monomeric IgM and IgNAR seem responsible for the specific, antigen-driven response. We propose the presence of distinct lineages of B cells in sharks. As there is no conventional isotype switching, each lineage seems pre-determined to express a single isotype (IgM versus IgNAR). However, our data suggest that there may also be specific lineages for the different forms (pentameric versus monomeric) of the IgM isotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen Dooley
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA.
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135
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Test ST, Mitsuyoshi JK, Hu Y. Depletion of complement has distinct effects on the primary and secondary antibody responses to a conjugate of pneumococcal serotype 14 capsular polysaccharide and a T-cell-dependent protein carrier. Infect Immun 2005; 73:277-86. [PMID: 15618164 PMCID: PMC538989 DOI: 10.1128/iai.73.1.277-286.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Complement activation plays a critical role in the immune response to T-cell-dependent and T-cell-independent antigens. However, the effect of conjugation of T-cell-dependent protein carriers to T-cell-independent type 2 antigens on the requirement for complement in the humoral immune response to such antigens remains unknown. We studied the role of complement activation on the antibody response of BALB/c mice immunized with the T-cell-independent type 2 antigen serotype 14 pneumococcal capsular polysaccharide (PPS14), either in unmodified form or conjugated to ovalbumin (OVA). In mice immunized with either PPS14 or PPS14-OVA, depletion of endogenous complement at the time of primary immunization by treatment with cobra venom factor (CVF) diminished serum anti-PPS14 concentrations after primary immunization but enhanced antibody responses after secondary immunization. The secondary immunoglobulin G (IgG) anti-PPS14 antibody response after immunization with PPS14-OVA was especially enhanced by complement depletion, was observed at doses as low as 0.2 mug of antigen, and was maximal when CVF was administered within 2 days of immunization. The avidity and opsonophagocytic functions of IgG anti-PPS14 antibodies were comparable in mice immunized with PPS14-OVA with or without complement depletion. Serum anti-PPS14 antibody concentrations were near normal, and the enhancing effects of CVF treatment on the secondary anti-PPS14 antibody response were also apparent in splenectomized mice immunized with PPS14-OVA. These results demonstrate that complement activation can have distinct effects on the primary and secondary antibody responses to a T-cell-independent type 2 antigen, either unmodified or conjugated to a T-cell-dependent protein carrier. These differences should be taken into consideration when using complement to modulate the immune response to vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel T Test
- Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute, 5700 Martin Luther King, Jr. Way, Oakland, CA 94609-1673, USA.
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136
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Sneller MC. Rituximab and Wegener's granulomatosis: Are B cells a target in vasculitis treatment? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 52:1-5. [PMID: 15641069 DOI: 10.1002/art.20717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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137
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Bromage ES, Kaattari IM, Zwollo P, Kaattari SL. Plasmablast and Plasma Cell Production and Distribution in Trout Immune Tissues. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 173:7317-23. [PMID: 15585855 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.173.12.7317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
These studies describe the in vitro and ex vivo generation of plasmablasts and plasma cells in trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) peripheral blood and splenic and anterior kidney tissues. Cells were derived either from naive trout and cultured with the polyclonal activator, Escherichia coli LPS, or from trout that had been immunized with trinitrophenyl-keyhole limpet hemocyanin. Hydroxyurea was used to resolve populations of replicating (plasmablast) and nonreplicating (plasma cell) Ab-secreting cells (ASC). Complete inhibition of Ig secretion was only observed within the PBL. Both anterior kidney and splenic lymphocytes possessed a subset of ASCs that were hydroxyurea resistant. Thus, in vitro production of plasma cells appears to be restricted to the latter two tissues, whereas peripheral blood is exclusively restricted to the production of plasmablasts. After immunization with trinitrophenyl-keyhole limpet hemocyanin, specific ASC could be isolated from all immune organs; however, the anterior kidney contained 98% of all ASC. Late in the response (>10 wk), anterior kidney ASC secreted specific Ab for at least 15 days in culture, indicating that they were long-lived plasma cells. Cells from spleen and peripheral blood lost all capacity to secrete specific Ab in the absence of Ag. Late in the Ab response, high serum titer levels are solely the result of Ig secretion from anterior kidney plasma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin S Bromage
- Department of Environmental and Aquatic Animal Health, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA
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138
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139
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Abrahão TB, Freymüller E, Mortara RA, Lopes JD, Mariano M. Morphological characterization of mouse B-1 cells. Immunobiology 2004; 208:401-11. [PMID: 14748513 DOI: 10.1078/0171-2985-00287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
At least three B cell subsets, B-1a, B-1b and B-2 are present circulating peripherally in the mouse. In these animals, B-1 cells constitute a minor fraction of B cells in spleen and are absent in lymph nodes although they represent the main B cell population in peritoneal and pleural cavities. Currently these cells are identified by a surface phenotypic repertoire; they express Mac-1, IgM(high), and B220(low). B-1a cells express CDS. The aim of this work emerged from the fact that the morphology of B-1 cells is not fully characterized. Here we identified B-1 cells using colloidal gold immunocytochemical assays and purified B-1 cells from supernatants of adherent peritoneal cell cultures by a magnetic bead technique. These techniques lead us to demonstrate that, in mice, either B-1a or B-1b cells have a unique morphology distinct from that of B-2 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thalita Balsamo Abrahão
- Disciplina de Imunologia, Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia - Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Rua Botucatu, 862 Ed. de Ciências Biomédicas 4o andar, 04023-900 São Paulo, Brazil
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140
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Harper D, Gollackner B, Xu Y, Calderhead D, Ryan D, Li W, Cheng J, Wu C, Moran K, Latinne D, Bazin H, White-Scharf ME, Cooper DKC, Awwad M, Chang J. In vitro and in vivo investigation of a novel monoclonal antibody to plasma cells (W5 mAb). Xenotransplantation 2004; 11:78-90. [PMID: 14962296 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3089.2004.00086.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Natural antibodies (Abs), predominantly anti-Gal alpha 1-3Gal (Gal) Abs, in non-human primates and human beings present a major hurdle to successful pig-to-primate xenotransplantation. Attempts to inhibit anti-Gal Ab production in naïve baboons using non-specific immunosuppressive or B cell-specific reagents have failed. A new rat monoclonal antibody (W5 mAb) has been generated, which binds to all B cells, including memory cells, and to the majority of plasma cells, but not to T cells. It has been tested in vitro and in vivo. By immunoprecipitation, W5 mAb bound a human leukocyte antigen class II (HLA-DR) determinant. Sorting splenic or bone marrow W5+ cells resulted in a highly enriched anti-Gal Ab and total immunoglobulin (Ig)-secretory population. In vivo studies in baboons demonstrated that W5 mAb was safe but, despite the concomitant administration of an anti-CD154 mAb to inhibit sensitization, anti-rat Abs were detected within 10 days and inhibited the effect of the W5 mAb. High levels of W5 mAb were able to completely deplete B cells in the blood, but not in lymphoid tissues. Enzyme-linked spot-forming assay (ELISPOT) demonstrated that only 50 to 60% of secreting cells (SC) were depleted in the bone marrow. No reduction in the serum levels of anti-Gal Ab was observed. W5 mAb did not cause complete inhibition of anti-Gal Ab production, probably as a result of its inability to completely deplete B and plasma cells from all lymphoid compartments.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Harper
- Immerge BioTherapeutics, Inc., Cambridge, MA, USA
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141
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Hieshima K, Kawasaki Y, Hanamoto H, Nakayama T, Nagakubo D, Kanamaru A, Yoshie O. CC chemokine ligands 25 and 28 play essential roles in intestinal extravasation of IgA antibody-secreting cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 173:3668-75. [PMID: 15356112 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.173.6.3668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
CCL25 (also known as thymus-expressed chemokine) and CCL28 (also known as mucosae-associated epithelial chemokine) play important roles in mucosal immunity by recruiting IgA Ab-secreting cells (ASCs) into mucosal lamina propria. However, their exact roles in vivo still remain to be defined. In this study, we first demonstrated in mice that IgA ASCs in small intestine expressed CCR9, CCR10, and CXCR4 on the cell surface and migrated to their respective ligands CCL25, CCL28, and CXCL12 (also known as stromal cell-derived factor 1), whereas IgA ASCs in colon mainly expressed CCR10 and CXCR4 and migrated to CCL28 and CXCL12. Reciprocally, the epithelial cells of small intestine were immunologically positive for CCL25 and CCL28, whereas those of colon were positive for CCL28 and CXCL12. Furthermore, the venular endothelial cells in small intestine were positive for CCL25 and CCL28, whereas those in colon were positive for CCL28, suggesting their direct roles in extravasation of IgA ASCs. Consistently, in mice orally immunized with cholera toxin (CT), anti-CCL25 suppressed homing of CT-specific IgA ASCs into small intestine, whereas anti-CCL28 suppressed homing of CT-specific IgA ASCs into both small intestine and colon. Reciprocally, CT-specific ASCs and IgA titers in the blood were increased in mice treated with anti-CCL25 or anti-CCL28. Anti-CXCL12 had no such effects. Finally, both CCL25 and CCL28 were capable of enhancing alpha4 integrin-dependent adhesion of IgA ASCs to mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule-1 and VCAM-1. Collectively, CCL25 and CCL28 play essential roles in intestinal homing of IgA ASCs primarily by mediating their extravasation into intestinal lamina propria.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibody-Producing Cells/cytology
- Antibody-Producing Cells/immunology
- Antibody-Producing Cells/metabolism
- Cell Adhesion/immunology
- Cell Adhesion Molecules
- Cell Membrane/immunology
- Cell Membrane/metabolism
- Chemokine CCL27
- Chemokine CXCL12
- Chemokines/biosynthesis
- Chemokines/immunology
- Chemokines/physiology
- Chemokines, CC/biosynthesis
- Chemokines, CC/immunology
- Chemokines, CC/physiology
- Chemokines, CXC/biosynthesis
- Chemokines, CXC/immunology
- Chemotaxis, Leukocyte/immunology
- Cholera Toxin/administration & dosage
- Cholera Toxin/immunology
- Female
- Humans
- Immune Sera/administration & dosage
- Immunoglobulin A/biosynthesis
- Immunoglobulins/metabolism
- Immunohistochemistry
- Integrin alpha4/physiology
- Intestinal Mucosa/cytology
- Intestinal Mucosa/immunology
- Intestinal Mucosa/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mucoproteins/metabolism
- Organ Specificity/immunology
- Receptors, CCR
- Receptors, CCR10
- Receptors, CXCR4/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Chemokine/biosynthesis
- Staining and Labeling
- Vascular Cell Adhesion Molecule-1/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunio Hieshima
- Department of Microbiology, Kinki University School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
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142
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Fear DJ, McCloskey N, O'Connor B, Felsenfeld G, Gould HJ. Transcription of Ig Germline Genes in Single Human B Cells and the Role of Cytokines in Isotype Determination. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 173:4529-38. [PMID: 15383585 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.173.7.4529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We have developed a critical test of the chromatin accessibility model of Ig isotype determination in which local unfolding of chromatin higher order structure (chromatin accessibility) in the region of specific germline genes in the H chain locus determines the Ab class to be expressed in the B cell. We show that multiple germline genes are constitutively transcribed in the majority of naive human B cells in a population. Thus, because chromatin in its higher order structure cannot be transcribed, the entire Ig H chain locus must be unfolded in naive B cells. We have also established that IL-4 and anti-CD40 act by enhancing transcription in the majority of cells, rather than by activating transcription in more of the cells. Transcriptional activity in the human H chain locus rules out the perturbation of chromatin higher order structure as a factor in isotype determination. We have also found that the levels of germline gene transcription cannot fully account for the levels of secretion of the different Ig isotypes, and that secretion of IgE, in particular, is suppressed relative to that of IgG.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Fear
- The Randall Center, King's College London, United Kingdom
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143
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O'Connor BP, Raman VS, Erickson LD, Cook WJ, Weaver LK, Ahonen C, Lin LL, Mantchev GT, Bram RJ, Noelle RJ. BCMA is essential for the survival of long-lived bone marrow plasma cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 199:91-8. [PMID: 14707116 PMCID: PMC1887725 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20031330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 798] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Long-lived humoral immunity is manifested by the ability of bone marrow plasma cells (PCs) to survive for extended periods of time. Recent studies have underscored the importance of BLyS and APRIL as factors that can support the survival of B lineage lymphocytes. We show that BLyS can sustain PC survival in vitro, and this survival can be further enhanced by interleukin 6. Selective up-regulation of Mcl-1 in PCs by BLyS suggests that this α-apoptotic gene product may play an important role in PC survival. Blockade of BLyS, via transmembrane activator and cyclophilin ligand interactor–immunoglobulin treatment, inhibited PC survival in vitro and in vivo. Heightened expression of B cell maturation antigen (BCMA), and lowered expression of transmembrane activator and cyclophilin ligand interactor and BAFF receptor in PCs relative to resting B cells suggests a vital role of BCMA in PC survival. Affirmation of the importance of BCMA in PC survival was provided by studies in BCMA−/− mice in which the survival of long-lived bone marrow PCs was impaired compared with wild-type controls. These findings offer new insights into the molecular basis for the long-term survival of PCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian P O'Connor
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dartmouth Medical School, 1 Medical Center Drive, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA
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144
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Johnson K, Calame K. Transcription factors controlling the beginning and end of B-cell differentiation. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2004; 13:522-8. [PMID: 14550419 DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2003.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Powerful techniques--including gene targeting, genomic and proteomic analyses--are allowing a more complete understanding of the transcription factors that drive B-cell development. Regulatory cascades involving multiple steps have been identified at many decision points. In addition, feedback loops and transcriptional inhibition of alternative fates have been found to be important both for commitment to the B lymphocyte lineage and for terminal B-cell differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen Johnson
- Department of Microbiology, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, New York 10032, USA
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145
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Ellyard JI, Avery DT, Phan TG, Hare NJ, Hodgkin PD, Tangye SG. Antigen-selected, immunoglobulin-secreting cells persist in human spleen and bone marrow. Blood 2004; 103:3805-12. [PMID: 14701691 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2003-09-3109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Plasma cells (PCs) represent the final stage of B-cell differentiation and are devoted to the production of immunoglobulin (Ig). Perturbations to their development can result in human disorders characterized by PC expansion and hypergammaglobulinemia. Ig-secreting cells (ISCs) have been identified in secondary lymphoid tissues and bone marrow (BM). Most ISCs in lymphoid tissue are short-lived; in contrast, ISCs that migrate to the BM become long-lived PCs and continue to secrete immunoglobulin for extended periods. However, a small population of long-lived PCs has been identified in rodent spleen, suggesting that PCs may persist in secondary lymphoid tissue and that the spleen, as well as the BM, plays an important role in maintaining long-term humoral immunity. For these reasons, we examined ISCs in human spleen and identified a population that appears analogous to long-lived rodent splenic PCs. Human splenic ISCs shared morphologic, cellular, molecular, and functional characteristics with long-lived PCs in BM, demonstrating their commitment to the PC lineage. Furthermore, the detection of highly mutated immunoglobulin V region genes in splenic ISCs suggested they are likely to be antigen-selected and to secrete high-affinity immunoglobulin. Thus, our results suggest that splenic ISCs have an important role in humoral immunity and may represent the affected cell type in some B-cell dyscrasias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia I Ellyard
- Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology, Newtown, New South Wales, Australia
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146
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Bartholdy B, Matthias P. Transcriptional control of B cell development and function. Gene 2004; 327:1-23. [PMID: 14960357 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2003.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2003] [Revised: 10/14/2003] [Accepted: 11/07/2003] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The generation, development, maturation and selection of mammalian B lymphocytes is a complex process that is initiated in the embryo and proceeds throughout life to provide the organism an essential part of the immune system it requires to cope with pathogens. Transcriptional regulation of this highly complex series of events is a major control mechanism, although control is also exerted on all other layers, including splicing, translation and protein stability. This review summarizes our current understanding of transcriptional control of the well-studied murine B cell development, which bears strong similarity to its human counterpart. Animal and cell models with loss of function (gene "knock outs") or gain of function (often transgenes) have significantly contributed to our knowledge about the role of specific transcription factors during B lymphopoiesis. In particular, a large number of different transcriptional regulators have been linked to distinct stages of the life of B lymphocytes such as: differentiation in the bone marrow, migration to the peripheral organs and antigen-induced activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boris Bartholdy
- Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research, Novartis Research Foundation, PO Box 2543, Maulbeerstrasse 66, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
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147
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Reth
- Department of Molecular Immunology, Institute for Biology III, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg and Max-Planck-Institut for Immunobiology, 79108 Freiburg, Germany.
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148
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Smith E, Sigvardsson M. The roles of transcription factors in B lymphocyte commitment, development, and transformation. J Leukoc Biol 2004; 75:973-81. [PMID: 14982952 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.1103554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Studies of normal blood cell development and malignant transformation of hematopoietic cells have shown that the correctly regulated expression of stage- and lineage-specific genes is a key issue in hematopoiesis. Experiments in transgenic mice have defined a number of transcription factors such as SCL/Tal, core-binding factor/acute myeloid leukemia, and c-myb, all crucial for the establishment of definitive hematopoiesis and development of all blood cell lineages. Other regulators such as IKAROS, E47/E2A, early B cell factor, Sox-4, and B cell-specific activator protein (Pax-5) appear crucial, more or less selectively, for B lymphopoiesis, allowing for detailed analysis of the development of this lineage. In addition, several of these transcription factors are found translocated in human tumors, often resulting in aberrant gene expression or production of modified proteins. This article concerns the role of transcription factors in B lymphoid development with special focus on lineage initiation and commitment events but also to some extent on the roles of transcription factors in human B lymphoid malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Smith
- Stemcell Center, Lund University, BMC B12, 22184 Lund, Sweden
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149
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Vieira CA, Agarwal A, Book BK, Sidner RA, Bearden CM, Gebel HM, Roggero AL, Fineberg NS, Taber T, Kraus MA, Pescovitz MD. Rituximab for reduction of anti-HLA antibodies in patients awaiting renal transplantation: 1. Safety, pharmacodynamics, and pharmacokinetics1. Transplantation 2004; 77:542-8. [PMID: 15084932 DOI: 10.1097/01.tp.0000112934.12622.2b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Preformed HLA antibodies (Ab), reported as panel-reactive antibody (PRA), prolong patient waiting time for kidney transplantation. We hypothesized that rituximab (RTX) could reduce PRA via B-cell depletion. This initial study reports the safety, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of RTX in patients with end-stage renal failure. METHODS The study was an investigator-initiated single-dose, dose-escalation phase I trial of RTX in chronic dialysis patients (PRA >50%). It was approved by the Institutional Review Board and the Food and Drug Administration. Nine subjects were treated with a single dose of RTX (n=3 per group) at 50, 150, or 375 mg/m. Peripheral lymphocyte cell surface markers and HLA Ab levels (%PRA and titers) were tested using flow cytometry. RESULTS There were four significant adverse events: a suspected histoplasmosis infection; two Tenchkoff dialysis catheter infections; and fever (38.7 degrees C) during infusion. At 2 days after RTX therapy, there was depletion of CD19 cells (pre-RTX 181+/-137 vs. post-RTX 12+/-5.6, P =0.006). In 2 (22%) of 9 subjects, there was no appreciable change in PRA. Among the other seven patients, one had a decrease in PRA from 87% to 51% with a concurrent decrease in fluorescence intensity; five patients had changes in histogram architecture suggesting loss of antibody specificity; and one patient had a fourfold decrease in PRA titer from 1:64 to 1:16 at 6 months after treatment. In addition, one of the seven patients converted a donor-specific crossmatch to negative and underwent a successful living donor kidney transplantation. CONCLUSIONS RTX can be safely administered and may be an effective agent to reduce high-titer anti-HLA Abs in subjects awaiting kidney transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos A Vieira
- Department of Surgery, Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN, USA
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Abstract
Rituximab, chimeric anti-human CD-20, is approved for treatment of B-cell lymphoma in adults. It is being used experimentally in other various immune-related disease such as immune thrombocytopenic purpura, myasthenia gravis, and rheumatoid arthritis. In transplant recipients it is used for treatment of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease, and prevention and treatment of acute rejection. There are few data on its use in children. This paper reviews the use of rituximab in these disease states and provides hypotheses for its mode of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark D Pescovitz
- Department of Surgery, UH 4258, Indiana University Medical Center, 550 N University Boulevard, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
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